1.

1.1
(paradox)
( )




paradox




( )











( )
1.2
1.2.1 (Zeno)
a) (Dichotomy)


0.1
( )

( )

2 1

1 , 2, 3,

( )
1,2,3, , ,

1
2

= 1,2,3,

12 + 212 + 213 +
12 + 212 + 213 + = 1
1

= 1,2,3,

() 1 + 2 + 3 +
1 + 2 + 3 +
( )
b) (Achilles)



0
0 1

0 1

2 1


0



1.2.2

2






(expected value)
(weighted average)

1) ()
2) 12
12
3) (
) 2
4) (

) 2
5)
1
2

2 2

(2) + ( ) =

6) 54

7)
8)

9)

3) 4) 5)

( 2 ) 3) 4) 5)

3')
2
4')

5')
1
2

(2 ) + ( ) =

 32

1.2.3 (Socrates)

(I know that I know nothing)

1.2.4 (El ingenioso
hidalgo don Quixote de la Mancha)











1.2.5 (Braess)

(
) ( )
A

t=T/100

t=45

t=T/100

t=45
B

4000 ( )

100

+ 45

100
+ 45

+ = 4000 100
+ 45 =
+ 45
= = 2000
100

2000
+ 45 = 65
100

( 0)

t=T/100

t=45

t=T/100

t=45
B

4000 4000
= 40
100
45

4000
= 40
100
40 + 40 = 80
15


65

1.2.6 (Russell)
.. 1901



(Cantor)




( naive set theory)




= {| }

(axiomatic set theory)



1.2.7 (David Hilbert)
19
20 23

(Hilberts problems)




a)

1,2,3, ( )
+ ( = 1,2,3, ) 1,2, ,

b)


2

1,2,3,

2 1

c)

 (
) 1,2,3,


1 = 3,

4 = 11

( )
5 4
45 = 115 = 161051

2.
2.1 ( )


( , ,
2 + 2 = 2 ) 582
(Samos)
16 (Thales)

529


(Polycrates)
(Croton)

 ( ) ()



(Pythagorean)


(Plato)

()
( )
(Hippasus)
1

2 = 12 + 12 = 2

( ,
... 1)
2
=2
2

2 = 2 2

2 = 2
2 2 = 2

2
( )
= 2 2 = 2

 ( )
( 370 )
(Eudoxus)
The Elements ( 5)
(Euclid) 300
13 6 7, 8 9
10 (
) 11, 12 13




18

19

2.2 ( )
17


(Newton) (Leibniz)







( ) ( )




Analytical Society
19

 ( ) ()
.. 1734 (George Berkeley)
(The Analyst A DISCOURSE Addressed to an Infidel
MATHEMATICIAN. WHEREIN It is examined whether the Object, Principles, and Inferences of the
modern Analysis are more distinctly conceived, or more evidently deduced, than Religious Mysteries
and Points of Faith)
() 2 0
( + )2 2 2 + ( )2
=
= 2 +

= 0 2 2
0 = 0
( )
(Infinitesimals) 0
0
0





(Jean le Rond dAlembert)
18

18
(Analysis)
(dAlembert) (Lagrange) (Bernoulli) (Laplace)
(Euler)

19
(Cauchy)
.. 1821


(Weierstrass)

(Weierstrass) (Dedekind) (Cantor)

1870

2.3 ( )
19 (Cantor)



1900 (Henri Poincar)
...
...
1903

 ( ) ()

1897 Burali Forti (ordinal
number) Burali-Forti 1899
(cardinal number) (
)


Gottlob Frege


1908 (Ernst Zermelo)
(axiomatic set theory) 1921 1922 (Abraham Fraenkel)
( )

- ZF
(axiom of choice) ZFC

() ()
ZFC


(Logicism)
(Formalism) (Intuitionism)
()