2.

Electricalresistivity
methods

Theresistivitymethodisusedinthestudyof
horizontalandverticaldiscontinuitiesinthe
electricalpropertiesoftheground.
Itutilizesdirectcurrentsorlowfrequency
alternatingcurrentstoinvestigatethe
electricalproperties(resistivity)ofthe
subsurface.
Aresistivitycontrastbetweenthetargetand
thebackgroundgeologymustexist.
1

Possibleapplicationsof
resistivitysurveying
Fig.1:Groundwater
exploration

Possibleapplicationsof
resistivitysurveying
Fig.2:Mineral
exploration,detection
ofcavities

Possibleapplicationsof
resistivitysurveying
Fig.3:Wastesite
exploration

Possibleapplicationsof
resistivitysurveying
Fig.4:Oilexploration

2.1Resistivity
Adirectcurrentwith
strengthI[A] flowsthrough
aconductorofalimited
size.
qV
(2.1)
I=

Fig.5:Ohm'
slaw

I:
V:
q:
l:
:
=1 / :

currentstrength[A]
Voltage[V]
crosssection[m]
length
resistivity m
conductivity
6

Resistivity
Thiscanbewrittenalternativelyintermsoffield
strength(E[V/m])andcurrentdensity(j[A/m]).

=E/ j [ m ]

Resistivityisoneofthemostvariablephysical
properties.
8
16
1.610 m10 m
nativesilver

puresulfur
7

Rocktypesandresistivity
Igneousrocks highestresistivities
Sedimentaryrocks tendtobethemost
conductiveduetotheirhighfluidcontent
Metamorphicrocks haveintermediatebut
overlappingresistivities
Ageoftherockisalsoimportantfortheresistivity.
Forexample:
Youngvolcanicrock(Quaternary)10200 m
Oldvolcanicrock(Precambrian)1002000 m
8

Rocktypesandresistivity
Mostrockformingmineralsareinsulators:
8

16

10 10 m

However,measurementinsitu:
sedimentaryrocks: 51000 m
5
10010
m
metamorphic/crystallinerocks:
Reason:Rocksareusuallyporousandporesarefilled
withfluids,mainlywater.Astheresult,rocksare
electrolyticconductors.Electricalcurrentis
carriedthrougharockmainlybythepassageof
ionsinporewaters.
Mostrocksconductelectricitybyelectrolytic
9
ratherthanohmicprocesses.

LawofArchie
2

Observation: 1 / where :porosity

EmpiricallawofArchie
m

=a

(2.2)

:fractionalporevolume(porosity)
S :fractionoftheporescontainingwater
w:resistivityofwater
n2
0.5a2.5
1.3m2.5

10

Examplefortheapplication
ofArchie'
slaw
S=1 a=1.5 m=2
/ w =1.510

for =0.01

/ w =150 for =0.1

4

/ w =1710 for =0.3

/ w =6 for =0.5

11

Schematiccurrentflowin
soilsample
Fig.6

Anincreaseinthenumberofionsinsoilwater
(groundwatercontamination)linearlydecreasesthe
soilresistivity.
12

Theapproximateresistivity
valuesofcommonrocktypes
Fig.7

13

Discussion:Resistivityvalues

Thereisconsiderableoverlapbetween
differentrocktypes.
Identificationofarocktypeisnotpossible
solelyonthebasisofresistivitydata.
Resistivityofrocksdependsonporosity,
saturation,contentofclayandresistivityof
porewater(Archie'
sformula).

14

2.2Currentflowina
homogeneousearth

Fig.8:Currentflowfor
asinglesurfaceelectrode

15

Currentflowina
homogeneousearth

Asinglecurrentelectrodeonthesurfaceofa
mediumofuniformresistivity isconsidered.
Thevoltagedropbetweenanytwopointson
thesurfacecanbedescribedbythepotential
gradient.
dV/drisnegativebecausethepotential
decreasesinthedirectionofcurrentflow.

16

Potentialdecayawayfrom
thepointelectrode
Fig.9

Currentflowsradiallyawayfromtheelectrode
sothatthecurrentdistributionisuniformover
hemisphericalshellscenteredonthesource.
Linesofequalvoltage(equipotentials)
intersectthelinesofequalcurrentatright
angles.

17

Potentialofapoint
electrode
Ohm'
slaw
I
I
V
= =
r
q
2 r2

Thus,thepotentialVratdistanceris
obtainedbyintegration.
I

I
V r = V=
r=
2
2r
2r

(2.3)

Thecircuitiscompletedbyacurrentsinkat
alargedistancefromtheelectrode.
18

2.3Electrodeconfigurations
andgeneralcase
2.3.1GeneralCase
Thegeneralcaseisconsidered,wherethe
currentsinkisafinitedistancefromthesource.
Fig.10

19

Fig.11:
Principleof
measurement
andpotential
fieldforfor
geoelectricDC
surveys

20

Potentialforthegeneral
case
ThepotentialVMattheinternalelectrodeMis
thesumofthepotentialcontributionsVAandVB
fromthecurrentsourceatAandthesinkatB.
V M =V A V B

ThepotentialsatelectrodeMandNare

[
[

]
]

I 1
1
V M=

2 AM MB
I 1
1
V N=

2 AN NB .

(2.4)
(2.5)

21

Potentialforthegeneral
case
Potentialdifferencesaremeasured
I
V M N =V M V N =
2
2 VM N
=
I

{[

{[

][

1
1
1
1

AM MB
AN NB

][

1
1
1
1

AM MB
AN NB

]}

]}

(2.6)

(2.7)

Definitionofthegeometricfactor

1
1
1
1
k=2

AM MB AN NB
VM N k
=
I

(2.8)
(2.9)
22

Discussion

Trueresistivityofthesubsurfaceifitis
homogeneous.
Wherethegroundisuniform,theresistivity
shouldbeconstantandindependentofboth
electrodespacingandsurfacelocation.
Whensubsurfaceinhomogeneitiesexist,the
resistivitywillvarywiththerelativepositionsof
electrodes.
23

Discussion

Thecalculatedvalueiscalledapparent
a
resistivity.
VM N
a =
k
I

(2.10)

Ingeneral,allfielddataareapparent
resistivity.Theyareinterpretedtoobtainthe
trueresistivitiesofthelayersintheground.

24

2.3.2Electrode
configurations
Theapparentresistivity
dependsonthe
geometryofthearray
used(Eq.2.8and2.9).

Fig.12:Maintypesof
electrodeconfigurations
25

Geometryfactorsfor
differentconfigurations
Derivedgeometricfactors:
...Wenner

k=2 a

k=
a

[ ]
2

L
a

2
2

...Schlumberger

k= n n1 n2 a

...DipoleDipole

26

2.3.4Modesofdeployment
Fig.13

Therearetwomain
modesofdeployment
ofelectrodearrays.

A)Geoelectricmapping:
Determinationoflateral
variationofresistivityin
definedhorizons.
Thecurrentandpotential
electrodesaremaintained
atafixedseparationand
progressivelymovedalong
aprofile.
27

Applicationsofgeoelectric
mapping

Thismethodisemployedinmineral
prospectingtolocatefaultsorshearzonesor
todeterminelocalizedbodiesofanomalous
conductivity.
Itisusedingeotechnicalsurveystodetermine
variationsinbedrockdepthandthepresence
ofsteepdiscontinuities.

28

Fig.14:(a)TheobservedWennerresistivityprofile
overashalefilledsinkofknowngeometryin
Kansas,USA.(b)Thetheoreticalprofilefora
buriedhemisphere.
29

Fig.15:Aconstant
separationtraverse
usingaWenner
arraywith10m
electrodespacing
overaclayfilled
solutionfeature
(positionarrowed)
inlimestone.

30

Fig.16:Observed
apparent
resistivityprofile
acrossaresistive
landfillusingthe
Wennerarray.

31

GeoelectricSounding
B)Geoelectricsounding:determinationofthe
verticalvariationoftheresistivity.
Thecurrentandpotentialelectrodesare
maintainedatthesamerelativespacingand
thewholespreadisprogressivelyexpanded
aboutafixedcentralpoint.
Asthedistancebetweenthecurrent
electrodesisincreased,sothedepthtowhich
thecurrentpenetratesisincreased.
32

Fig.17:Geoelectric
Sounding

33

Fig.18:Realizationofageoelectricsounding,
developmentofasoundingcurve.4
34

Multielectrodesystems

Soundingsandmappingsareverytime
consuming.
Thereforemultielectrodesystemsare
developed.Typically50electrodesarelaid
outintwostringsof25electrodes,with
electrodesconnectedbyamulticorecable
toaswitchingboxandresistancemeter.The
wholedataacquisitionprocedureissoftware
controlledfromalaptopcomputer.
35

Fig.19:Geoelectricmappingusingamulti
4
electrodedevice.

36

Continuousgeoelectric
mapping
Anewandquickmappingsystemisthepulled
arraycontinuouselectricalprofilingtechnique.

Fig.204

37

Continuousgeoelectric
mapping

Anarrayofheavysteelelectrodeseach
weighing1020kgistowedbehindavehicle
containingthemeasuringequipment.
Measurementaremadecontinuously.1015
linekilometersofprofilingcanbeachievedin
aday.

38

2.4Interpretationof
geoelectricdata
Aimoftheinterpretation:Determinationoftheresistivity
andthicknessofeachlayerfromtheobserved
resistivities.
Geological
Interpretaion

Fig.21
Verticalelectricalsoundingscanbeinterpretedbyusing:
a)graphicalmodelcurves(mastercurves)littleused
b)computermodeling(inversioncalculation)

39

Mastercurves
Mastercurves:Themaster
curvesarepreparedin
adimensionlessformfor
anumberofreflection
coefficients
k=2 1 /2 1
orfor
2 /1
a /1
bydividing
a /z1
andbydividing.
z1
isthethicknessofthe
upperlayer(fortwo
layercase!).
Fig.225

40

Usageofthemastercurves
Thefieldcurvetobeinterpretedisplottedon
transparentlogarithmicpaperwiththesame
modulusasthemastercurve.Itisthenshifted
overthemastercurvekeepingthecoordinate
axesparallel,untilareasonablematchis
obtainedwithoneofthemastercurvesor
withaninterpolatedcurve.

41

Fig.23:Theinterpretationofatwolayer
apparentresistivitygraphbycomparisonwitha
1
setofmastercurve.Theupperlayerresistivityis
z1
m
68anditsthicknessis19.5m.
42

3layercase
3layercase:Muchlargersetsofcurvesare
requiredtorepresenttheincreasednumberof
possiblecombinationsofresistivitiesandlayer
thicknesses.
a /1 =f 2, 3, k 1, z1, a

Directcurvefittingistimeconsuming,betteruse
auxiliarypointtechniques.

43

Fig.24:Exampleofcurvefittingforthreelayers;
experimentalpointsarebaseduponactual
measurementsintheArcticusingaSchlumbergerarray.6

44

2 /1 =0.2, 3 /1 =3
Fig.24(continued):.Numberon
z2 /z1
curvesarevaluesof.Toobtainthefield
parameterstheaxes(dashedlines)ofthetheoretical
curvesareextendedtointersecttheaxes(fulllines)of
thefieldcurve.Thepointsofintersectiongivethefield
1
3
2
z1
valuesofand.andfollowfromtheratios
z2
givenforthisfamilyofcurves.isfoundfromtheratio
numbergivenonthebestfittingcurve.Inthiscasean
intepolationhasbeenmadebetweencurvesfor4and
6.Finalresultsthereforegive:
1 =13 m , 2 =1.6 m , 3 =39 m
z1 =2.2 m , z2 =11 m

45

Computermodeling
a L / 2

a L / 2
calculated
apparent
resistivities

observed
apparent
resistivities

INPUT

OUTPUT

INVERSION
startmodel

1, h1
2, h2
3

finalmodel

1, h1
2, h2
3
46

Fig.25:Inversionschemeingeoelectric
sounding

47

2.4.1Possibleinterpretation
errors
a)Equivalentmodels

Resistivitiesandthicknessesofeachlayercan
bederivedfromtheapparentresistivitycurve
clearly.
a a
Inthefieldmeasurementerrorsoccur.

Theapparentresistivitycurvecanbe
interpretedbydifferentresistivitymodels.

Theprincipleofequivalence:Thethicknessand
resistivitycannotbederivedindependently.
48

Fig.26
49

Fig.27:Exampleof
ageoelectric
soundingona
graveldeposit.
Dependingonthe
assumedapparent
resistivityofthe
targetthethickness
ofthedeposit
varies.4
50

Fig.28:Duetotheprincipleofequivalence
differentdepthofthegroundwatertable
canbederivedfromthedata.4
51

Modelselection

Thegeophysicisthastoselectthemodel,that
agreesbestwiththeknowngeologicaland
hydrogeologicalstructuresoftheground.
Anotherselectivecriterionisthecomparison
withneighboringsoundings.

52

b)Supression
Thisisparticularlyaproblemwhenthreeor
morelayersarepresentandtheirresistivities
areascendingordescendingwithdepth.
Themiddleintermediatelayermaynotbe
evidentonthefieldcurve.

53

Fig.29:Exampleforsupression.7
54

c)Theeffectofanisotropy
Insedimentssuchasclayorshaletheresistivity
perpendiculartothelayeringisusuallygreaterthan
paralleltothedirectionoflayering.
Anisotropy
= t /l
coefficient

Averaged
resistivity

= t l

Anisotropyresultsintoo
largethicknessesbeing
assignedtolayers.

h '= h
Sand,gravel
Coal

=1.3
=2

Fig.30

55

d)Nonhorizontallayering
1Dinterpretationisvalid,ifthedipofthelayers
isnotgreaterthan15.
Fig.31

56

e)Interpretationerrors
causedbyfaults

Measurementsperpendiculartothestrike
directionofthefault.
Thelocationofthefaultcanbedetermined.

Fig.32

57

Measurementsparalleltothestrikedirection
ofthefault.
Noeffectofthefaultcanbeseenonthe
apparentresistivitycurve.

Fig.33

Interpretationerror.Thecurvecanbe
interpretedasa2layercase.Howeverthere
isonlyonelayer!
58

2.4.2Methodsforthe
determinationoflateralvariations
ofresistivityintheearth

HalfSchlumbergermeasurements

Fig.34

59

Measurementonthesamelocationwith3arrays

Nofault,no
lateralvariation
ofresistivity!
Fig.35

Faultoralateral
changeinthe
earthexists.
Fig.36
60

Circular
geoelectric
measurements

Commonmidpoint

Fig.37:Circular
geoelectric
soundingcurvesin
adisturbed
environment.4 61

2.4.3Reciprocity
Fig.38

UM N U A B
=
IA B
IM N
62

2.5CaseHistories:
WasteSites
Fig.39:Contoursof
apparentspecific
resistivity,
industrial/domesticwaste
dump.Areahatched
>60Ohmm,cross
hatched<20Ohmm.
arrows=possible
seepagepaths
63

Fig40a:GeoelectricSoundings(Schlumbergerarray)ofa
hazardouswastesiteonRhineisland.Sounding17Eliesoutside,
13Einsidethedump,displayingprofounddifferencesinresistivity
64
betweenwasteandsediment.

Fig40b:GeoelectricSoundings(Schlumbergerarray)ofa
hazardouswastesiteonRhineisland.

65

Fig41:
Hermsdorf
DC

66

2.5CaseHistories:
Groundwater
Fig42:(a)Vertical
electricalsounding
adjacenttotestborehole
intheCentralLens,Grand
Cayman.(b)Layered
modelinterpretationof
theVES.(c)Interpreted
salinityprofile.

67

2.5CaseHistories:
Geology

Fig43:Exampleofasoundingcurvetolocatethemarl
layer.4
68

Fig44:Mappingverticalcontactswiththehalf
Schlumberger(gradient)array,Kongsberg,Norway.5

69

Fig.45:
Schlumberger
soundingcurvein
SouthAfrica.

70

Fig.46
71

Fig.47

72

Fig.48

73

2.5CaseHistories:
Archaeology

Fig.49

74

Fig.50

75

Fig.51

76

Fig.52:Cologne2Dinversion

77

References
1)Reynolds,J.M.:AnIntroductiontoAppliedand
EnvironmentalGeophysics,Wiley,1998
2)Kearey,P.,Brooks,M.:AnIntroductiontoGeophysical
Exploration,Blackwell,2002
3)Vogelsang,D.:EnvironmentalGeophysics,A
PracticalGuide,SpringerVerlag,1995
4)Kirsch,R.:UmweltgeophysikinderPraxis:
UntersuchungvonAltablagerungenund
kontaminiertenStandorten,ScriptUniKiel
78

References
5)Telford,W.M.,Geldart,L.P.,Sherrif,R.E.,Keys,D.A.:
Geophysics,CambridgeUniversityPress
6)Beck,A.E.:PhysicalPrinciplesofExplorationMethods
7)Hamel,H.:MethodischeUntersuchungenzur
InterpretationvonKurvendesscheinbaren
WiderstandesderGeoelektrik,Hausarbeitin
Gttingen

79