Surface Facilities

Crude Oil Processing

Natural gas processing
Surface Gathering Systems
Separators
Liquid Storage
Single phase flow in pipes
Two phase flow in pipes

Crude Oil Processing

In oil production processing, the individual phases (gas, liquid hydrocarbon, liquid water, and
solids) should be separated from each other as early as practical. Individual streams can then be
treated with less technical difficulty and more economically. Lab and field tests performed before
construction can identify and minimize future production and processing problems such as
scaling, foaming, emulsion formation, wax deposition, and hydrate formation.
Gas Processing
Gas processing begins with treating, if necessary, to remove the acid gaseshydrogen sulfide
and carbon dioxide. Both gases are very corrosive when liquid water is present and hydrogen
sulfide is most toxic. Environmental regulations almost always prohibit the release of significant
amounts of hydrogen sulfide to the surroundings. Conversion to elemental sulfur is becoming
increasingly necessary. Gas sweetening usually uses aqueous solutions of various chemicals.
Therefore, sweetening will precede dehydration. Dehydration is often necessary to prevent the
formation of gas hydrates, which may plug high-pressure processing equipment or pipelines at
high pressure and at temperatures considerably higher than 32F (0C).
Gas that contains considerable amounts of liquefiable hydrocarbons (ethane or propane and
heavier) can produce condensate upon compressing or cooling. The condensate may cause
difficulty in pipelining or subsequent processing. Field processing to remove these natural-gas
liquids (NGL), sometimes referred to simply as condensate, may be economical or may be
required to meet a hydrocarbon dew-point specification. In remote locations such processing is
generally avoided if possible. Recovered condensate may, in turn, have to be stabilized by
removing dissolved gaseous components to obtain a transportable product.
Final disposal of the gas stream depends on the situation. Early in the life of a remote field,
before the availability of a pipeline, the gas may simply be flared. It is becoming more common
to conserve the gas by compression and reinjection into the formation with a view to its eventual
recovery and sales. Conservation is often demanded by law; permits to flare are usually

temporary and granted only during the initial start-up of production. Environmental restraints
may also prevent flaring especially if the gas contains any hydrogen sulfide.
The common situation is to flow the natural gas into a pipeline for sales. Gas pipelines have
operating pressure levels of the order of 7001000 psia to allow economical transport in pipes
of reasonably small diameter. Compression of the gas to pipeline inlet pressure may be required.
Oil Processing
After free water removal, produced oil often contains excessive residual emulsified water.
Treating, also called dehydration, is required to reduce the water content to a value acceptable
for transportation or sales. Dehydration should be accomplished using the most economic combination of four factors or techniques; namely, residence time, chemical addition, heat, and
electrostatic fields. Dilution water must occasionally be added to reduce the salt content of the
residual emulsion (i.e., the sales crude oil) to a suitably low level.
Desalting is usually performed in the refinery;. Desalting is sometimes performed in the field.
Hydrogen sulfide in crude oil is limited to reduce handling and transportation difficulties because
of its extreme toxicity and corrosiveness. Gas stripping or heating is usually used for hydrogen
sulfide removal or sweetening.
Crude oil stabilization refers to lowering the vapor pressure to a value that will allow safe
handling and transport. Vapor pressure control is obtained by stage separation, reboiled
distillation, or a combination of the two. During stabilization some of the more volatile
hydrocarbons are removed as vapor and this gas phase entrains hydrogen sulfide and other
volatile sulfur compounds from the sour crude oil. Additional sweetening may not be required.
Water Processing
Produced water (usually saline) is a waste material, but processing is often necessary to render
the water suitable for disposal to the surroundings. Often additional water, frequently sea water,
is also processed for waterflooding. Oil removal is the first treatment for produced waters. Oilin-water emulsions are difficult to clean up due to the small size of the particles, as well as the
presence of emulsifying agents. Suspended solids may also be present in the water. Types of
equipment used for removing oil and solids include:
Oil skimmer tanks
Plate coalescers
Air flotation tanks
Hydrocyclones
Filtration units
Before reinjection, the produced water is usually filtered, deaerated if necessary, and treated with
biocides. The major goal, of course, is to prevent reservoir plugging. Dissolved oxygen is
removed either by chemical scavengers, by gas or vacuum stripping, or by catalytic reaction with
hydrogen. This reduces the corrosivity of the water dramatically and inhibits growth of aerobic
slime-forming bacteria in the wellbore. Then the water is sterilized either by ultraviolet radiation
or additional biocide injection to kill bacteria and other micro-organisms. Micro-organisms can
cause corrosion, plugging of lines and reservoir formation rock, and they can also produce H2S in
the formation. Scale inhibitors are also added before injection into the formation. In a massive

waterflood (over 400,000 bwpd), treatment of injection and produced waters represents a major
cost that often exceeds that of treating the crude oil.
Sand Treatment
Sand and other solid material may gather in any of the previously mentioned equipment in
locations where the velocity and turbulence in the liquid stream is low, such as in the bottom of
tanks or on coalescer plates. Removal of the sand by some type of jetting nozzle or similar
arrangement may be necessary. Sand removal is sometimes carried out by centrifugal cone
desanders. The sand itself may have adhering oil or emulsion that requires washing before
discharge to the surroundings.

Natural Gas Processing

Hydrocarbon condensate, liquid water and solids should be separated from the gas stream as
early as practical. Then the individual streams can be treated with less difficulty.
The first unit operation is the physical separation of the distinct phases, which are gas and
possibly liquid hydrocarbon, liquid water, and/or solids. The temperature and pressure of the gas
stream dictates whether liquid hydrocarbon and/or water are present. Phase separation usually
occurs in a pressure vessel provided for that purpose. Gas leaves from the top of the vessel and
liquid from the bottom. If a three-phase separator is needed, special internal elements are
required to permit separation of the water and hydrocarbon liquids. Solids fall to the bottom and
must be removed by special techniques. Mist extractorswire mesh, vanes, or bafflesare
sometimes used to reduce liquid entrainment in the gas stream. In gas processing, natural
gas/liquid phase separation is generally not too difficult, and entrainment of one phase in the
other is not excessive. Slug catchers are required in some gathering systems or at the terminus of
offshore pipelines where large slugs of liquid may occur at random intervals.
The next step in processing is treating, if necessary, to remove the acid-gas components
hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide; the former is toxic and both are corrosive. Hydrogen
sulfide removal must be essentially complete, while the extent of carbon dioxide removal
depends on the intended use for the gas. If the gas is to be cooled to cryogenic temperatures (less
than, say, -100F), CO2 removal to a few tenths of a percent may be required to prevent
formation of solid CO2. Also, if the heating value of the gas is too low, partial CO2 removal may
be required. In some cases the gas is compressed prior to treating.
Treating processes frequently consist of countercurrent contacting of the gas in an absorber with
a chemical or physical solventmost often a water solution of an ethanolamine. Therefore
treating precedes dehydration.
The side stream from treating consists mainly of H2S and/or C02. Environmental regulations
usually limit venting or flaring H2S to the surroundings, so conversion to elemental sulfur is
necessary. The primary conversion process is the Claus process, in which one-third of the H2S is
burned to SO2 and then reacted with the remaining H2S to form elemental sulfur and water vapor.
Sulfur recovery is a big business, and many plants recover 500 to 1000 tons a day. Carbon
dioxide is usually vented to the atmosphere but sometimes is recovered for CO2 floods.
Dehydration is often necessary to prevent formation of gas hydrates, ice-like substances that may
form and plug processing equipment or pipelines at high pressure, even at temperatures
considerably higher than 32F (0C). The two principal dehydration methods are glycol
contacting and solid-desiccant adsorption. Methanol or glycol also can be injected to prevent
hydrate formation.
Gas containing considerable amounts of liquefiable HC (ethane, propane and heavier) produces
condensate upon cooling or compressing and cooling. If condensation would occur in the
transportation, processing, or use of the gas, it may be better to remove the condensate at or near
the wellhead.

In some cases the potential NGL are sufficiently valuable to justify their recovery, quite apart
from other considerations. Normally, condensate is fractionated into the NGL products in a
central facility rather than in the field. Recovered condensate may have to be stabilized by partial
removal of dissolved gaseous components to obtain a liquid product with low-enough vapor
pressure to be transported safely.
If the wellhead pressure is low, the natural gas must often be compressed to permit pipeline
transport. Transport is commonly done at high pressure levels (700-1000 psig) to reduce the
pipeline diameter. Pipelines may operate at very high levels (above 1000 psig) to keep the gas in
the dense phase and thus prevent condensation and two-phase flow. Compression also may be
required as a necessary step in condensate recovery.
The final destination of the finished gas stream depends on the project. Natural gas or associated
gas is usually injected into a pipeline for sales. Early in the life of a remote field, before the
availability of a gas pipeline, separator gas may be flared temporarily. The ability to flare
depends on governmental regulations as well as the field location. More and more, separator gas
is being conserved by compression and reinjection into the formation for eventual recovery and
sales. Also, in gas condensate reservoirs, the gas is often reinjected, or "cycled," to prevent
condensation of valuable liquid hydrocarbons in the reservoir.

Surface Gathering Systems

Hydrocarbons must be separated from each other and from water before they may be processed
into usable petroleum produces. The equipment used for field processing is expensive and is
often installed so that several wells are served by a single process facility. The fluids produced
from one or more wells are collected in a gathering system and transported to the separation
facilities. The gathering system may consist of a single flowline from a well to its separation
equipment or many flowlines, headers, and process facilities.
Usually the wells are drilled according to specific geographical spacing. Depending on
ownership of mineral rights and regulations, wells are drilled within areas called leases. The
petroleum produced from different leases must be kept separate. Lease restrictions and
economics determine the arrangement of gathering systems and the equipment used.
Types of Gathering Systems
One type of gathering system is a radial gathering system. The flowlines in this system converge
at a central point where facilities are located. Flowlines are usually terminated at a header, a pipe
large enough to handle the flow of all flowlines.
Another gathering system is an axial or trunk-line gathering system. This gathering system is
usually used on larger leases, or where it is not practical to build the process facilities at a central
point. The remote headers are simply smaller versions of those used in radial systems.
Leases are equipped to process fluids through equipment large enough to handle all wells
simultaneously. To measure the production of individual wells simultaneously, a very complex
process and metering facility is required. However, unless some method is provided, all fluid is
measured at once; no information on individual wells can be gained.
Regulations and good operating practices require that oil, gas, and water production rates be
measured for individual wells. Most leases are equipped so that all but one well on a lease are
routed through the large process equipment, and the production from this equipment represents
the entire lease.
The fluids from one well are routed through other equipment so that the flow rates for that well
may be measured singly.
To measure the fluid from a well separately, a method must be provided for routing fluids to the
production facility (the equipment used for all wells at once) or the test facility (the system for a
single well). This selection is made in a well test header. To test a single well, the test valve is
opened and the production valve closed. All other well's production valves are open and test
valves closed.
When test and production facilities are used with a trunk-line gathering system, both test and
production trunk lines are required. The type of gathering system used on an individual lease is
determined on the basis of economics. A radial system requires many feet of comparatively small
pipe for flowlines. The cost of this pipe may be small in comparison to the cost of the larger pipe
required for trunk lines, and the total cost of many long flowlines may be less than that of the
same number of short flowlines and one or two long, large trunk lines. The latter is particularly
true of the thick pipe used for high-pressure gas production leases.

Another consideration in determining the type of gathering system is the use to which the surface
land is put. If the land is rugged pasture land, the flowlines may be laid on the surface and left
there permanently. If the land is under cultivation or a populated area, the pipe must be buried 35 feet deep to assure it is below the maximum operating depth of earthworking equipment (like
farm machinery). In these areas the flowlines may be required to be buried beneath or adjacent to
roads or streets. The length, installation cost, and maintenance costs of the gathering system are
influenced by land use, and these factors determine the gathering system type.

Oil Treating and separation

Rarely is clean oil, ready for sale into a pipeline, produced from an oil well. Generally, what comes out of
the well is a mixture of oil, water, gas, and even sand or solid material. Foreign material, such as water
and sand, must be separated from the oil and gas before they can be sold. This process is known as oil
treating or oil dehydration, in which water is removed from the oil. The amount of this foreign material is
referred to as the BS&W, or basic sediment and water, content of the oil. Normally, the BS&W content
must be less than one percent before the oil will be acceptable for sale into a pipeline.

Separators and free-water knockout drums are used for simple separation of oil and water.
Separators
A separator is a simple device, which basically utilizes the force of gravity to separate oil-gas mixtures. In
a vertical separator, the oil and gas mixture enters at the center of the vessel. The oil, which is heavier
than the gas, falls to the bottom of the vessel and is taken off through the fluid line. The lighter gas rises
to the top and is removed for separate sale.

The oil level control is used to maintain a certain fluid level in the separator, so gas cannot escape out the
bottom of the vessel. The float is connected to a control device that closes the valve on the oil flow line
when the oil level drops below a designated point. After the vessel fills to a certain level, the float again
rises and allows the oil valve to open and the oil to flow out of the vessel.
Separators are commonly used with high pressure wells involving large volumes of fluid, or in offshore
production operations, where high pressure flowing oil and gas wells usually require separation of the gas
and oil for shipment in different pipelines.
Free-Water Knockouts

Another simple device used to separate oil, water, and gas is the free-water knockout drum. Oil, water,
and gas from the well flow into the vessel through an inlet valve and then are allowed to slow down in the
large settling chamber. Here, any free water mixed with the oil settles to the bottom of the vessel and is
drawn off and disposed of. The oil is removed through a separate line and sent to additional oil processing
equipment. The natural gas, which rises to the top of the vessel, is extracted through a third line.

The vessel is called a free-water knockout, because it is designed to eliminate only water which has not
been emulsified with the oil, that is, water which is free to separate by itself. Water which has been
emulsified, or dispersed into very fine drops within the oil, will not separate by itself and will not be
eliminated by the free-water knockout. This water must be further processed by a device which can
supply heat to the emulsion and force it to separate. In principle, free-water knockouts are almost
identical to separators, although free-water knockouts are larger and are generally placed horizontally. As
with separators, the oil and water outlets are controlled by level control valves, which prevent the vessel
from draining completely and keep the gas trapped in the top of the vessel. Free-water knockouts are most
commonly used for low pressure wells, but they can be used to handle high volumes of fluid.

Steel Tanks
Steel storage tanks are available in two forms: (1) small tanks (500 barrels or less), and (2) large
tanks (1000 barrels or more).
Solid sediment produced with oil and water usually accumulates in tanks because this is the first
place where fluid is stopped long enough for the solids to settle. The shape of the tank bottom is
important in the movement of solids. Flat-bottom tanks (Figure 7-3) were the first tank shapes
developed. When solids present no problems in a facility, flat bottom tanks are satisfactory for
use. Cone-bottom tanks (Figure 7-4) are used most often for permanent storage facilities because
they are better suited for handling solids. As solids settle from liquids, they drift to the center of
the bottom of the tank. Since the solids are always located in the same place, it is easier for them
to be recovered or at least kept suspended in the liquid. Periodically, solids must be removed
from tanks. Solids may be pumped out with some liquids, or people may enter the tank and
scoop up the solids.

On many production leases, storage requirements do not remain fixed for long periods of time.
Sometimes a water tank is required for several months but then not required again for several
years. Many production facilities are built using temporary or portable tanks. That is, tanks are
used for a time and then moved to another site. Flat bottom tanks are usually used for temporary
applications because they can be installed with a minimum of site preparation.
Site Preparation
Storage tanks are very heavy when filled with liquid (a 500-barrel tank filled with water weighs
more than 80 tons). The earth on which a tank sits must be carefully prepared to be able to
withstand this load without shifting.
Most permanent storage facilities are built on a pad or raised surface. It is easier to form the tank
base on a raised surface than at ground level. The tank pad must be formed of firm material that
has been leveled and thoroughly compacted. Then as the weight of a tank bears down on the pad,
the pad is not likely to shift.
The tank pad must correspond to the shape of the tank bottom exactly. If the base under a tank is
uneven, the weight of liquid will exert uneven forces on the tank bottom and sides. The sides of
storage tanks are not designed to withstand vertical forces, only lateral forces. Therefore, the tank
base must be shaped to correspond to the bottom of the tank.
In populated areas and critical storage areas tank dikes are often required by law but should be
used as a part of sound operating practice. A tank dike, shown in Figure 7-6, is a raised earthen
structure with a volume at least as large as the tank's. The dike's purpose is to contain the
contents of a tank in the event of a massive leak and keep the liquid from running into populated
areas or polluting the surrounding ground. These dikes are particularly effective if a tank ruptures
and the contents ignite. The burning liquid is restricted to a small area where it can be
extinguished easily.

The tank dike is sometimes constructed with fire fighting in mind. A pipeline equipped with
spray nozzles is run around the dike and connected to a water or foam supply. This design
provides for sprays on the tanks to extinguish a fire or cool the tank to prevent fire.
Tank dikes may be made of earth shaped with earth working machinery. This earth is usually
covered with asphalt to prevent erosion. The dike may also be constructed of concrete for sturdy
and permanent application.

Ancillary Equipment
In addition to the body of the tank which actually contains the liquid, there are several pieces of
equipment associated with storage tanks that improve or augment the operation of the tank
system.
Sumps. Sumps (Figure 7-8) are sometimes used with tanks to allow a place for solids to
accumulate and to allow a place to pump liquids. The sump is simply a large-diameter cylinder
(12-36 inches) at the bottom of the tank. Liquids are pumped out of the tank from a suction line
in the sump.

Risers. Risers are sometimes used to force liquids to enter or exit a tank from a level different
from the level at which the liquid enters the tank.
Siphons. Sometimes siphon lines (Figure 7-10) are used to remove liquid from the bottom of a
tank. The siphon line utilizes the same physical principles as common applications of siphoning.
Spreaders. When liquid enters a tank (like a gun-barrel tank), the liquid is expected to enter as a
spray instead of a liquid stream. A spreader, such as the one in Figure 7-11, makes liquid enter
over a wide area. Spreaders are used to make incoming liquids mix with stored liquid or aerate
incoming liquids.
Roll Lines. Even though solids do accumulate in the bottom of tanks, it is sometimes undesirable
to allow them to do so. A roll line (Figure 7-12) is a thin pipe which is routed around the inside
circumference of a tank. The pipe is perforated so when gas is injected into the tank, it agitates
the tank's contents.
Agitators. An agitator is a propeller or fan inside the tank. The propeller is rotated by an external
electric motor. Agitators are used to move liquids within the tank and agitate solids and liquids.
Thief Hatch. Access to the tank's interior is necessary to determine its contents. Tanks are
equipped with thief hatches which allow access, but which seal the tank when closed. A thief
hatch is a pressure-actuated device which can be opened but which also acts as a seal and an
over-pressure protection device. Because tanks have large areas exposed to internal pressures, the
internal pressure must be kept lower than a few ounces per square inch to keep from rupturing
the thin metal walls and deck.
Pressure Relief Valves. Although thief hatches serve as high-pressure relief valves, their
adjustment is somewhat unpredictable. Relief valves are used when the venting pressure is
critical. One application of relief valves is when vapor recovery units are used. The internal
pressure is maintained as high as possible when vapor recovery units are used to provide
maximum suction pressure, but it is important that a relief valve be used to keep the pressure
from becoming excessive.
Walk and Stair. Occasionally, it is necessary to reach the top of tanks to adjust valves or sample
the contents. Walkways and stairs are necessary to reach and safely work at the top of the tanks.

Single Phase Flow in Pipes

Single phase flow can be characterized as being laminar or turbulent depending on the value of a
dimensionless group NRe. The NRe is the ratio of the inertial forces to the viscous forces in a
flowing fluid, and for flow in a circular pipe is given by

When the flow is laminar, the fluid moves in distinct laminae, with no fluid motion transverse to
the bulk flow direction. Turbulent flow, on the other hand, is characterized by eddy currents that
cause fluctuating velocity components in all directions.
The pressure drop over a distance L, of single phase fluid flow in a pipe can be obtained by
solving the mechanical energy balance equation which in differential form is:
+dWs=0
For an incompressible fluid with no shaft work, this equation becomes:
2 f f u 2 L
g

p p1 p 2
z
u 2
gc

2g c

gc D

ff is the fanning friction factor that can be read from a moody friction factor
diagram as a function of NRe and relative roughness

For single phase flow of compressible fluid in a horizontal pipeline the

mechanical energy balance equation can be integrated assuming average
values of Z and T (for details refer to the text, Economides).
In oilfield units of T( in R), P (in psi), q in (MSCF/d), D (in inch), L (in ft) the
pressure drop for horizontal gas flow in circular pipes is calculated from:
p12 p 22 ( 4.195 E 6)

g ZT q 2 24 f f L
p
(
ln 1 )
4
D
p2
D

The equation is implicit in p and must be solved iteratively.

Two Phase Flow in Pipes

Identification of flow regime and application of the appropriate pressure gradient correlation are
two important aspects of two phase flow.
Flow regime: The manner in which two phases are distributed in the pipe significantly affects
other aspects of two phase flow such as pressure drop and slippage between phases. The flow
regime or flow pattern is a qualitative description of the phase distribution. The flow regime does
not affect the pressure drop as significantly in horizontal flow as it does in vertical flow because
there is no potential energy contribution to the pressure drop in horizontal flow.
However, the flow regime is considered in some pressure drop correlations and can affect
production operations in other ways. Most important, the occurrence of slug flow necessitates

designing separators or sometimes special pieces of equipment (slug catchers) to handle the large
volume of liquid contained in a slug. Particularly in offshore operations, where gas and liquid
from subsea completions are transported significant distances to a platform, the possibility of
slug flow, and its consequences, must be considered.

Figure 10-1 (Brill and Beggs, 1978) depicts the commonly described flow regimes in horizontal
gas-liquid flow. These can be classified as three types of regimes: segregated flows, in which the
two phases are for the most part separate; intermittent flows, in which gas and liquid are
alternating; and distributive flows, in which one phase is dispersed in the other phase.
Segregated flow is further classified as being stratified smooth, stratified wavy (ripple flow), or
annular. Stratified smooth flow consists of liquid flowing along the bottom of the pipe and gas
flowing along the top of the pipe, with a smooth interface between the phases, This flow regime
occurs at relatively low rates of both phases. At higher gas rates, the interface becomes wavy,

and stratified wavy flow results. Annular flow occurs at high gas rates and relatively high liquid
rates and consists of an annulus of liquid coating the wall of the pipe and a central core of gas
flow, with liquid droplets entrained in the gas.
The intermittent flow regimes are slug flow and plug (also called elongated bubble) flow. Slug
flow consists of large liquid slugs alternating with high-velocity bubbles of gas that fill almost
the entire pipe. In plug flow, large gas bubbles flow along the top of the pipe, which is otherwise
filled with liquid.
Flow regimes in horizontal flow are predicted with flow regime maps. One of the first of these
and still one of the most popular is that of Baker and Scott. There are a number of other flow
regime maps (refer to the text and also Beggs and Brill)

In which:

[(

)]1/ 2
0.075 62.4
73
62.4 2 1/ 3

[ l (
) ]

)(

Gl and Gg are mass fluxes of liquid and gas, respectively (lbm/hr-ft2)

Densities are in lbm/ft3, viscosity in cp and surface tension in dynes/cm.

Pressure gradient Correlations. Over the years numerous correlations

have been developed to calculate pressure gradient in horizontal gas-liquid
flow. Dukler correlation is one of the most commonly used correlations.

The dukler correlation is based on empirical correlations of friction factor and

dp
dp
liquid holdup. The pressure gradient again consists of friction dp
and
(kinetic
) F ( ) KE
dx
dx
dx
energy contributions.
For complete formulation refer to the text (Economides).

References:
Francis S. Manning, Richard E. Thompson, Oilfield Processing. Volume two: Crude Oil.
PennWell Books, Tulsa, 1995.
Francis S. Manning, Richard E. Thompson, Oilfield Processing. Volume one: Natural Gas.
PennWell Books, Tulsa, 1991.
George V. Chilingarian, John O. Robertson, Jr., Sanjay Kumar, Surface Operations in Petroleum
Production I, Elsevier Developments In Petroleum Science 19A, New York, 1987
George V. Chilingarian, John O. Robertson, Jr., Sanjay Kumar, Surface Operations in Petroleum
Production II, Elsevier Developments In Petroleum Science 19B, New York, 1987
D.R. Skinner, Introduction to Petroleum Production. Vol 2. Fluid Flow, Artificial Lift, Gathering
Systems, and Processing., Gulf Publishing Company, Huston, 1982.
Francis A. Guiliano, Introduction to Oil and Gas Technology. International Human Resources
Development Corporation, Huston, 1981.
Brill J.P., Beggs, H.D., Two-phase Flow in Pipes., University of Tulsa, Tulsa, 1978