UNESCO

UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL & VOCATIONAL

EDUCATION REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE
PROJECT
II

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERI
ENGINEERING
NG TECHNOLOGY

FLUID MECHANICS
COURSE CODE
CODE: MEC214

YEAR 2
2- SE MESTER I
PRACTICAL
Version 1: December 2008

TABLE OF CONTENT
WEEK 1
1.0

To find the relation between the pressure and volume of a gas at

constant temperature.

WEEK 2
2.0

To find the relationship between the volume and the absolute

temperature of gas at constant pressure.

WEEK 3
3.0

U-tube manometer for measuring gas pressure

WEEK 4
4.0

Measurement of gas pressure using a pressure gauge

WEEK 5
5.0

To measure the pressure due to the atmosphere

WEEK 6
6.0

Discharge through a small orifice

WEEK 7
7.0

DETERMINATION OF FLUID PROPERTIES

WEEK 8
8.0
WEEK 9

VISCOSITY OF WATER

9.0

VERIFICATION OF SURFACE TENSION

WEEK 10
10.0

SURFACE TENSION

WEEK 11
11.0

DETERMINATION OF CENTRE OF PRESSURE OF IMMERSED BODY

WEEK 12
12.0

STABILITY AND BUOYANCY OF FLOATING BODIES

WEEK 13
13.0

FLOW THROUGH A TAPERED PASSAGE

WEEK 14
14.0

DETERMINATION OF VISCOSITY OF FLUID

WEEK 15
15.0

TO MEASURE THE PRESSURE HEAD OF WATER IN A PIPE LINE BY

MEANS OF A U-TUBE

WEEK 1
Experiment
BOYLES LAW
Object:

To find the relation between the pressure and volume of a gas at

constant temperature.

Apparatus: Standard Boyles law apparatus consisting of two glass tubes

connected by a flexible tube, mercury and supporting frame with
scale of centimeters attached, room thermometer, barometer.
Theory
Pressure: Let the vertical distance between B and C be l mm.
When C is higher than B, absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure l.
Method
1.

Observe the room temperature (C) and atmospheric pressure (mm

mercury) at the time of the experiment.

2.

Note the volume (v) of air in the closed glass tube (cubic centimeters).

3.

Measure the difference in mercury levels in the two tubes

4.

Calculate the absolute pressure (p) of the air sample (mm. mercury) in
tube.

5.

Keep the closed glass tube in a fixed position and vary the height of the
open tube. Repeat the observations of p and v.

6.

Plot the p-v graph

7.

Plot the graph

1
v

Observations
Atmospheric pressure = mm
l (mm )

(mm )
v (c.c )

Conclusions
1.

Which graph was a straight line through the origin?

2.

How are pressure and volume related?

3.

State Boyles Law

WEEK 2
Experiment
CHARLESS LAW
Object:

To find the relationship between the volume and the absolute

temperature of gas at constant pressure.

Apparatus: Flask with neck in the form of a long tube with two right-angle bends,
glass tube, flexible tubing, mercury, copper heater, stirrer,
thermometer.

Theory
The tube AB is graduated to show the volume in the flask and tube.

WEEK 3
Object:- U-tube manometer for measuring gas pressure.
Apparatus:- U-tubes manometer, gas in a container, mercury, metre rule.
Method:

Fill the u-tube with mercury.

Let one end of the u-tube is open to the

atmosphere and hence the surface pressure acting upon the liquid column in
this side of the tube is the atmospheric pressure. Connect the other side to the
container.
Observation:

In (a) the levels of the liquid in the manometer are the same. Thus the pressure
of the gas P in the container exerted on the left-hand column must exactly
balance the atmospheric pressure \PA exerted on the right-hand column of
liquid, thus


 /2
In (b) the pressure of the gas Pb must exceed atmospheric pressure, thus
forcing the liquid in the U-tube round until the excess pressure caused by the
height h of liquid caused the pressure on the two sides to equate. Hence the
gas pressure in the container is:




 /2
That is, atmospheric pressure plus the pressure due to the column of liquid Pgh,
where h = column height above xx, P = liquid density, g = 9.81 m/s2
(acceleration due to gravity).
In (c) the gas pressure Pc in the container is below atmospheric pressure. The
greater \

WEEK 4
Experiment 4
Measurement of gas pressure using a pressure gauge
Object: To measure gas pressure using a pressure gauge.
Apparatus: A bourdon gauge and gas in a container

Method: Connect the gas container via x to the tube T. The pressure exerted
by the gas pressure in T actuates the pointer via a link connected from the far
end of T to a rack and pinion mechanism. The pointes moves over scale s,
previously calibrated, to register pressure directly..

WEEK 5
Experiment 5
Object: To measure the pressure due to the atmosphere.
Apparatus: An open bath, test tube, mercury.

Mercury
Colour
Vacuum

PA

PA

PA

PA

Mercury

Method: Put mercury into an open bath empty the test tube of air as far as
possible. Cover the test tube as shown in fig. 5. The mercury will move up
the test tube higher than that in the open bath. The difference in height, h, is
the measure of the atmospheric pressure.
Path = Pgh =

WEEK 6
Experiment 6
Discharge through a small orifice

Fig. 6: Orifice Tank

Liquid under a static head h is allowed to flow through an orifice, whose

diameters are small compared with the head, fig. 6. The velocity v of the
issuing jet is then obtained by equating the pressure energy or head of the
liquid in the tank to its kinetic energy or velocity head at the jet. Thus,
neglecting energy losses the theoretical velocity of flow v is given by



 .

   2

If A is the area of the orifice, the theoretical flow rate Qt is given by

    2
Coefficient of discharge for a small orifice.
In practice this flow-rate is never achieved, hence coefficient of discharge is
defined as
  !"#$ %
"$&#$   !"#$ %

i.e. '( 

%
)

"

Thus the actual flow-rate is

  '(  )2
The value of Cd is about 0.6 0.7. The value depends slightly on the head h
and on the shape and condition of the orifice.

WEEK 7

EXPERIMENT- DETERMINATION OF FLUID PROPERTIES

OBJECTIVE/AIM:
To determine the Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosities of:
(1) SAE 40 Lubricating oil
(2) Castor oil
Using the inciined-plane apparatus
APPARATUS:
(1)

An inciined-p/ane

i (2)

The mass (solid mild steel block)

1(3)

A protector

|(4)

Lubricating oil (SAE 40)

(5)

Castor oil

(6)

Stop clock

(7)

A Metre Rule

The experimental set up is shown above

THEORY
Fig1 and Fig. 2 below shows respectively the case of a solid mild steel block sliding down the dry
inclined surface and the case where the inclined surface was lubricated.

mg cos 9

mg

Fig. 1 Solid to Solid contact

mg

Fig. 2 Solid to lubricated surface

In the solid to solid contact, the frictional force (F) is defined as:
F
= mgcos
Where

= the coefficient of friction

m
of the solid mild steel
g
= Gravity

Mass

= Angle of inclination of the inclined plane

the solid mass sliding we have:

In the limiting case of

mgsin = mgcos
mgcos
.-. = mgsin
mg cos

tan

___1

_____2

___3

When the inclined surface is lubricated, the block attains a speed x(m/s) at an inclination
of x().
Since the motion is at uniform speed, the gravitational component balance the frictional force.
Thus:

mgsin

_4

Given a base area (A) of the lubricated block, the corresponding shear stress due to sliding
() is given by:
= F/A

--------5

The shear stress is induced

ced due to variation of the velocity at the block base from zero on
the plane surface.
Considering linear variation of velocity and using Newtons law of shear stress.

Thus:
Where du
= dy =

= du/dy = .u/t

change in velocity
T

=
Change in distance between the surface and the;
Thickness of the lubricant

From Equation (6), Given (t)

Then
= (t)

Ns/m2

From a known density (p0) of the lubricant; kinematic viscosity is defined as: /Po

_________(7)

Where
= Dynamic velocity
P0 = Density of the oil
v = (nu) kinematic viscosity
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
First, the Experimental set up for the solid to solid contact is shown as in Fig. (1) with the angle of
inclination at 30. No velocity measurement is' taken at this time. The mass of the solid block is
recorded as well as the base area of the block. Next, the experimental set up for the lubricated surface is
shown as in Fig (2).
With designated sliding distance, the inclination was varied. At each variation, the sliding time (t) was
recorded. The experiment for the lubricated surface was repeated several times and the experiment
concluded.
OBSERVATION AND MEASUREMENT
No. of
Mass of
Base area Inclination of the
Attempt block (m) of block
Dry
Lub.
(cm2)
2
surface
1
50kg
20cm
30
-surface

Thickness Distance Time

Velocity
of
moved (S) taken (t) of the
lubricant
mass (V)
(t) mm
-

2
3
4
5
6

1mm
\\
\\
\\
\\

\\
\\
\\
\\
\\

\\
\\
\\
\x
\\

15
10
20
25
5

Analysis and Calculation Result and

Discussion
Compare other methods of measuring viscosity eg. Using
(1) Rotating viscometer
(2) Capillary viscometer
(3) Falling ball viscometer
Conclusion

2m/s
1.5m/s
3.5m/s
3.0m/s
l.Om/s

WEEK 8
EXPERIMENT -VISCOSITY
VISCOSITY OF WATER

1.

OBJECTIVE - To use the flow of water through a capillary tube:

2.

(a)

To show that the rate of flow of water through It is proper the applied pressure

(b) To deduce the viscosity of water

APPARATUS

Glass capillary tube of internal diameter 1A to 1mm and of length cm, constant head
apparatus small beaker, burette, stop
stop-watch thermometer, spirit level, mercury, watch-glass
watch
or
crucible dilute nr dilute caustic soda solution, two stands and clamps, rubber
rubb tubing.
__,. water tap

thermom
eter
\

THEORY AND CALCULATION

3.

(a)

The fact that the graph is a straight line through the origin shows that the rate
of flow is directly proportional to the applied pressure, this being
proportional to the head of water h.

h/cm

(b)

Poiseuille's equation for the rate of flow v/t of a liquid of density and viscosity r| through a tube of
radius r and length l is

Tabulate the readings:

h/cm

Burette readings
First vycra3 Second
v /cm

Volume
collected
Time taken t/s
V/cm3 from V = Vl - v2

Rate of flow
|/cmV

Plot a graph with values of V/t as ordinates against the corresponding values of
h/cm as abscissa.
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS

1.

An elaborate constant head apparatus is not essential and a funnel held in a

clamp over a sink and overflowing with from a tap will suffice.

2.

It is important that the rate of flow of water should be small, for Poiseuille's
equation (see below) assumes that the kinetic energy of the drops issuing from
the capillary tube is zero. Further, flow is rapid, effects due to turbulence are
involved and Poiseuille's equation is no longer valid. For the same reason it is
necessary to get rid of any lurking air bubbles lest they, too, cause the flow of'
become turbulent.

3.

It is necessary to record the temperature of the water viscosity (like surface tension)
varies rapidly with char temperature.

ERRORS AND ACCURACY

From (1) above it follows that % error in = 4 x % error in r+% error in l + % error in slope of
graph.
For discussion of % error in r see Experiment 1. The % error in l is obtained from a
consideration of the distance between the markings on the scale used. The % error in the
slope is obtained by estimator difference between the slopes of the chosen 'best' straight
line other possible straight lines drawn through the points. Evaluate the total % error and
state your result accordingly.

WEEK 9
EXPERIMENT - VERIFICATION OF SURFACE TENSION (1)
OBJECTIVE -To determine the surface tension of water by the capillary tube method
APPARATUS
Set of three glass capillary tubes one of 1/2 diameter, one of greater and one of less diameter;
dilute nitric acid, dilute caustic soda solution, traveling microscope or a glass scale and rubber
bands, beaked stand and clamp, thermometer.

Theory and Calculation

Look up in tables the density of water at the particular temperature of t h e experiment and
record it (p) in kgm3.
Take g = 9.81ms"2
Calculate surface tension
Y from

y = l/4dhpg remembering that d (diameter)

and h (height) are both measured in m.
METHOD
Clean all three capillary tubes free from dirt and grease both inside and' outside by washing
them successively with nitric acid, with tap-water, with caustic soda solution and lastly and
repeatedly with tap-water. The beaker and the glass scale (if used) must also be free from dirt
and grease so clean them in the same way.
Fill the beaker to overflowing with water so that the water level stands up above the glass, as
shown in the diagram, after the manner of a mercury meniscus. (To facilitate this choose a beaker
or other vessel that does not possess a lip for pouring.) Select the capillary tube of medium bore. Hold
it in a clamp with its lower end immersed in the water. Before measuring the capillary rise push the
tube a little farther down into the water and then restore it to its original position. This ensures
that the tube is wet a little above the meniscus. Measure the height h to which the meniscus rises
in the capillary tube above the level of the water in the beaker, either by means of a glass: fixed to
the capillary tube by rubber bands or, preferably, by using travelling microscope. Focus the
microscope on the meniscus of the level in the capillary tube and adjust the microscope until the
hori2 cross-wire is tangential to the bottom of the meniscus which is of seen inverted in the
eyepiece of the microscope. To facilitate preliminary focusing of the microscope on the meniscus it is
useful to hold a pie paper with printing on it behind the capillary tube and first focus on After
recording the height registered by the meniscus then focus the microscope on the free water
surface in the beaker. It is here device of filling the beaker to overflowing is proved useful. This
gives clear horizontal water surface above the glass of the beaker and focusing on this is easy. Cut
the capillary tube at the place previously occupied meniscus and measure the internal diameter d

by the microscope, taking the mean of two determinations at right angles. Repeat all the
measurements with the other two cleaned capillary: turn. Record the temperature of the water.

Tabulate the readings:

(1)

Diameter d/m
(2)
Mean

Height h/m

Surface ter

1st tube

2nd tube

3rd tube

Mea
n
........
NrrEXPERIMENTAL DETAILS

1.

As even small traces of grease cause large variations in the the surface tension of liquids,
care should be taken to avoid tc the liquid surface or any part of the capillary tube
which, cleaning, is going to be immersed in the liquid

2.

If a travelling microscope is not available to measure the capillary rise, devices like bents pins
fastened to the tube with rubber bands serve admirably to fix the positions of the meniscus and
the water level in the beaker. The distance between the points of the pins may be determined at
leisure on a scale after the tube has been withdrawn.

3.

It is important to record the temperature of the water because surface tension changes with change
of temperature.

4.

The formula below from which the surface tension is calculated applies only to liquids which 'wet'
the glass and whose angle of contact with the glass is zero - water, aqueous solutions, alcohol, etc.
For other liquids which have an appreciable angle of contact 0 w i t h the glass the formula is
modified to Y = dhpg and the
4cos
Appropriate angle of contact must either be measured (difficult) or looked up in tables.

ERRORS AND ACCURACY

1. The errors arise in the measurements of the diameter d of the capillary tube and of the capillary rise
h. Estimate these as % errors having regard to the scale of the microscope and the fact that
both are difference measurements.
From (l): % error in y = sum of % errors in d and h.
2.

The discrepancies between the three values obtained for y will indicate the order of accuracy that
can be obtained.

WEEK 10
EXPERIMENT - SURFACE TENSION
1.

OBJECTIVE - To determine the surface tension of water by the pull simple wire frame or microscope
slide.

2.

APPARATUS
Some bare copper wire, or a microscope slide, beaker, balance weights, an Archimedes' bridge sue
as is used in density experiment, cotton, tweezers,
zers, chromic acid, dilute caustic soda solution.
(a) Using the wire frame - Exp. No. 1

3.

THEORY
Let y = surface tension of the liquid. For the wire
frame,
If l = length of the side AC,
m = mean mass of the weights added to restore the balance,
then, remembering that there are two surfaces to the film inside the
frame, the downward pull on the frame = 2yl.
This is balanced by the upward pull on the frame due to the added we
.-. 2yl = mg
.-. y = mg/2l
For the microscope slide,
if l = length of slide,

___1

m = mean mass of the weights added to pull slide clear of liquid then the total downward pull of
the liquid on the slide
= Y (21 + 2t)

Hence,

y(2/+2t)=mg

Y= mg /(2 / +2t)

Note.

In both equations (1) and (2), it is necessary that / and t are in metres and m in kilograms, in order that
the surface tension calculated from the equations will be in the correct coherent unit Mm"1
METHOD

Bend the wire so that it forms three sides of a rectangle of about 3 or 4 cm

Width. Clean this frame, either by heating it to red heat in a Bunsen flame,
Or by washing it successively in chromic acid (a mixture of strong sulphuric
acid and potassium dichromate solution), caustic soda solution, and tap-.
water. Clean the beaker by similar successive washings.
Suspend the copper frame from one arm of a balance by the two pica of
cotton connected together as shown in the diagram. ABC is a continuous
length with BD, another separate length, tied to it at B. By this
arrangement it is easy to adjust the middle part AC of the wire to be
horizontal. Put the bridge and the beaker in position and pour water into the
beaker until the arm AC is just not immersed.
Add weights to the other pan (or suitably move a rider about on the beam
of the balance) and add a little more water so that AC is just clear of the
water when the counterpoise is exact and the balance beam horizontal.
Lower the balance beam, thereby lowering AC into the water. When the

beam is raised again, weights will have to be added to the opposite pan t o
restore the beam to the horizontal position owing to the surface tension of.
the film which tends to form inside the frame. Movement of the rider, too
will enable a fine adjustment to the added weights to be made.
Do these two or three times and take the mean of the weights added to
restore the balance.
Measure the inside width of the rectangle.

(b) Using the microscope slide - Exp. No. 2

1.

APPARATUS

2.

THEORY

Let y = surface tension of the liquid. For the wire frame,

If l = length of the side AC,
m = mean mass of the weights added to restore the balance,
then, remembering that there are two surfaces to the film inside the
frame, the downward pull on the frame = 2yl.
This is balanced by the upward pull on the frame due to the added weigh
.-. 2yl = mg

.-. y = mg/2/

__1

For the microscope slide,

if l = length of slide,
t = thickness of slide,
m = mean mass of the weights added to pull slide clear of liquid then the total downward pull of
the liquid on the slide
= y (21 + 2t) Hence

2t) =mg

y(2/ +

mg
Y

' ~ (21 + 2t)

3.

_______2

METHOD

Attach a suspension thread DABC in the way described above to with glue or adhesive tape. Alternatively
two small bulldog clips used.
Clean the part of the slide that is to be immersed, and also the beaker, with
successive washings in the usual way. Then suspend the slide from one
arm of a balance. Put the bridge and beaker in position and add sufficient
water to the beaker until the bottom face is just clear of the water when the
balance beam is horizontal.
Lower the balance beam until the face just touches the water surface and
then add weights to the other pan until the face swings clear of the water
surface.
Do this two or three times and take the mean of the weights added.
Measure the length / of the slide with calipers and the thickness t with a
micrometer screw gauge.
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
1.

Record the temperature of the water.

2.

Once the wire has been cleaned be careful to avoid touching it afterwards with the fingers. Use
tweezers instead. Similarly avoid contact with the cleaned underside of the slide.

3.

It is important that the side AC of the frame or slide should be horizontal and accurately parallel to
the water surface.

4.

When the wire frame is used it should be immersed as nearly as possible to the same depth during
both weighting so that the buoyancy effect is the same each time.

5.

A more sensitive measurement of the pull on the wire or slide can be achieved in this experiment by
the use of a specially designed torsion balance (often called Searle's) but the principle of the,
experiment and the method by which the surface tension is calculated are the same as when the
simpler chemical balance is .used.

ERRORSAND ACCURACY

The errors in / (wire frame) and / + t (slide) are those involving any scale measurement on the
instruments used. The error in m is more than the usual error inherent in a weighing. It is a
matter of judgment as to when the severance from the liquid surface is made. The discrepancy
between-the several values of m from which the mean is obtained is probably the best guide to
the possible error in m. In both cases (frame and slide) the % error in y is the sum of the % errors
in m and / (or / +t) and the final result for Y should be stated accordingly.

WEEK 11
DETERMINATIONOFCENTREOFPRESSUREOFIMMERSEDBODY
EXPERIMENT-CENTREOFPRESSUREOFIMMERSEDBODY
1. Objective

To locate the centre of pressure of an immersed rectangular body and to compare this position
with that predicted by theory.
APPARATUS
The apparatus is shown in plate I.

plate 63 1

THEORY

A definition diagram of Fig. 51.1 is below. The magnitude of the) hydrostatic pressure force F will
be given by
F

Where

pghA

p = density of fluid
g = acceleration due to gravity
h = depth to ce
centroid of immersed surface
A = area of immersed surface

C.G - Centroid of
immersed C.P - Centre
of Pressure Width of
Immersed surface a rt.<S.
to plane of diagram =

Hanger with
additional'
adjustable mass M

This force will act through the centre of pressure CP at a distance xp (measured along the plane of the
rectangular surface) from the point 0, where 0 is the intersection of the plane of the water surface and
the plane of the rectangular surface. Theoretical Determination of xp:
Theory shows that
xp=

x+

IcG/Ax

Where
x =distance from 0 to the centered CG of the surface
= h
cos

Where IcG= 2nd moment of area of the immersed surface about t h e horizontal axis through CG.
CG
Experimental Determination o xp:
For equilibrium of the experimental apparatus, moment s about the pivot P
give

F.y = Mg.s Where

y = distance from pivot to centre of pressure
M = mass added to hanger

s = distance from pivot to hanger.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The apparatus was placed in a splash tray and correctly leveled. The length / and width b of the rectangular
surface, distance r from the pivot to the top of the surface, and the distance s from the hanger to the

pivots were recorded. The position of the surface was positioned with the face vertical
(6 = 0) and clamped. The position of the moveable jockey weight was adjusted to' give
equilibrium, i.e. when the balance pin was removed there was no movement of the
apparatus. The balance pin was replaced. W a t e r w a s added to the storage chamber.
This created an out of balance clock moment in the apparatus. A mass M was added to
the hanger such' the system was brought almost to equilibrium, the clock wise morn*
marginally greater. Water was slowly removed from the storage chi via the drain hole
until equilibrium was attained. At this condition the (hole was closed and the balance
pin again removed to check equilibrium the balance pin was replaced and the values of h17
h2 and M recorded. The above procedure was replaced for various combined depth and
angle of inclination.

OBSERVATION/MEASUREMENT
/ = 100mm b =
75mm r = 100mm s
= 250mm

Table 63.1
F (N)
Result
6 h,
h
h,
number
(mm) (mm) (mm)
(degrees)
11
34
134 84
6.18
2
3
4
5
6

x ( mm) Ice

Xf

84

93.9

400

158.7 y-

9.9

cos -.

CONCLUSIONS
The experiment results show excellent agreement with those predicted from theory. The closeness of
the results confirms the theory relating to the magnitude and location of the hydrostatic pressure
force acting on a plane submerged surface. When the surface is horizontal, i.e. 6 = 90, it is clear that the
plane of the water surface does not intersect the plane of the rectangular surface and therefore xp, as
defined, is indeterminate. However, in this case the
hydrostatic pressure p on the horizontal surface is everywhere equal to p = pgh where h is equal to the depth
of water above the surface. Therefore the centre of pressure CP will coincide with the centre of area. In the
experiment (see result number 7) the distance y from the pivot to the centre of pressure was found to be
148.2mm. This compares very favourably with the expected value of r + (1/2) = 150.0mm.

WEEK 13
EXPERIMENT - STABILITY AND BUOYANCY OF FLOATING
BODIES
1. OBJECTIVE - To investigate the stability of a floating vessel by var
varying angle of tilt.

2.

APPARATUS

(a) A rectangular floating vessel incorporating the features illustrated

illu
below.
(b) Bath of still water
(c) Linear measuring
(d) Knife edge.
Plumb bob

Scale
marked in
degrees
Sheet
Metal
pontoon

Adjustable
weight Jockey

Fig. 64.1 The floating

3.

THEORY

Metacentric height MG computed from measured rotation of vessel

w

dx

d0

MG =

Where

w = weight of jockey

W = total weight of vessel

d = angle of rotation corresponding to dx.

NOTE
If d0 is measured in degrees it is necessary to multiply the right hand side of the above
equation by 57.3 to convert degrees to radians.
Metacentric height MG computed from measured dimens
dimension with reference to fig above
MG = MB + BZ - GZ
Where MB = metacentric radius

4.

Experimental procedure
The total mass of the vessel and th
the mass of the jockey weight recorded. The length I, breadth b and
draught d of the vessel were accur
accurately measured. The movable mass on the mast was fixed at a
height of 31: above the baser of the vessel. The vessel
vessel was rotated on its side and the position of the
centre of gravity G was established by balancing the on the knife edge as shown in Fig above.
above The
balance point gives] position of G, and the height GZ was recorded. The vessel was placed
plac in the bath
of still water, and the position
on of the jockey weight was adjusted to give zero rotation. This position
was then taken as datum for, horizontal displaceme
displacement
nt of the jockey weight. The depth of
immersion was established by recording the distance r from the top of the side < vessel to the water

corresponding angle of rotation was recorded. A series of readings of dx and d0 were recorded for
spaced intervals of the jockey weight position.

Table

Result number 1

55
60
65
70

Gzmm
dx
nm
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
4O
45
50

2
91
de
degrees
0
0.9
1.6
2.7
3.6
4.4
5.4
6.4
.6.9
'7.9
8.6

3
82
de
degrees
0
0.8
1.6
2.3
2.9
3.5
4.1
4.7
5.6
6.2
6.9

6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5

4
75
de
degrees
0
0.5
1.1
1.7
2.1
2.8
3.2
3.9
4.3
5.0
5.4

4.9
5.3
5.8
6.2

5
66
de
degrees
0
0.5
1.0
1.4
1.8
2.3
2.7
3.2
3.5
4.0
4.4

58
da
degre
0
OJ
OJ
u
1.4
1-5
2J
ZJ
3J
3A
3J
M
44
^
j3

This procedure was repeated with the movable mass on the mast positioned at 300mm, 250mm, 200mm
and 150 mm above the base of the vessel.
OBSERVATIONS

Mass of complete vessel = 2.525kg

Mass of jockey weight = 0.2kg External
dimensions of vessel:

/ = 358mm
b = 203mm
d = 77mm Depth from top of side of vessel to water surface
r = 42mm

d9

Fig 64.4

Computation of MG from rotation of vessel: Weight of vessel W = mass of

vessel xg
= 2.525x9.81 =
24.77N
Jockey weight w

= 0.2x9.81
- 1.962N

MG -

X 57.3

dx
de
_dx
_

MG

w
W

= 4.538
= 4.538 x gradient of dx/d0 graph 176

Table

Result number Metacentric Gradient

(from, graph)

Height MG (mm)

12345

25.93 33.07
42.14 51.22
59.91

0.00571 0.00728
0.00928 0.01129
0.01320

Computation of MG from measured dimensions: Depth of immersion

S=d-r
= 77-42
S = 35mm

i.e

_ S _ 35 BZ - 2--Y
R7

Therefore

= 17.5mm
Ib3
aaius no -

98.12mm

leight

MG

12/(IbS)

= MB + BZ-GZ
= 98.12+ 17.5 -GZ
= 115.62 -GZ

Table 64.3

Result number

GZ
(mm)

MG (mm)

91

24.62

2
3
4
'' 5

82
75
66
58

33.62
40.62
49.62
57.62

177

12S

150

117.5

Position height G
above base of vessel.
(Mm)

50

20

40

60

80

Metacentric height (mm)

Fig. 64.6

To investigate the stability of the vessel the experimental values of MG were plotted against the
corresponding values of GZ (Fig. 2.16)
CONCLUSION

The results obtained for the metacentric height by the two experimental methods show excellent
agreement.For each result the metacentre M lies above the centre of gravity G, i.e. MG + ve. Therefore the
vessel is at all' times stable. However, the magnitude of the metacentric height is shown to reduce as the
position of G moves up the mast, i.e. as the value of GZ is increased. The plot of MG against GZ gives a straight
line relationship. From this graph it can be seen that when GZ equals 117.5mm the metacentric height MG is
zero. This position of G corresponds to the position of neutral equilibrium and any further increase in GZ will
result in instability.

WEEK 14
EXPERIMENT - FLOW THROUGH A TAPERED PASSAGE
OBJECTIVE

To investigate the total energy content of a fluid flowing through a passage of variable crosscross-section.
APPARATUS
(a) A tapered passage with an inlet header tank and a series of piezometer tappings along its length. (A
taper with a rectangular. cross
cross-section
section can be constructed from flat plastic sheet). Fig. below
(b) A steady water supply system from means of varying the flow rate.
(c) A device for measuring the flow rate.

Piezomete
r tubes

-^

-' Pump}- - - - - -

^ ^ /
Horizontal datum
Water supply

2 Se^on numbr^

Flow rate
measurem
ent

Fig.66.1
THEORY
For an ideal fluid (no energy losses) by Bernoulli's equation, we have:
have:P/pg + Y2/2g +z = constant along a streamline In this apparatus
P/pg = h and z is constant along the horizontal centreline.
Therefore

h+ V2/2g = constant for all points along the taper on the

central streamline.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The cross-sectional
sectional area A of the taper was accurately measured at each of the piezometer tapping points.

The equipment was levelled so that the centreline of the taper was horizontal.

JTie water supply was adjusted to give a steady flow rate and time allowed the levels in the piezometer tubes
to stabilise. 1 flowrate was measured and recorded together with the water levels in
183

each piezometer tube (dimension h).

This procedure was repeated for two other values of total head H in|
head tank.
OBSERVATIONS

If v is the velocity of flow at a particular section of the taper, and Q,

flow rate, then by continuity equation, we have:
v=
0
area of section

Table 66.1

Head H(m)
Volume collected
(litres)
Time (s)
Flowrate Q (m'/s
Section Area A
number (m2 x 10"6)'
1
403
2
363
3
323
4
282
5
242
6
202
7
161

(1)
0.4

(2)
0.34

(3)
0.19

12
52
2.3
h
(m)
0.46
0.45
0.44
0.43
0.42
0.39
0.35

12
59
2.03
h
(m)
0.31
0.31
0.30
0.29
0.28
0.26
0.23

12
67.5
1.78
h
(m)
0.18
0.176
0.170
0.164
0.156
0.14
0.11

10"
2

(m/
0.57
0.63
0.71
0.81
0.95
1.14
0.43

v /2
(m)
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.06
0.10

h+
(m)
0.48
0.478
0.474
0.470
0.468
0.464
0.450

10"
v
(m/s
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
1.0
1.26

v /2g
(m)
0.0129
0.016
0.020
0.026
0.036
0.051
0.081

t- (v /2g)
(m)
0.331
0.329
0.326
0.324
0.322
0.318
0.312

10"
v
(m/
0.44
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.1

\r/2
(m;
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.06

ANALYSIS
Values of total head were plotted against section numbers for the cases (Fig. 66.2)
U. c
D
0.4

Head
(m)

0.3

m-ufcr ~~J
ff^

_ . >~ * ~"U
,; . c
J k """
Q = 2.3 x 10
<JTL3

>-
i

.49

> *> T
I_
- ^

.34
h +

\*j >.03 x 1Q4

t
1

>
Q = : L78x

.195
3

\..

YL

h + X 2g

i
1

2
3
4
Section number

Fig. 66.2 184

CONCLUSIONS
Neglecting energy losses in the system, the total energy head along the
taper remains constant and equal to H as indicated on the graph.
However, there appears to be an initial loss of energy followed by a further
continuous loss as the water passes along the taper.
The initial energy loss occurs as water enters the taper from the head tank
and is usually known as an entry loss. The value of this loss will depend to a
large extent on the geometry of the entry.
The continuous loss along the taper is due to friction between the water
and the walls of the passage.

WEEK 15
EXPERIMENT- TO MEASURE* THE PRESSURE HEAD OF WATER IN A PIPE
LINE BY MEANS OF A U
U-TUBE.

Brief theory. Piezometer tubes cannot be

employed when pressures in the lighter liquids are
to be measured, since this would require very
long

tubes,

which

cannot

be

handled

conveniently. Furthermore gas pressures can

cannot be
measured by the piezometers because a gas forms
no free atmospheric surface. These limitations can be
overcome
come by the use of U
U-tube manometer.

A U-tube
tube consists of a glass tube bent in U
Ushape, one end of which is connected to a point at
which pressure
sure is to be measured and other end
remains open to the atmosphere as shown in
Fig. 2. It contains a liquid (generally mercury)
heavier than the liquid of which the pressure is
to be measured.
The pressure head
ad of liquid (h) in a pipe is
found from the relation:

h = h"(S 2 -\)h' Procedure:

1. Connect the U-tube to the pipe carrying liquid (whose pressure is to be measured).
2. Note down the readings of h' and h ".
3. Take number of readings by varying the discharge (say four) and tabulate as
shown in the Table 2.
Table 2. U-tubeObservations
S. No.

h'

h"

Pressure head
h = h"(S 2 -S,)
-h ' S ,

1.
2.
3.
4.

Intensity of pressure p = wh Remarks

(w = sp. wt. of liquid)

'
Mean pressure, p = .

Specimen calculations :

(/)

Conclusions :
Precautions:
1. U-tube should enter the pipe at right angles to the direction in which the fluid flows.
2. The end of the U-tube which is to be connected with the pipe should flush with
its (pipe) inner surface and should not be rough.

3. If large pressures are to be measured, then in U-tube heavier liquids, generally mercury, should