Agnaou / PHD Dissertation (Volume I)

Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdellah University
Faculty of Letters and Human Sciences

Dhar El Mahraz, Fez

Department of English
UFR: General Linguistic Studies
The Effectiveness of Integrating Information

and Communications Technology in Education:
a focus on teachers and students attitudes
A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorat
Volume I
Submitted by: Abderrahim Agnaou Supervised by: Dr. Mohamed Ouakrime
2009
In token of a great debt of gratitude, I dedicate this work to
my parents, the repository of love and tenderness;

my sisters, my brothers-in-law and their children,
my soul-mate, the greatest heart of affection, my world.
In my beloveds ear, I whisper:

To the world you might be one person, but to me you are the whole world.
i
Foreword
No thesis is perfect, but every thesis is perfectible.
The present research study is undertaken within the framework of the R&D Unit
Linguistics and Language Use at the Faculty of Letters and Human Sciences, SMBA
University, Fez. The findings of the study are presented as a dissertation, accompanied by a
CD-ROM containing the entire work together with appendices and demo projects. A web-
based version is also available at my website. It is hoped that this work will be made available
for students, faculty, and researchers at one of the resource centers of SMBA University.
ii
List of Tables
Table 1.1: The historical development of the disciplines influencing CALL

Table 2.1: Key figures on the Moroccan population
Table 2.2: The computer infrastructure in the Moroccan administration
Table 2.3: Internet usage statistics for Africa
Table 2.4: Internet growth in Morocco (in 2004)
Table 2.5: Modes of Internet connection in the public sector
Table 2.6: Presence on the web and E-mail usage rate in the Moroccan public sector
Table 2.7: Estimated cost of the 2008 Plan (Source: DSEP, 1999:20)
Table 2.8: Estimated cost of the pilot phase (Source: DSEP, 1999:23)
Table 2.9: The number of academic institutions constituting MARWAN (www.marwan.ma)
Table 3.1: Sample sizes and response rates
Table 3.2: Distribution of academic and non-academic EFL learners taking part in the survey
Table 3.3: Distribution of teachers and would-be teachers taking part in the survey
Table 3.4: Content summary of the questionnaires
Table 3.5: DynEd E-learning Platform
Table 3.6: Type I errors vs. Type II errors
Table 4.1: Teacher profile
Table 4.2: Computer literacy rates among experienced teachers
Table 4.3: Computer ownership among experienced computer-literate teachers
Table 4.4: Frequency of computer use among experienced teachers
Table 4.5: Place of access to computers
Table 4.6: Other places of access to computers
Table 4.7: The number of teachers having access to the Internet from their homes (in 2003)
Table 4.8: Uses of the computer among experienced teachers
Table 4.9: Frequency of Internet use among experienced teachers
Table 4.10: The semantic differential responses regarding attitudes to the computer
Table 4.11: The mean score of the semantic deferential items (experienced teachers)
Table 4.12: The mean scores registered by computer-literate and computer-illiterate teachers
Table 4.13: Experienced teachers attitudes to CALL
Table 4.14: Results of 26-item Likert measuring experienced teachers attitudes to CALL
Table 4.15: Indices and the items representing each one of them
iii
Table 4.16: Comparing teachers attitudes on the Likert on the basis of computer-literacy
Table 4.17: Computer enjoyment among experienced teachers
Table 4.18: Computer anxiety among experienced teachers
Table 4.19: Computer utility as expressed by experienced teachers
Table 4.20: Computer familiarity among experienced teachers
Table 4.21: Attitudes to training in ICT for experienced teachers
Table 4.22: Experienced teachers perception of the impact of ICT on teaching
Table 4.23: The mean participation for the six indices in terms of age, gender, and location
Table 4.24: ICT for LT programs and the meeting of training objectives
Table 4.25: The amounts of time spent on ICT for LT training
Table 4.26: Teachers ability to follow developments in ICT
Table 4.27: Teacher subscriptions in professional CALL organizations
Table 4.28: Experienced teachers sources of knowledge about CALL
Table 4.29: Teachers level of confidence using Internet skills
Table 4.30: Level of expertise in CALL among experienced teachers
Table 4.31: CALL in the school environment
Table 4.32: The state of the ICT resources and facilities at the disposal of teachers
Table 4.33: Types of CALL activities and materials used by teachers
Table 4.34: Means of contact between teachers and their students
Table 4.35: The purpose of using ICT in teaching according to experienced teachers
Table 4.36: Computer literacy rates among pre-service teachers
Table 4.38: The number of teacher trainees having access to the Internet from their homes
Table 4.39: Frequency of Internet use among teacher trainees
Table 4.41: The mean score of the semantic deferential items (teacher trainees)
Table 4.42: The mean scores registered by computer-literate and computer-illiterate trainees
Table 4.43: Teacher trainees attitudes to CALL
Table 4.44: Results of 26-item Likert measuring teacher trainees attitudes to CALL
Table 4.45: Indices and the items representing each
Table 4.46: Comparing trainees attitudes on the Likert on the basis of computer-literacy
Table 4.47: Computer enjoyment among teacher trainees
Table 4.48: Computer anxiety among teacher trainees
Table 4.49: Computer utility as expressed by teacher trainees
Table 4.50: Computer familiarity among teacher trainees
iv
Table 4.51: Attitudes to training in ICT for teacher trainees
Table 4.52: Teacher trainees perception of the impact of ICT on teaching
Table 4.55: About the amounts of time spent on ICT for LT training
Table 4.56: Trainees ability to follow developments in ICT
Table 4.57: Pre-service teachers sources of knowledge about CALL
Table 4.58: Teacher trainees level of confidence using Internet skills
Table 4.59: The purpose of using ICT in teaching according to teacher trainees
Table 4.60: Relationship between computer ownership and frequency of computer use
Table 4.61: The correlation between age and computer literacy
Table 4.62: Correlation between computer literacy and computer anxiety among teachers
Table 4.63: Teacher training and adoption of CALL
Table 4.64: Access to ICT and adoption of CALL
Table 5.1: EFL student profile
Table 5.2: Computer literacy rates among academic EFL students
Table 5.3: Computer ownership among experienced computer-literate students
Table 5.4: Frequency of computer use among EFL students
Table 5.5: Level of ICT skills as expressed by EFL students
Table 5.8: The number of students having access to the Internet from their homes
Table 5.9: Uses of the computer among EFL students
Table 5.10: Frequency of Internet use among EFL students
Table 5.12: The mean score of the semantic differential items (EFLstudents)
Table 5.13: The mean scores registered by students depending on PC ownership
Table 5.14: EFL students attitudes to CALL
Table 5.15: Results of the Likert measuring EFL students attitudes to CALL (percentages)
Table 5.16: EFL students attitudes on the 23-item Likert
Table 5.18: Computer enjoyment among EFL students
Table 5.19: Computer anxiety among EFL students
Table 5.20: Computer utility as expressed by EFL students
Table 5.21: Computer familiarity among EFL students
v
Table 5.22: Distribution of EFL students in terms of age, gender and location
Table 5.23: Students response rates for the four indices in terms of age, gender, and location
Table 5.24: Students mode of access to CALL multimedia labs
Table 5.25: Students alternative access modes to the computer lab
Table 5.26: Computer-student ratio at the school computer labs
Table 5.27: The state of the ICT resources and facilities available at school
Table 5.28: Hardware facilities used for CALL practice at school computer labs
Table 5.29: Students use of CALL over the past years
Table 5.30: CALL use in the Moroccan school
Table 5.31: Possible teacher reasons for not adopting CALL
Table 5.32: Reasons for adopting CALL according to students
Table 5.33: CALL materials and activities used by EFL students
Table 5.34: Students Internet sources of learning/research
Table 5.35: Students level of confidence using ICT skills
Table 5.36: Means of contact between EFL students and their teachers
Table 5.37: Members of the EFL corporate participants focus group
Table 5.38: Placement levels and recommended courseware
Table 5.39: Corporate trainees level at the outset of the E-learning training
Table 5.41: E-learners progress report over three months
Table 5.42: The number of EFL skill levels throughout the training period
Table 4.43: E-learners progress correlated with total time and completion percentage
Table 4.44: The impact of total study time and completion percentage on e-learners progress
Table 5.45: Group mean scores of e-learners for total study time and completion percentage
Table 5.46: The TOEIC scores obtained by some e-learners compared with DynEd scores
Table 5.47: Student intervention in their teachers use of ICT
Table 6.1: The central statistical hypotheses
Table 6.2: The variables involved in the central statistical hypothesis
Table 6.3: The variables involved in the ancillary statistical hypotheses
Table 6.4: The independent samples chi-square statistical hypotheses
Table 6.5: The dependent samples t-test statistical hypotheses
Table 6.4: The statistical tests used in the study
Table 6.5: Teacher data (descriptive statistics)
Table 6.6: Student data (descriptive statistics)
Table 6.7: Correlation test between dependent variables
Table 6.8: MANOVA output 1: Multivariate tests
vi
Table 6.9: MANOVA output 2: Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Table 6.10: CALL use among teachers and students
Table 6.11: Case processing summary
Table 6.12: Crosstabulation of CALL use * Computer ownership
Table 6.13: Chi-square tests of CALL use * Computer ownership
Table 6.14: Crosstabulation of CALL use * Computer literacy
Table 6.15: Chi-square tests of CALL use * Computer literacy
Table 6.16: Crosstabulation of CALL use * Age
Table 6.17: Chi-square tests of CALL use * Age
Table 6.18: Chi-square tests of CALL use * Age after recoding
Table 6.19: Crosstabulation of CALL use * Prior ICT training
Table 6.20: Chi-square tests of CALL use * Prior ICT training
Table 6.21: Crosstabulation of CALL use * Access to computers
Table 6.22: Chi-square tests of CALL use * Access to computers
Table 6.23: Paired samples statistics
Table 6.24: Paired samples correlations
Table 6.25: Paired samples test
vii
List of Figures
Figure 1.1: The branches of Educational Technology

Figure 1.2: Worldwide Internet Users in Millions (Source: e-Stats.com)
Figure 1.3: Comparison of Learning Delivery Methods (Source: U.S. Bancorp Piper Jaffray)
Figure 2.1: Top 10 Internet Users in Africa (2004)
Figure 2.2: A general overview of MARWAN (www.marwan.ma)
Figure 4.1: Teacher profile in graphical form
Figure 4.2: Frequency of computer use among experienced teachers
Figure 4.3: The rates of computer use in four different places
Figure 4.4: The rates of the uses of the computer among experienced teachers
Figure 4.5: Experienced teachers attitudes to the computer (detailed stands)
Figure 4.6: Experienced teachers attitudes to the computer (positive and negative stands)
Figure 4.7: Comparing computer-literate and computer-illiterate teachers attitudes
Figure 4.8: Comparing the attitudes of teachers who own a PC and those who do not.
Figure 4.9: Experienced teachers attitude to CALL
Figure 4.10: The impact of computer-literacy on teacher attitudes
Figure 4.11: Computer enjoyment among experienced teachers
Figure 4.12: Computer anxiety among experienced teachers
Figure 4.13: Computer utility as expressed by experienced teachers
Figure 4.14: Computer familiarity among experienced teachers
Figure 4.15: Attitudes to training in ICT for experienced teachers
Figure 4.16: Experienced teachers perception of the impact of ICT on teaching
Figure 4.17: Gender-based comparison of the rates of stands across the six indices
Figure 4.18: Experienced teachers and training in ICT for LT
Figure 4.19: Teachers capability of keeping up with developments in ICT
Figure 4.20: Computer-literate teachers Internet skills
Figure 4.21: Teachers level of confidence using ICT in teaching
Figure 4.22: Computer ownership and use among computer-literate teacher trainees
Figure 4.23: Teacher trainees attitudes to the computer as such
Figure 4.24: Comparing computer-literate and computer-illiterate teacher trainees attitudes
Figure 4.25: Teacher trainees attitude to CALL
Figure 4.26: The impact of computer-literacy on the attitudes of trainees
viii
Figure 4.27: Computer enjoyment among teacher trainees
Figure 4.28: Computer anxiety among teacher trainees
Figure 4.29: Computer utility as expressed by teacher trainees
Figure 4.30: Computer familiarity among teacher trainees
Figure 4.31: Attitudes to training in ICT for teacher trainees
Figure 4.32: Teacher trainees perception of the impact of ICT on teaching
Figure 4.33: Age-based comparison of the rates of stands across the six indices
Figure 4.35: Pre-service teachers and training in ICT for LT
Figure 4.36: Computer-literate teacher trainees Internet skills
Figure 4.37: Comparing teachers and trainees attitudes to the computer as such
Figure 4.38: Comparing teachers and students attitudes to CALL
Figure 5.1: Student profile in graphical form
Figure 5.2: Frequency of computer use among EFL students
Figure 5.4: The rates of computer uses among EFL students
Figure 5.5: EFL students attitudes to the computer (detailed stands)
Figure 5.6: EFL students attitudes to the computer (positive vs. negative stands)
Figure 5.7: EFL students attitude to CALL
Figure 5.8: Computer enjoyment among EFL students
Figure 5.9: Computer anxiety among EFL students
Figure 5.10: Computer utility as expressed by EFL students
Figure 5.11: Computer familiarity among EFL students
Figure 5.12: Gender-based comparison of the students response rates across the four indices
Figure 5.13: EFL students use of ICT in their learning efforts
Figure 5.14: CALL labs in the Moroccan school
Figure 5.15: EFL students frequency of access to CALL multimedia labs
Figure 5.16: Pedagogical Use of the Internet
Figure 5.17: EFL students Internet skills
Figure 5.18: The launch screen of the DynEd E-learning platform
Figure 5.19: List of courseware programs on the E-learning platform
Figure 5.20: A sample placement score and initial study path
Figure 5.21: Setting up E-learning class parameters
Figure 5.22: An example of e-learners performance on the platform
Figure 5.23: iRM E-mail Options
ix
Figure 5.24: A sample records feedback E-mail
Figure 5.25: A sample of an E-learning participants study records arranged by lesson
Figure 5.26: Levels of the EFL students ICT skills
Figure 6.1: The interaction between the MANOVA independent variables
x
List of Appendices
(In a separate volume)
Appendix 1: A List of ICT/CALL Terms and Acronyms

Appendix 2: A List of Selected CALL Software
Appendix 3: A List of Selected Companion Websites
Appendix 4: CALL Specialized Organizations
Appendix 5: Translations of Excerpts from the Kings Letters and Speeches, etc.
Appendix 6: Experts from the National Charter on Education and training
Appendix 7: Documents from of Direction de la Stratgie, des Etudes et de la Planification
Appendix 8: Email messages sent to seek participation in the surveys
Appendix 9: Teacher Questionnaire
Appendix 10: Student Questionnaire
Appendix 11: DynEd E-learning Platform Content and Technical setup
Appendix 12: A Selection of CALL Journals and Newsletters
Appendix 13: MARWAN Educational Network Procedures
xi
Acknowledgments
First and foremost, I would like to express my warmest and deepest gratitude to my
supervisor, Dr. Mohamed Ouakrime for his kindness and encouragement throughout the
completion of this work. I mostly thank him for his instructive feedback, unfailing patience
and unstinting support. Special thanks go also to my postgraduate professors Dr. Fatima
Mouaid, Dr. Fatima Sadiqi, Dr. Moha Ennaji, and, Dr. Jilali Saib.
I would like to sincerely thank my former colleagues at Calliope in Casablanca, the

International Institute for Higher Education in Morocco, Rabat, and the Polytechnic Institute
of Casablanca as well as my current colleagues at Al-Akhawayn University in Ifrane. Special
thanks go to Dr. Khalid Sendid and Dr. Abderrahmane Azennoud, whose encouragements to
finish and submit this thesis for defense meant a lot to me.
I would also like to express my deepest appreciation to my friends and colleagues Ali
Boumoussa, Ayyad Charaa, Hssein Khtou, Seddik Ouboulahcen, Noureddine Amrous, and
Mohamed Sbaihi for their help in administering the surveys as well as teachers and students
for willing to fill out the questionnaires and/or sit for an interview.
Finally, I would like to thank all my friends for their moral support and advice, especially
Hssein Khtou, Khalid Sendid, and Ali Boumoussa who have always been supportive and
encouraging. And I tell each one of them: your friendship and invaluable help will always be
treasured. If I have forgotten any name, please forgive the lapse.
xii
Abstract
This doctorate thesis investigates the effectiveness of using computers in education through
the elicitation of perceptions and attitudes of around 800 people closely involved in the
teaching/learning operation. Qualitative and quantitative data gathered in the investigation
indicate that there is a high potential and enthusiasm in using Information and
Communications Technology (ICT) in the day-to-day practices of all parties, with more
among students and trainees than among teachers. A case-study, used to crosscheck claims,
shows that the e-learners do, in fact, improve their performance when there is a high level
of motivation and follow-up. The collected data are described, analyzed and put to inferential
statistical scrutiny to empirically show that the computer is the best pedagogical aid to
humans.
La prsente thse de doctorat enqute sur lefficacit de lutilisation des ordinateurs dans
lducation travers le recueillement des perceptions et attitudes denviron 800 personnes
impliques directement dans lopration de lenseignement/apprentissage. Les donnes
qualitatives et quantitatives qui ont taient collectes dans cette recherche indiquent quil y a
un potentiel et un enthousiasme normes dans lutilisation des nouvelles technologies de
linformation et de la communication (NTIC) dans les pratiques quotidiennes de toutes les
parties, mais davantage parmi les tudiants et les stagiaires que parmi les enseignants. Ltude
de cas qui a t mene pour vrifier les affirmations montre que les apprenants dits
lectroniques ont effectivement russi amliorer leur performance lorsquil y a un haut
niveau de motivation et de suivi. Les donnes collectes sont dcrites, analyses, et mises
lexamen de la statistique infrentielle pour dmontrer empiriquement que lordinateur est la
meilleure aide pdagogique aux tres humains.

. 800

.
""
.
.
xiii
Table of Contents
Dedication i
Foreword ii
List of Tables iii
List of Figures viii
List of Appendices.. xi
Acknowledgements .. xii
Abstract . xiii
Table of Contents xiv
General Introduction . 1
CHAPTER I
Educational Technology: describing the state of the art
I.0. Introduction . 6
I.1. The Growing Terminology of a Changing Educational Technology . 6
I.2. Educational Technology and Language Education . 17
I.2.1. Teacher-centered Versus Learner-centered Educational Technology . 18
I.2.1.1. Computer-Assisted Instruction .. 20
I.2.1.2. Computer-Assisted Learning .. 22
I.2.2. Technico-pedagogical Development of CALL . 24
I.2.2.1. 50s Mid 70s . 26
I.2.2.2. Early 70s Late 80s ... 30
I.2.2.3. Early 90s 2000s . 35
I.3. The Scope of Virtual Education and Modes of Delivery 41
I.3.1. Stand-alone Computers and the Individual Learner .. 42
I.3.1.1. The Educational Use of General-purpose Software .. 44
I.3.1.2. Teacher-authored Courseware 46
I.3.1.3. Packaged CD-ROMs and DVDs .. 47
a) Reference programs 48
xiv
b) Edutainment programs .. 49
c) Testing programs .. 49
d) Authoring programs ... 49
e) Skill-focused programs . 50
f) Integrated learning programs . 50
I.3.2. Computer Networking for Effective Language Learning . 52
I.3.2.1. On-site Multi-user CALL .. 52
I.3.2.2. Distributed CALL ... 53
I.3.2.2.1. Synchronous E-learning 57
a) IRC . 58
b) MOOs ... 59
c) Telephony .. 60
d) Videoconferencing 61
I.3.2.2.2. Asynchronous E-learning . 62
a) E-mail ... 63
b) Listservs . 64
c) Discussion boards .. 66
d) SDCC ... 67
1.3.2.2.2. Learning Management System . 68
I. 4. Conclusion 70
CHAPTER II
The Integration of ICT in the Moroccan Educational System
II.0. Introduction ... 73
II.1. The Applicability of Computer-based Education in Morocco . 74
II.1.1. The Socio-economic Context .. 76
II.1.2. The Technological Infrastructure .. 80
II.1.3. The Challenge of Human Resources ... 87
II.2. A Look into the Stipulations of the NCET . 88
II.2.1. ICT in the Basic Tenets of the NCET ... 91
II.2.2. ICT in the Reform Areas of the NCET 94
II.3. The 2008 Scheme for ICT Integration in Primary and Secondary Education 98
II.3.1. Rationale and Objectives .. 100
II.3.2. Implementation and Funding Issues 104
xv
II.4. The MARWAN Project: wiring the Moroccan university ... 108
II.5. Teacher Training: towards a fuller integration of ICT .. 112
II.6. Conclusion ... 116
CHAPTER III
Research Methodology
III.0. Introduction . 119
III.1. Research Task .... 119
III.1.1. The Research Questions Revisited .. 119
III.1.2. Basic Assumptions .. 122
III.1.3. Hypotheses 123
III.2. The Nature of the Research .. 124
III.2.1. Comparative or attitudinal? . 124
III.2.2. Quantitative or Qualitative? . 125
III. 3. Target Research Populations . 127
III.3.1. Student Profile 128
III.2.2. Teacher Profile ... 129
III.4. Data Collection Procedures ... 130
III.4.1. The Questionnaires . 131
III.4.2. The Follow-up Interview 134
III.4.3. The Case Study .. 135
III.4.3.1. On the E-learning Platform ... 136
III.4.3.1. Evaluation of Student Performance .. 138
III.5. Validity and Reliability . 139
III.5.1. Internal Validity 140
III.5.2. External Validity .. 141
III.5.3. Triangulation ... 142
III.5.4. Limitations 143
III.6. Descriptive Data analysis . 144
III.7. Inferential Statistical Procedures 145
III.7.1. Variables 146
III.7.2 Quantitative Properties of Statistical Analysis 147
III.7.2.1. Statistical Measures of Centrality . 148
III.7.2.2. Statistical Measures of Variability 148
xvi
III.7.3. Main Concepts in Statistical Procedures 149
III.7.3.1. Probability and Statistical Significance ... 149
III.7.3.2. Statistical Hypotheses and Measurement Errors .. 149
III.7.4. Statistical Tests Relevant for the Study ... 151
III.8. Conclusion . 152
CHAPTER IV
Teachers Attitudes towards ICT and CALL: Data Analysis
IV.0. Introduction . 155
IV.1. Teachers Use of, and Attitudes towards ICT in Language Teaching . 156
IV.1.1. Experienced Teachers . 159
IV.1.1.1. Computer Equipment, Electronic Literacy and Access to ICT . 159
IV.1.1.2. Attitudes of Experienced Teachers towards ICT and CALL .. 164
a) Enjoyment 176
b) Anxiety .. 177
c) Utility .. 179
d) Familiarity 181
e) Training in ICT .. 182
f) Impact on teaching ... 183
IV.1.1.3. Training in ICT and Adoption of CALL 187
IV.1.2. Teacher Trainees . 199
IV.1.2.1. Computer Equipment, Electronic Literacy and Access to ICT . 199
IV.1.2.2. Attitudes of Teacher Trainees towards ICT and CALL .. 203
a) Enjoyment . 212
b) Anxiety ... 213
c) Utility .. 214
d) Familiarity 216
e) Training in ICT .. 217
f) Impact on teaching ... 218
IV.1.2.3. Pre-service training in ICT and CALL 221
IV.2. Comparing and Contrasting Teachers and Trainees Attitudes 228
IV.3. Hypotheses Analysis . 230
IV.4. Conclusion . 233
CHAPTER V
Students Attitudes towards ICT and CALL: Data Analysis
V.0. Introduction 235
V.1. Academic EFL Students Use of, and Attitudes towards ICT in Language Learning 236
xvii
V.1.1. Computer Equipment, Electronic Literacy and Access to ICT ... 238
V.1.2. Attitudes of EFL Students towards ICT and CALL 244
a) Enjoyment .. ... 251
b) Anxiety .... 252
c) Utility 253
d) Familiarity . 255
V.1.3. Students Use of ICT in Language Education . 259
V.2. CALL for Professionals: a Case Study .. 273
V.2.1. E-learning Implementation Procedure and Platform Features . 274
V.2.1.1. Implementation Phase .... 274
V.2.1.2. DynEd Courseware Features 280
V.2.1.3. DynEd Courseware Content .. 281
V.2.2. Tracking the E-learners Progress . 283
V.2.2.1. The Internet Records Manager 284
V.2.2.2. The Mastery Tests 289
V.2.3. Follow-up Classroom Sessions ... 290
V.2.4. A Longitudinal Evaluation of E-learners Overall Progress . 291
V.3. Hypotheses Analysis 297
V.4. Conclusion 299
CHAPTER VI
The Discussion of Findings, Implications and Recommendations
VI.0. Introduction ........... 302
VI.1. Discussion of the Research Results: an Inferential Statistics Approach 302
VI.1.1. The Research Hypotheses Revisited 303
VI.1.2. On the Statistical Tests Used in the Study . 308
VI.1.2.1. MANOVA 308
VI.1.2.2. Chi-square . 310
VI.1.2.3. The t-test 311
VI.1.3. The Outcomes of the Inferential Statistical Procedures 311
VI.1.3.1. Attitudes towards CALL: a MANOVA analysis . 311
VI.1.3.2. Factors Leading to CALL Use: a chi-square analysis . 320
VI.1.3.3. The Effectiveness of CALL Use: a t-test analysis .. 327
VI.2. Implications of the Findings of the Study . 329
VI.2.1. General Implications .. 330
VI.2.1.1. Electronic Literacy and Information Society ... 331
VI.2.1.2. ICT and Its Connection to Education Reform 333
VI.2.1.3. CALL As a Cost-effective Educational Alternative . 334
xviii
VI.2.1.4. Awareness Raising for Positive Attitudes .. 335
VI.2.1.5. CALL and the Physical Classroom .. 336
VI.2.2. Implications for the Teacher ... 337
VI.2.2.1. New Roles for the Teacher .. 339
VI.2.2.2. CALL and the Need for Innovative Teacher Training ... 340
VI.2.2.3. CALL and Courseware Design 342
VI.2.3. Implications for the Learner 343
VI.2.3.1. The Potential of ICT and CALL Effectiveness . 343
VI.2.3.2. CALL, Self Access and Autonomy .. 345
VI.2.3.3. CALL and Collaborative Learning ... 347
VI.2.3.4. CALL and the Expansion of Learning Opportunities .. 348
VI.3. Recommendations .. 349
VI.3.1. Teacher Training for Effective CALL Implementation . 349
VI.3.2. Provision of ICT Equipment and the Issue of Access . 351
VI.3.3. Commitment to CALL and Incentives Schemes .. 352
VI.3.4. Funding Allocations for Research and Development .. 353
VI.3.5. Recommendation for Further Research 353
VI.4. Conclusion . 355
General Conclusion . 356
References.. 362
xix
General Introduction
1
Recent history shows that technology has crept into virtually all sectors of human
activity, which has led to world development, especially in countries of the North. Be that as
it may, many a developing country like those on the southern bank of the Mediterranean,
notably Morocco, have been affected by the information revolution that has marked the world
over the last decade of the twentieth century. History reminds us also that inventions always
bring about many changes in their wake. The computer, as a case in point, is one of two
catalysts of growth in todays society, the other being the mobile phone. As a result of the
cross-technical marriage of the computer, the (mobile) phone, the fax, the radio and TV, the
Internet was born as a versatile hybrid whose expanding web has caught the attention of the
many.
As it cannot stay as a bystander in the midst of the current technological developments

taking place globally, Morocco has made steady strides towards the generalization of the use
of the new information and (tele)communication technologies. The latter and the globalization
of economy constitute strong incentives to catch up with the developed world, given the
awareness prevalent among the authorities and members of the active civil society of the
challenges that the new situation brings. Globalization, stationary and mobile technologies,
and the Internet have all had a great impact on the system of organization of modern societies
and the way many professions are conducted. The field of education makes no exception.
Where and how teaching is conducted, who and what is involved in the teaching and
learning operation, and the way the parties partaking in this operation communicate with each
other have started to change radically over the past few years. With the present information
revolution, the conventional educational institution has become overwhelmed and unable to
incorporate and keep up with the tremendous flow and development of knowledge, which
justifies a reconsideration of the conventional system(s) of education. Teachers using
traditional means of course delivery no matter how effective they may be, and regardless of
the teaching methodology they may be advocating ought not to rest on their laurels. They
are called upon to adapt to the new requirements of the global information society in order to
cope with changes that are taking place at a rather rapid rate.
Many people have come to realize that taking courses, introductory or advanced, in
computing and the Internet is much of a necessity for academic and professional success, for
failure to do so means seclusion from the rest of the world. The digital era is here to stay.
Those who fail to adjust to this new reality will be swept away by the gale-force winds of
2
change. Although not given an official name, a new educational era is heralded by the
integration of the new information and communications technology (ICT) in the teaching and
learning process. The exigencies of this era include the provision of multimedia computers
and computer literate teachers who can offer the versatility of an adequate general education
and expertise in the field of specialization coupled with multi-disciplinary transferable skills.
Conceptually, the question is not will computers enter the classroom? as they have
already been given the green light to enter it in developed countries, and willingness to do
likewise in Morocco has been expressed time and again by decision-makers. Rather, the
questions to be asked are:
- At what rate will computers enter the classroom, and how can decision-makers
select the most appropriate systems?
- Are teachers ready to surmount the challenge (im)posed by the information age?
What is the best way to train teachers to use computers in the teaching and
learning process?
- What are the computers potentials and shortcomings in language education?
- How can the computer enhance student achievement?
- What transformations is computer-based education likely to bring about? What

impact will these transformations have on the parties involved in the educational
process?
- What developments in computer-based education are on the horizon for Morocco?
The answers to these key questions, among others raised in due course, constitute the
backbone of the present research study. The end goal of this investigation is to see the ways in
which the use of computers in education can enhance the quality and standards of language
teaching and learning in Morocco.
The rationale behind the choice of this theme is that Educational Technology is a
relatively new field of research in Applied Linguistics and a barely studied area in Morocco.
This being the case, this thesis is meant to constitute a contribution to the ongoing research in
the field and a modest enrichment of the locally scanty literature on computer-based
education. Another reason for conducting this research is to reflect on, and react to the
stipulations of the National Charter of Education and Training (NCET), promulgated by a
special committee in charge of educational reform, with reference to the incorporation of ICT
3
in education, and the guidelines of the National Scheme for Integrating ICT in Education
(NSIE), dubbed Plan 2008: une classe, un multimdia et Internet, put forward by the
Ministry of National Education.
By answering the above-stated research questions, it is hoped to determine how

effectively the power of the computer in language education will be harnessed. Though not
easy to obtain, the answers can provide rewards worth the time and effort. Achievement of the
objectives of this study relies on the elicitation of statistical data drawn from a survey,
examination of official ministerial documents, and evaluation of an E-learning platform used
by the researcher. The research is both qualitative and quantitative. It is based on the results of
student and teacher questionnaires, records of students using computer-based learning
materials, and views expressed at interviews. In addition to the questionnaires and the
interviews administered to students and teachers, two other data collection instruments are
used, namely, observation, and electronic discussion forums.
The present thesis is composed of six chapters. The first chapter provides an extensive
review of the substantial and growing body of literature on educational technology. Basically,
it defines the field of study and pinpoints the relevant terminology. Besides giving an account
of the historical development of educational technology, it also offers a critical appraisal of
the potential of ICT in education. The second chapter discusses the articles in the NCET
relating to the integration and use of ICT in education, makes reference to the
recommendations of the NSIE, and examines the applicability of computerized education in
the Moroccan socio-economic context. The third chapter deals with the research design
adopted in the present study and the methods and procedures used in investigating the ways in
which the use of ICT in education and the attitudes of teachers and learners of English
towards CALL can impact the quality and standards of language teaching and learning in
Morocco. While the fourth chapter is concerned with analyzing descriptive data elicited from
the teacher questionnaire, the fifth chapter is concerned with doing likewise for data elicited
from the student questionnaire and presenting a case study, which examines the use of an e-
learning platform by a focus group of professional learners of English. The sixth and final
chapter looks into the teacher and student data in the light of inferential statistics, summarizes
the findings of the research study, discusses the implications of these findings for the teacher
and the learner, and puts forward some relevant recommendations.
4
Chapter One:
Educational Technology: A brief review of

the state of the art
5
I.0. Introduction
Attempting a thorough review of the literature on Educational Technology is not an

easy undertaking, given the constantly growing volume of publications in the field and the
alarming speed with which computers in particular evolve. Inevitably, such a review dates
very quickly so that by the end of this research study, many changes will have occurred. This
chapter attempts to provide the state of the art of Educational Technology, both as a general
introduction to the field and as a gateway to the more comprehensive literature. By state of
the art is meant the examination of past, present and, to a lesser extent, future underpinnings
of the use of computers in the educational process. There are three aspects to this review: it is
1) descriptive inasmuch as it draws a general picture of the field and foregrounds its major
components; 2) historical in that it traces the development of the field since its inception; and
3) critical as it attempts an appraisal of the workings of Educational Technology in the light
of the current practices and prospective promises.
Educational Technology is an inherently multidisciplinary field of study, which draws

on a number of specialist areas including language-related disciplines such as Applied
Linguistics, Second Language Acquisition, and Language Learning Assessment, pedagogy-
related disciplines such as didactics, teaching methodology, and pedagogical psychology, and
computer-related disciplines such as Artificial Intelligence, Software Programming, and
Networking. Levy (1997:47-75) points out that 24 different disciplines have some influence
on the field. Educational Technology is intrinsically an umbrella term embracing many other
subparts. Perhaps the best way of introducing it is by presenting its major areas of interest and
its declared and tacit objectives.
The first of the three sections constituting this chapter attempts a dissection of
Educational Technology by looking into the various terminology definitions prevalent in the
literature. The second section narrows down the area of investigation to language education as
the major focus of the present thesis. The third section, on the other hand, tries to determine
the scope of computer-based education, both on-line and off-line.
I.1. The Growing Terminology of a Changing Educational Technology
Although Educational Technology is a contemporary field of study whose framework

and research agenda are as yet under way, it is important to note that it acquired maturity
during the last decade of the 20th century. Roughly speaking, Educational Technology
6
includes, but is not limited to, using computers in education. The word technology is so
broad that it can span the whole gamut of electronic teaching aids, from the low range tape
recorder and radio, to the middle range overhead projector and VCR, to the high range
computer and the Internet. As mentioned earlier, the label Educational Technology is a
cover term under the heading of which many concepts and components are subsumed (see
Figure 1.1 below). Due to the revolutionary evolution of information and communications
technology (henceforth ICT), many new-comers to the field find it quite difficult to come to
grips with these concepts.
The recurrence of certain acronyms in the literature constitutes the foundation of the
nomenclature of Educational Technology. A word of caution, however, should be said so as
not to fall in confusion: the technical lingo popularized by the computing world is downright
elusive to the novice, for there are nuances between the concepts. In fact, none of these
concepts is completely synonymous with Educational Technology. The procedure to follow in
the presentation of these terms is a straightforward one. A descending analysis from general to
specific is adopted.
In Serdiukov's (2000:iv) Thesaurus of Educational Technology Terms and Their

Collocations, there is an extensive definition of the term Educational Technology. It is
defined as:
... a system of technical, programming and didactic tools that are used in education
together with human and informational resources to construct individual and group
general and specific professional knowledge, to provide meaningful interaction
between students, teachers and teaching/learning materials, to mediate
communication and collaboration among people involved in the educational
process, and to develop particular competencies and skills on the basis of related
sciences, technologies and techniques with the goal of improving the efficiency and
quality of teaching, training and learning, of pedagogical research and school
management.
As can be noticed in this rather broad definition, Educational Technology covers three
levels of academic activity: 1) methods of course delivery, 2) research and development, and
3) curricular management. This definition is meant to specify what Educational Technology
includes and what it does not include. In this research study, the focus is placed on the first
level, i.e. the creative uses of technology (especially ICT) in the enhancement of the quality of
education. There are still two perspectives to be singled out at this level, namely general
education, which is more concerned with teaching and learning content subjects, and language
education, which is more concerned with teaching and learning linguistic content. As stated
7
earlier, technology extends to the full array of teaching/learning aids. Therefore, reference is
also made to a more specific term, namely Educational Computing although it is usually used
interchangeably with Educational Technology. Another closely related term typically coined
in Europe is Educational Informatics. Moreover, the terminology used in Educational
Computing or Educational Informatics does not directly include electronic and electric
devices such as the VCR or OHP although, as will be made clear in due course, the computer
integrates a variety of independent technologies and encompasses the whole gamut of
traditional devices.
Before getting into the constituent parts of this field, a distinction should be made
between Educational Technology and Technology Education. Paul (2000) provides a succinct
characterization:
Technology Education is a curriculum that involves more than just computers. It

includes technology use in careers and society, safety and ethical issues, the design
and engineering process, systems thinking, and information technologies. (...)
Educational technology consists of tools, such as computers, software, handheld or
other devices, that support teaching and learning. Ideally these tools are fully
integrated into the curriculum and not taught as an isolated topic. Educational
technology supports and improves the learning process.
However, Paul (op. cit.) finds it difficult to demarcate the boundaries of the two: While
it is easy to say technology education is a curriculum, and educational technology is a tool,
the lines arent so clean cut.
There is an on-going debate on the role that the computer should play in the educational
process. Furthermore, there are divergent views ranging from those considering the computer
as a mechanical tutor to those reckoning it as a tutoring tool. However, at this stage, it suffices
to look at it as a technological device that processes information and ensures communication
with other technological devices. In fact, the acronym ICT (Information and Communications
Technology) has become widely used in the world, thus replacing the dated IT (Information
Technology). Although many companies tend to keep calling the division in charge of
computer work as IT Departments, it is noted that ICT is the preferred term. In fact, a useful
distinction can be drawn between IT, which refers to hardware, software and data processing,
and ICT, which, in addition to what has been said for IT, refers to the convergence of various
information systems in multi-layer networks giving rise to communicating entities such as
Intranet, Ethernet, the Internet, etc.
8
No matter how rigorously educational technologists try to coin the terminology, some
inaccuracies and inconsistencies are bound to occur, given the constant state of flux
characterizing ICT. Perplexed by the growing maze of acronyms in the field, the language
teacher and the general reader will find the mastery of the terminology quite challenging. By
and large, the terms here defined are culled from the technological stock of Educational
Technology, which includes computer materials or functions. However, terms falling outside
the realm of Educational Technology (e.g. purely computer science terms) are eschewed.
Moreover, while some terms may seem flawed or partial, others are left to stand or fall on
their own merit. As this chapter also provides a historical overview of the development of the
field, it is important to know how Educational Technology has persevered in elaborating a
special jargon. So, some terms that are no longer used in current research may surface at
times, especially when the focus is on early stages of the development of the field. As the
terms are closely linked, they are not listed in alphabetically ordered entries. Rather, they are
brought to the fore as the decomposition of the field of Educational Technology unfolds and
as the invocation of particular concepts is deemed necessary. For the reader's convenience, all
technical words mentioned in this work are listed in alphabetical order in Appendix 1.
Perhaps the most well-known acronym of all Educational Technology terms is CALL,
which stands for Computer-Assisted Language Learning. Sometimes, CALL and Educational
Technology are used interchangeably in the literature even though, as shown in Figure 1.1, the
former is only a sub-branch of the latter.
9
Educational Technology
Educational
Computing
Computerized Computerized
Teaching Learning
General CAI/CBI CAL/CBL

Education
Language
CALI/CBLT CALL/CELL/TELL
Education
Teleteaching Telelearning
Distance
WBT/NBLT WBL/ NBLL/ WELL
Education
e-teaching e- learning
Figure 1.1: The branches of Educational Technology
The representation in Figure 1.1 makes a paradigmatic distinction between

computerized teaching and computerized learning on three different axes: general education,
language education, and distance education. As in many fields, particularly in the computer-
related disciplines, there is a proliferation of acronyms and terms in the literature referring to
the use of computers in education, thus there being bound to be some acronyms which
different people use to refer to different things. The acronym CALI is a clear case in point,
referring, as it can, to either Computer Assisted Language Instruction or Computer Assisted
Language Interaction. Contrary to what some applied linguists and educational technologists
do, no attempt to force particular meanings into terms will be made. Although there is an
inevitable overlap between different terms, the acronyms are explained in accordance with
what they actually stand for.
10
The first term to have appeared in the Educational Technology literature is computer-
assisted (sometimes -aided) instruction (CAI). The Oxford Dictionary of Computing (Pyne
and Tuck, 1996:57) defines CAI as the use of computers and programs for preparing lessons
and other materials for students. Pantiel and Peterson (1984:69-70) give a more extensive
definition:
... CAI, depending on who is using it, can mean anything from general use of
computers in the classroom to defining rather specific instructional applications of
computers in schools. (...) It is, specially the use of microcomputers as tools to
deliver traditional instructional activities. The key here is the word traditional,
which includes such time-tested methods as drill and practice, tutorials, and
simulations.
For Kaliski (1992:98), the emergence of CAI can be traced back to as early as the late
1950s in the United States, where it was adopted in the language centers of some universities.
For Wyatt (1984:1), however, CAI was first introduced in the early 1960s as a natural
outcome of the prevailing teaching methodology at that time. The term instruction here is
both significant and misleading. It reflects the teacher-centered trend in education made in
vogue by structuralist linguists and behaviorist educationalists (see section .... below), and it
gives the wrong impression that it is used only for teaching while most CAI systems are used
for drill and practice or review, and very seldom for actual instruction (Underwood 1984:38).
On the other hand, there is the acronym CAL, standing for computer-assisted (also -
aided) learning, which came as an alternative to CAI, which overlooked the learning side of
education. The Oxford Dictionary of Computing defines CAL as the use of computers and
programs for testing, practice and other ways of learning (p. 57). With the shift from teacher-
centeredness to learner-centeredness, there was a perceived need to make up for the
inaccuracy of the term CAI. Scientific objectivity requires that CAI and CAL be counterparts.
However, as noted earlier, the lack of rigor that characterized the early phases of Educational
Technology was manifested in the terminology. So, for some, the two terms were
synonymous (cf. Holmes, 1984). For Maddison (1982:67) still, CAL englobes CAI: the main
divide is between Computer Aided Instruction (CAI) where the computer controls the learner,
and the rest, sometimes called Computer Aided Learning (CAL). I prefer the practice of using
CAL for all use of computers in teaching, regarding CAI as part of CAL (emphasis in the
original). Other alternative acronyms to CAI and CAL are Computer-Based Instruction (CBI)
and Computer-Based Learning (CBL) respectively. However, these latter two terms were
rarely used in the literature.
11
The early 1980s was marked by the appearance of the most famous acronym in the field
hitherto: CALL. Levy (1997:1) defines it as the search for and study of applications of the
computer in language teaching and learning. While Levy insists on including teaching in the
definition of CALL, Hoven (1999:88) proposes Computer-Enhanced Language Learning
(CELL) as an alternative appellation in order to recognize the enhancing role that computers
play in the language learning process. Ruschoff (1997:232) puts forward Technology
Enhanced Language Learning (TELL) in preference to CALL so as to emphasize the
innovative potential of new technologies in general. The acronym TELL was first used in
the 1995 EUROCALL conference in Valencia, Spain. TELL has become popular recently
because it not only includes more types of technology than just computers, but also refers to
the enhancing role of the technology utilized. The word technology is so broad here, but in
this case it is equated with information technology or, more sensibly electronic media.
Although CALL, CELL and TELL make exclusive reference to language learning,
practitioners in the field tend to use them to mean both language teaching and language
learning. Other terms used in the literature, but this time from the teacher's standpoint, are
Computer-Assisted Language Instruction (CALI) and Computer-Based Language Teaching
(CBLT). A newly coined acronym favoring acquisition rather than learning or teaching is
CASLA (Computer Applications in Second Language Acquisition) proposed by Chapelle
(2001). This new acronym is thought to be inclusive in the sense that acquisition is the end-
result that any teaching or learning aspires to.
With the rise of the Internet and the expansion of telecommunications, new dimensions
are added to Educational Technology, thus opening up new horizons for (language) teaching
and learning. These new dimensions have brought about redefinition of various concepts in
the field of education at large. The advent of networked computing has made channels of
communication between the learning community more frequent, more powerful, and more
rewarding. Physical attendance in real four-wall classrooms is no longer necessary as contact
between students and teachers is now made feasible by telelearning and teleteaching.
Distance education has acquired some maturity and professionalism through computer-
mediated communication (CMC).
The term distance education has become something of a misnomer because of the
displaced area of function. Originally intended to cater for students disadvantaged by their
geographical remoteness from the learning site (school, university, etc.), distance education
has now become a convenient mode of study for many students, especially those with
12
employment commitments, even within a reachable location. The catalyst of this change is
obviously CMC. The latter is used to refer to any type of communication that occurs using a
networked computer, rather than a stand-alone workstation. Kaye (1991:5) defines CMC in
the pre-Web era as the use of computers and computer networks as communication tools by
people who are collaborating with each other to achieve a shared goal, which does not require
the physical presence or co-location of participants, and which can provide a forum for
continuous communication free of time constraints. Paulsen (1995a) provides a working
definition of CMC in the post-Web era: Transmission and reception of messages using
computers as input, storage, output, and routing devices. CMC includes information retrieval,
electronic mail, bulletin boards, and computer conferencing.
CMC, then, involves the use of other devices and services in addition to the computer.
Such devices include the modem, the router, the phone etc. connected with computers to form
Local Area Networks (LANs) or Wide Area Networks (WANs) in order to ensure
communication between various workstations at the local level such as a classroom or a
school, or at the regional level such as libraries and universities, or at the global level such as
the Internet. Zhner (1996) speaks of Network-based Language Learning (NBLL) as a mode
triggered by the need for learning paradigms to take account of variations in learners goals,
needs, environments, and time and geographical constraints. On the other hand, Levy (1997)
speaks of Network-Based Language Teaching (NBLT) as a new mode of language teaching,
where the teachers avail themselves of the full range of teaching facilities provided by CMC
in LAN and WAN contexts. A computer connected to a network of computers and servers has
the potential to become an effective tool for both teachers and students.
The World Wide Web (WWW) is a resourceful platform for teachers and students who
can take advantage of the various services it provides to enhance their teaching/learning. It
has now become a medium of course delivery, thus giving rise to a new mode of teaching
termed Web-Based Teaching (WBT). On the learning side, there is Web-Based Learning
(WBL) as an online mode of general education and Web Enhanced Language Learning
(WELL) as an online mode of language education. Online here refers to the fact of being
connected with computers that are controlled by, or can communicate with other computers as
is the case in Internet connections. Chapelle (2000) makes a persuasive claim that Network-
Based Learning (NBL) is incorporated in CALL. Many ELT/ EFL publishing houses such as
Pearson Education, Cambridge, Macmillan, etc. have now started to supplement their course
book publications with what is referred to as companion websites. Every course book that
13
has come out since 2000 has a companion website of its own (See a list of selected companion
websites in Appendix 3).
Other terms denoting network-based distance education and that are being tossed
around among practitioners in the field include distributed learning. The latter refers to
features of a learner-centered environment which integrates a number of technologies by
means of which both synchronous (real time) and asynchronous (deferred) communication
is made feasible between students and teachers. The model is, in fact, based on combining a
choice of appropriate technologies with aspects of onsite-based delivery, open learning
systems and distance education. With the impact of ICT, it is not unusual to hear people
talking about e-learning and e-teaching on a par with e-business. The prefix e-, which is an
abbreviation for electronic, is attached to some terms to indicate that activities involved in
the model in question are based on electronic media technologies such as E-mail (electronic
mail), Listservs (automated mailing lists), MOO (MUD (Multi-User Dungeon) Object
Oriented), IRC (Internet Relay Chat), to cite but three.
Programmed learning initiated in the 1960s by behaviorist educationalists has

survived but under the current guise of Integrated Learning Systems (ILSs), which refer to
computer-based programs of studies covering basic learning areas such as numeracy and
literacy. Ager (1998:89) states that an ILS is made up of the content, a system for recording
individual responses and a management system. The content in most ILSs at the moment
relates to numeracy and literacy skills where the work can be arranged hierarchically.
With the application of the findings of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in computer-based

education, new concepts within Educational Technology in general and CALL in particular
have emerged. These include Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITSs), which, like ILSs, refer to
programs covering basic learning areas but using advanced features such as voice-recognition
(VR), automated speech generation (ASG) and natural language processing (NLP). Nagata
(1993) refers to I-CALI (Intelligent-Computer-Assisted Language Instruction), Bull (1994)
and Oxford (1994) make use of the acronym ICALL (Intelligent Computer-Assisted
Language Learning). Swartz (1990) uses another AI-based conceptual referent, namely
FLITS (Foreign Language Intelligent Tutoring System). This group of acronyms reflects the
general trend towards incorporating automatic question provision and answer evaluation
through the computer. For purposes of convenience, the term ICALL has been widely used in
14
the literature to refer to all programs using AI in the processing and monitoring of language
learning.
As Lian (1992:67) describes it, AI in a CALL context typically [...] is thought of as

synonymous with the implementation of highly complex programs which simulate human
intelligence or which perform tasks that would require intelligence if performed by human
beings. Early ICALL has shown that computers can interactively react to learner input, but
only in a limited semantic field. If non-intelligent CALL is composed of uncontextualized
content cut off from the normal situational use of language, ICALL is meant to make up for
the inadequacy of the former by producing virtually real language rather than just analyzing
textual input and generating a preprogrammed output. In other words, CALL programs that
respond to learner input with vague feedback such as right and wrong, try again are less
intelligent than those that track learner performance and work out suitable patterns,
responding not only with whether the answer was right or wrong, but also, and more
importantly, why it was so, giving context-bound explanation and offering suggestions for
follow-up study.
Educational software whether it incorporates AI features or not is technically referred to

as courseware. The term has been coined to distinguish software with instructional content
from other types of computer programs. Designing courseware requires specialized
knowledge in software engineering, especially mastering a computer programming language.
On the other hand, there is the so-called authorware, which is also a case of educational
software, but which allows for teacher input. Contrary to courseware, authorware does not
require any specialized knowledge in programming as it provides a ready-made template for
the course designer/teacher to incorporate her or his own content, which is then molded into a
CALL lesson that the learner can use interactively.
Educational software is usually run from a movable storage device such as a CD-ROM
(Compact Disk Read-Only Memory) or a floppy disk (also diskette) in earlier stages of
CALL. However, some courseware can be run from a servers hard disk, especially in the
case of networked applications and web-based learning systems. Examples of courseware of
every type are given in section I.3. below. Other systems, especially those designed for
staff/in-service training, use a combination of both, i.e. content stored on a CD-ROM and
login identification, record tracking and course management run from a distant server. With
the advent of e-learning, the management of content as well as records is effected on complex
15
platforms whose location is not so important as what it is able to do. E-learning servers may
be mirrored on many different places, as their administrators cannot afford hazardous
breakdowns especially that most e-learning providers deal with many institutions and
companies worldwide.
Almost all present-day courseware stored on CD-ROMs utilizes multimedia and

hypermedia. Because of the interplay between the two concepts, these two terms are
sometimes confused. Some educationalists regard them as being synonymous and others
presume that hypermedia is a blending combination of hypertext and multimedia. As a
matter of fact, the scope of the two terms has undergone some change as a result of the
breakthroughs achieved in computing. However, a distinctive definition of each term is not
out of reach. A unanimously accepted definition of multimedia might be: the integrative use
of multiple media such as text, graphics, animation, audio and video playback in courseware.
Hypermedia, however, refers to the non-linear interrelation of media so that a program can be
used as a host site for other external applications by means of cross-referential hyperlinks.
The assessment side of education has also drawn from the potential of the computer to
deliver and store tests on the one hand, and to keep track of individual learner development on
the other hand. Recurrent terms in computer-mediated assessment include CBT (computer-
based testing) and CAT (computer-adaptive testing). While CBT refers to the use of
computers in the assessment process with the aim of relieving the teacher of the drudge
associated with the development, administration and scoring of tests, CAT has to do with the
mode of testing itself. In the latter case, the computer gauges the testees reactions to question
items while the test is in progress so as to adapt testing to every testees skill level.
The invocation of various concepts in Educational Technology in the foregoing was

meant to bring to the fore, define and explain the recurrent terms in the field. Too technical
computerese was avoided in order to focus on purely educational computing terminology,
which is characterized by diversity and subtlety. Other buzz terms that were not mentioned in
this section include electronic highway, information superhighway, digital
infrastructure and information society whose meanings are widely known given their
frequent use in the media and other fields. With respect to terms directly related to language
education, CALL has stood out as an overarching concept encapsulating the nuances and
subtleties that have plagued other terms, in part because some of the standing institutions in
the area adopted it (e.g. EUROCALL, ReCALL etc.).
16
To recapitulate, some terms are used in the broader education sense, such as CAL
(Computer Assisted Learning), CBL (Computer Based Learning), CBI (Computer Based
Instruction), CAI (Computer Assisted Instruction), and CML (Computer Managed Learning),
while others are more specific as they refer to language education such as CALL (Computer-
Assisted Language Learning), CALI (Computer-Assisted Language Instruction) and
sometimes even more specific as when they refer to the language being taught/learned as is
case for CALL (Computer Assisted English Language Learning). In addition to this
distinction drawn between general education and language education, the terms are coined
based on the standpoint of one of the three components involved in the process: the teacher,
the learner, or the computer. The role of the computer in learning as embodied by these terms
is mainly that of manager of the learning process. To put it differently, the pedagogy
adopted in the courseware tends to be machine-driven, rather than learner-driven (Garrett
1987:170), or, as one would expect, learning-driven (Kumaravadivelu, 1993).
I.2. Educational Technology and Language Education
The purpose of this section is to summarize the progress to date in the field of
Educational Technology, with a particular focus on CALL. As mentioned earlier, Educational
Technology covers both general education and language education. By general education is
meant content-based learning and teaching including literature courses such as poetry, fiction
and drama, science courses such as math, physics, and chemistry, and engineering courses
such as mechanics, electronics, and aeronautics. All these courses use language to deliver
content, so sequential order of instruction presupposes mastery of a particular language,
especially one in which they will be learned/taught, before any content-based education is
possible. Mastery of language is the ultimate objective that language education sets for itself.
In the remainder of this thesis, focus will be mainly placed on the various uses of computers
in language teaching and learning and the implications thereof.
Anybody who has been involved in training and education for any length of time knows
that the dream of using a machine to teach, test and manage the instructional process is not
new. In the 1950s, Skinner, a founding father of behaviorist psychology, recognized the
emerging potential of mainframe computers and wrote extensively on their application to
training and education. So, at the outset, the use of computers in language education was very
restricted. Learning systems of the time focused on the study of structures in the belief that
computers could not handle other areas of language or in the conviction that the teacher
17
should still have the same predominant role she had been playing before. This is in addition to
the technical limitations of the computers of the time. Multimedia had not seen light yet and
so the oral language skills (listening and speaking) could not be developed by means of the
computer. The programs focused mainly on grammar, while practice took the form of drill
activities. Another characteristic of the era was that the notion of physical space was still
weighing upon the teaching and learning as a whole. Learning was thought to occur within the
confines of the classroom or laboratory. It is only with the emergence of multimedia and later
of the Internet that the notion of physical space has started to change. What is amazing here is
that changes affected both language teaching methodology and computer science, both
underlying the field of Educational Technology, which has culminated in a revolution of
education and its concomitant concepts such as the classroom, the teacher, and the
coursebook.
I.2.1. Teacher-Centered Versus Learner-Centered Educational Technology
It seems that the teacher-centered mode of instruction, as distinct from a learner-

centered non-directive teaching mode, is the dominant form encountered by students, over the
course of most of their studies. The former, based on mass lectures and tutorials, has become
associated with, and typically characterizes, traditional teaching.
In the teacher-centered model of instruction, the teacher is held responsible for the
progress of the class or for the lack thereof. At the end of a program of study, the teacher
grades the students and decides who should pass or fail. No matter how learner-centered the
teacher tries to be, success in class will always depend, to a very large extent, on the learner.
Is the teacher therefore indispensable in the language classroom? There should be no
equivocal answer. The teacher needs to be somewhere out there - not necessarily in the
classroom - to help learners learn while, among other things, making use of whatever tool
available to enhance the retention and acquisition of information. So if we assume that
teaching facilitates learning, then what the learner does should be more important than what
the teacher does in the classroom. Arguably, it is true is that teaching need not always be done
by a human teacher in a given place. No claim, however, is made that computers or any other
invention can take over the place of the human teacher. More will be said about the new roles
of the teacher in the ICT-driven global education later in this thesis (cf. VI.2.2.1).
18
In a teacher-centered model of instruction, the teacher acts as a sage on the stage and
the learner as a passive recipient. In a learner-centered environment, however, the teacher acts
as a guide on the side and the learner as controller of learning. The rationale behind the
invocation of this dichotomy is to consider the transformations that are bound to occur in the
educational process in the wake of the integration of the computer.
Before a computer, a student has total control of her learning. She can do whatever she
thinks will improve her level of proficiency. The teacher can follow synchronously or
asynchronously the activities which students are doing. Based on the assumption that every
learner is unique in her language learning aptitude, cognitive styles and strategies (cf. Dickson
1987), learner-centeredness imposes itself as an alternative model to the classical teacher-led
mode of teaching.
Two concepts are invoked when reference is made to learner-centeredness: (i) learner
autonomy, and (ii) self-instruction. For Dickson (1987), learner autonomy is an attitude
toward the learning process, whereas self-instruction is a mode of learning. Holec (1988)
defines these two aspects as capacity and practice. Autonomous learners take the
responsibility of their own learning and decide what, how and when to learn. This is what
Dickson (1987:11) has referred to as self-direction, which he defines as a particular attitude
toward the learning task, where the learner accepts responsibility for all the decisions
concerned with [her/] his learning but does not necessarily undertake the implementation of
those decisions. Dickson further fine-tunes learner autonomy by contending that the student
has to go through several stages before she can be said to be fully autonomous. In full
autonomy there is no involvement of a teacher or institution [and] the learner is also
independent of specially prepared materials (Dickson, 1987:11).
In line with this is Littlewoods (1996) statement that an autonomous person is one who
has the ability and willingness to act independently and decisively. In other words, an
autonomous student is one who is capable of making her own choices and carrying out her
intended actions. For Littlewood (op. cit.), students can achieve autonomy in three areas:
communication, learning and personal life. A communicators autonomy is developed through
the communication strategies adopted and linguistic creativity shown. As a learner, the
student achieves autonomy through the development of learning strategies and independent
work habits. The autonomy of the student as a person, which goes beyond the educational
19
sphere to include all types of learning, depends on the creation of personal learning contexts
and the expression of personal meanings.
According to Nunan (1995), there are five levels in learner-centeredness:
1. Awareness: Learners identify strategy implications of pedagogical tasks and identify their
own preferred learning styles/strategies.
2. Involvement: Learners make choices among a range of options.
3. Intervention: Learners modify / adapt tasks.
4. Creation: Learners create their own tasks.
5. Transcendence: Learners become teachers and researchers.
Following Nunans five levels of learner centredness, in order to be an independent

learner one has to be aware of ones learning style and identify learning strategies. For Ngeow
(1999), learners who are more conscious of their learning styles make better use of learning
opportunities. Soo (1999) defines learning style as an individuals natural, habitual, and
preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing and retaining new information and skills. Learning
strategy is the learners knowledge of how she can best learn. This knowledge is about how a
problem solving situation is effectively dealt with or about the implementation of specific
tasks in an efficient way. This knowledge is thought to precede independent learning
(Dickson, 1987).
Autonomous learning does not obviously mean studying in isolation. On the contrary, it
involves teachers, but with roles different from those played in the teacher-centered
instructional mode. Here their role is more of a guide, facilitator or counselor. The less the
teacher takes control of the learning of her students, the closer the learner and teacher become,
making it possible for learners to ask for help. Peer support is also a key element of learner-
centeredness: membership in a group of peers who are all striving towards similar ends and
struggling with similar difficulties is extremely helpful in upkeeping confidence and
determination.
I.2.1.1. Computer-Assisted Instruction
As mentioned in section 1.1., the term CAI is the first term to have been used to refer to
the use of the computer in education (late 1950s / early 1960s). With the reference that it
20
makes to instruction, it is said to reflect the trend at the time. Pantiels and Petersons
(1984) account of CAI is a corroborative definition. For them, CAI refers to the use of
computers as tools to deliver traditional instructional activities. By traditional they
obviously mean those techniques used by the teacher to deliver courses by means of lectures,
tutorials, drills and the like. Although one may deduce that CAI is a teachers tool, it is, in
fact, more a learners tool than it is a teachers. If Zhao (2000) calls it the teachers
machine, it is only to show that the teacher is the person who manages access to computers.
Most of the time, computers are ensconced in secure labs, in some corner in the classroom, or
on the teachers desk. It is then up to the teacher to decide when to use them, how to use them,
what to use them for, and who will use them.
The appellation is basically attributed to the prevailing theories of language learning and
the methodologies of teaching based on them. Behaviorism and structuralism laid the
foundation of teacher-centered methodology of instruction. Underwood (1984:38) notes that
CAI is a misnomer given that most CAI systems are used for drill and practice or review,
and very seldom for actual instruction. The view of the computer as the teachers tool led to
some undesirable practices (...) that move us away from our intended goals (Zhao, op. cit.).
Robyler et al. (1988), who provide a comprehensive review on CAI, contend that the
research base thereof suggests consistent effectiveness for CAI in:
reducing the amount of time for learning of subject matter,
boosting students attitudes to using computers while noting improved academic

motivation,
the subject areas of science, mathematical and cognitive skills seemed to be those in
which most beneficial learning effects were achieved,
tutorial-type courseware, which seemed to work for secondary students,
considering CAI as a supplement to, rather than as a replacement for, teacher-based

instruction of younger learners,
achievement rates and differences.
However, they were not optimistic about second language instruction, saying ... the
overall picture in studies of CAI with Spanish-speaking students suggests that CAI does not
have advantages over other methods in learning English skills (1988:100).
21
Zhao (2000) refers to some practices in CAI that are still recurring in todays
educational settings:
First, drill-and-practice programs are still by far the most common in classrooms.
Applications (e.g., PowerPoint) that help them do presentations are the most popular
among teachers. Further, we routinely find teachers having students compose and
revise their writings with paper and pencil instead of a word processor. Only when
the writing is complete are students allowed to type and print it. The idea is to
improve appearance rather than use the computer to assist writing, in the way it is
used in the real world.
Zhao (op. cit.) also goes on to describe the position of the computer in a teacher-
centered model of instruction as follows:
The teacher-centered configurations and practices of technology teach students to be

serious about the computer [,thus ceasing] to be an object of fascination and
imagination. It is reduced to a tool -- the teachers tool. It is something students have
to learn to improve their grades, something they have to put up with to please their
teacher. Much of what students do with the computer is well structured and
supervised, such as very low-level keyboarding or simple restricted Web searches.
As can be noted in the foregoing discussion of CAI practices by observers of instructor-

led teaching, when the computer is used as a teachers tool, little benefit is drawn from it in
favor of the learner. It is rather used as a managing device by the teacher to manage students
and courses and, to a lesser extent, devise activities for various skill levels; which activities
are themselves molded on the traditional approach of instruction.
I.2.1.2. Computer-Assisted Learning
Contrary to what has been said about CAI, computer assisted learning purports to
compensate for the inadequacy of the model underlying CAI in that it seeks to put the learner
at the pivot of the process of education.
According to Joyce, Weil and Showers (1992:1-2),
how teaching is conducted has a large impact on students abilities to educate

themselves. Successful teachers are not simply charismatic, persuasive and expert
presenters. Rather, they present powerful cognitive and social tasks to their students
and teach the students how to make productive use of them. (...) Although learning to
lecture clearly and knowledgeably is highly desirable it is the learner who does the
learning.
In such a state of affairs, the learner sees herself as the target of education policies,
which helps her boost the motivation. If in highly selective institutions lecturing worked well,
it is questionable how such a mode would deliver the goods with regard to meeting the
22
various needs of diverse classes in non-selective institutions. In such a situation, the best bet
would be to resort to ICT to resolve the rising issues of instructor-led education.
Some teachers who happen to have had the chance to use ICT in their teaching use it in
a traditional teacher-centered mode, such as drill and practice for mastery of facts and
content or as tutorials to supplement teacher-led tasks. Other teachers use ICT to support
different, more student-centered approaches to teaching, in which they assume the role of
facilitator or coach while students conduct their own projects or engage in collaborative
activities. The latter kinds of teachers are among the most enthusiastic technology users, since
ICT lends itself well to support this kind of teaching.
Prosser and Trigwell (1998) refer to teacher-focused strategies and student-focused

strategies as distinctive features of the two models of teaching. For them, while teacher-
focused strategies hinge on transmission theories of teaching, student-focused strategies seek
to induce conceptual change in students perception of learning in an attempt to raise their
awareness about their responsibility for their own training and learning. In the learner-
centered model, the major responsibility for effective learning is incumbent on the student.
Therefore, one should ask not so much what the student does as what the teacher does in the
classroom.
Zhao (2000) describes the position of the computer in a learner-centered model of

instruction.
We could view the computer as the students machine -- one that students can use to
solve their problems and that can help them do things better -- a machine each
student can play with.
CAL allocates more flow of control to the learners. The computer is put at the
disposal of the learners in order to best exploit it at their own benefit. Nunan (1995:155)
argues that it is the learner who must remain at the centre of the process, for no matter how
much energy and effort we expend, it is the learner who has to do the learning. Along the
same line, Shuell (1996:429) asserts that learner-centeredness revolves around the outcome of
the process: what the student does is actually more important in determining what is learned
than what the teacher does. Changes in teaching approach and methodology are due to the
focus on the learner as a responsible individual, a shift from a focus on instruction to a focus
on learners and learning, consideration of differences in learning styles, and the rise of
humanism. The learner-centered mode focuses on providing learners with opportunities to
23
model, practice, and acquire skills and processes commensurate with their learning needs. For
Omaggio (2001), the shift from a teacher-centered to a learner-centered mode of learning
entails not only responsibly of ones own learning but also the development of learner
independence and autonomy, thus following principles of communicative language learning.
Such shift in perspective can also be seen in the approach adopted by many courseware
designers who give more room for learner customization and less for teacher control.
I.2.2. Technico-pedagogical Development of CALL
This section does not by any means attempt to provide a comprehensive history of the
development of CALL. It, however, seeks to shed light on some of the most important stages
in the process of integrating ICT in language teaching and learning. The following discussion
intends only to introduce a few key dates, concepts and perspectives on the history of the
relationship between pedagogy and technology. Coming at the turn of the century, this study
has enough background on which to base a fair run-down on the historical development of
CALL, especially that the latter has acquired a maturity in the last decade of the previous
century.
Indicators attesting to this maturity include inter alia the conspicuous proliferation of
specialized organizations in the 1990's (See Appendix 4 for an extended selection of those
organizations), the considerable number of conferences held in various places around the
world, the voluminous body of publications devoted to Educational Technology in the form of
books and journals both paper-based and electronic, and the sponsored research projects
conducted by many CALL specialists. Needless to say that the 1990s witnessed a major
revolution in computing, which CALL practitioners have harnessed as a source of solutions
that would widen the horizons of a fast-growing field.
As a matter of fact, the growth of CALL, being affected by developments in Applied

Linguistics and Computer Science, has been marked by a major revolution in
telecommunications, which has subverted many traditional systems and undermined many
age-old hard-line notions such as space, distance, and boundary, to cite but these. The aims of
language learning have changed over time. Indeed, the rise of a variety of approaches to
language teaching is mainly attributed to the divergence of opinion in the long-debated
theories of learning. As Applied Linguistics is directly concerned with those approaches and
theories, it, therefore, draws on its conceptual base from the study of theoretical linguistics
24
and psychology. It follows then that the evolution of CALL is marked by the multi-directional
developments in those key disciplines as well.
Warschauer (1998:57) suggests that the evolution of CALL can be roughly divided
into three main stages: behavioristic CALL, communicative CALL, and integrative CALL.
Each stage corresponds to a certain level of technology as well as a certain pedagogical
approach. This paradigm is useful inasmuch as it encompasses the generally accepted
principle that the development of CALL mirrors that of technology and that of linguistic and
didactic sciences. A relevant question to be asked in this respect is: what is it that dictates a
specific trend in CALL? Is it the development of Information Technology?, the development
of (Applied) Linguistics?, or both? Garrett (1991:75) asserts that the use of the computer
does not constitute a method (...) [but rather a] medium in which a variety of methods,
approaches, and pedagogical philosophies may be implemented. In the same tone, Hagen
(1993:11) points out that technology should be seen as the servant of the curriculum, rather
than its master, and its place in the curriculum as a response to the learners interest and
needs. Box (2003) believes that for CALL to be successful, it is important that sound
pedagogical principles are in place. Warschauer (2000) is of the view that ... technology can
be bent to serve the particular purposes and beliefs of individual teachers and the contexts of
their institutions (...). A teacher who favors structuralism will use technology in a structural
way. Teachers who favor constructivist or critical approaches will similarly find ways to use
technology to further their ends.
What seems rather sensible is that ICT lends itself easily to theories that consider
language as a mechanical skill and teaching as a task based solely on structures. As it will be
discussed below, this view is behind the decline of many computer-based language learning
systems devised at the time when behaviorist didactics and structural linguistics were in
vogue. The present study is based on the premise that since language teaching is both an art
and a science, only the scientific side of it can be handled by the computer, and that the
artistic side is best handled by the human teacher, thus advocating a blended method (cf.
Chapters III, and VI).
The following table shows remarkable turning-points in the fields affecting the
development of CALL. It should also roughly indicate the type of interplay existing among
the trends in all disciplines.
25
Information
Linguistics Didactics
technology
Computer
Linguistic theory Learning theory Teaching method
configuration
50s Mid 70s Structuralism Behaviorism Audiolingualism Mainframe
Communicative Micro-computer
Early 70s Late 80s Generativism (Socio-)cognitivism
methods (PC/Mac)
Networked Multimedia
Early 90s 2000s Minimalism Constructivism Eclecticism
Computer
Table 1.1: The historical development of the disciplines influencing CALL.
The history of CALL followed a series of phases or drives which were largely led by
various considerations. Warschauers (1998) taxonomy, which divides CALL into
behavioristic, communicative, and integrative, is based on the didactic changes while ignoring
the difference between theories of language learning and language teaching methodology.
Although this taxonomy might be useful in that CALL is closer to didactics than it is to
Linguistics or Information Technology, in what follows, reference will be made to three major
historical periods marked by developments in all those influential fields.
I.2.2.1. 50s Mid 70s
Under the influence of structural linguistics and behavioral psychology, this period was
marked by an increased attention to foreign language teaching, especially in the United States.
This attention was motivated among other things by defense considerations in a post-W.W.II
world dominated by a bipolar tension between the USA and the USSR. The US government
needed to train personnel who could speak the languages of the allies and adversaries and
translate documents of importance. At this particular period, Linguistics started to emerge as a
rigorous academic discipline after it had severed connection with philology, which concerned
itself only with the study of the origin of Language and its evolution over time. The concern
of philology was kept in the term diachronic linguistics as described by the father of
structuralism, Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure who opposed it to synchronic
linguistics, the study of the contemporary use of language. As reported by Levy (1997),
26
Stern (1983:169) describes the period of the 1960s as characterized by pedagogically
audiolingualism, psychologically behaviorism, linguistically structuralism.
Structuralist linguists consider language as a system of structurally related components

used in the encoding of meaning. Therefore, it was assumed that any language teaching
endeavor should be geared towards mastering those components. Frisby (1957:134) endorses
a method of teaching English as a foreign language, which he says is based on word order,
structural words, the few inflections of English, and content words. English language
teaching focused on studying the phonetic, morphological and syntactic systems underlying
the grammar of English. Those subsystems, it was believed, constitute the building-blocks of
language, and, therefore, learning them entails acquiring the rules governing the linear build-
up of utterances, from phoneme to sentence passing through morpheme, word, phrase, and
clause. As English may be structurally different from the language of the learner, it was
believed that carrying out a contrastive analysis of the two languages was essential in an
attempt to predict potential problems having to do with negative transfer and prepare teaching
materials accordingly. In addition to this, there was a notion of situation promulgated by
British linguists such as Pittman (1963), who believes that the main activity in English
language teaching is the oral practice of structures. He goes on to say that this oral practice
of controlled sentence patterns should be given in situations designed to give the greatest
amount of practice in English speech [to the learner] (p. 179).
The theory of learning underlying this structural view of language draws on

behaviorism, a trend in psychology founded long before this period by John B. Watson in
1925. Skinner then became a prominent figure in (Applied) Linguistics thanks to his
application of behaviorism to learning in the 1950s. Behaviorists claimed to have accounted
for all human learning, including language learning. They regard language as a set of habits to
be learned through imitation of structured well-prepared patterns. For learning to take place,
the following crucial elements should be effected: a stimulus triggering a response, which is
either reinforced or suppressed (cf. Skinner 1957). In other words, behaviorist educationalists
viewed language learning as a process of mechanical habit formation achieved by acquiring a
set of reinforced stimulus-response chains of speech.
Structuralism and behaviorism laid the foundations for an approach that came to be
known as Audiolingualism. According to the latter, memorizing dialogues and drilling
patterns of language reduce the probability of making mistakes, thus increasing the level of
27
retention. Presenting language skills in oral form initially was believed to be a key to
achieving mastery of a foreign language effectively because, as Brooks (1964:50) assumed,
language is primarily what is spoken and only secondarily what is written. Reading and
writing are then introduced later in the process after some learning has been ensured. Fist and
foremost, the learner has to be completely familiar with sounds, arrangement patterns, and
syntactic forms. Only then can she/he center [her/] his attention on enlarging [her/] his
vocabulary. (...) Throughout [she/] he concentrates upon gaining accuracy before striving for
fluency (Brooks 1964:50).
Audiolingualism peaked in the 1960s. At this particular period, Skinner advocated

programmed instruction and his works would have a lasting influence on the use of machines
in education, hence the vogue of language labs at the time. In fact, in 1961, the first language
laboratory was established in an educational institution in Britain. Based on behaviorism and
structuralism, drills in the language lab were assumed to be the best way for learners to
relieve their tied-tongues of the unfamiliar sounds of the new language and to fix sentence
patterns in their heads. The setting was predominantly led by the teacher who sits in control at
the language lab console. This approach owed much to programmed learning promulgated
by Skinner.
Computers were not widespread at the beginning of this period; they would only
become so later in the 1970s when Apple and Microsoft were set up. At this period, however,
people talked more about mainframe terminals than about computers. These were large
devices that performed instructions and stored information to a limited capacity. A few
configurations surfaced as the transistor and the integrated circuit were invented. In 1951,
UNIVAC came to be the first mainframe computer to be commercialized. Three years later,
IBM put its first computer (IBM650) on the market on a large scale.
The emergence of computers prompted Skinner to study their potential; thus, he wrote
extensively on their application to teaching and learning. The use of computer software to
facilitate language learning began in the 1960s with mainframe-based drills. Teachers got
quite excited about this latest form of technology awaiting them. In parallel, the 1960s and
1970s saw a rapid growth in language labs, bolstered by the then-fashionable audiolingual
approach to language teaching. The computer was thought to have the potential to allow
students to use the learning styles they prefer, and to proceed through programmed learning at
their own pace, with instantaneous correction, explanation, and reinforcement. As an
28
embodiment of the interplay between (Applied) Linguistics and computer technology of the
time, the first computer-based learning system ever came into being. This system, which was
built by a team of engineers and teachers at the University of Illinois in 1960, was called
PLATO, which is short for Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations.
The system provided stimulus-response-modeled teaching in the form of drills on

pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary. If this was one of the duties or roles of the teacher
under the audiolingual paradigm, then it follows that the computer may easily be able to
assume this role. Be that as it may, the role that the computer played in the classroom was so
minimal. Students typically went to secluded language labs in order to complete the drills and
pattern exercises while valuable class time was spent on controlled oral practice and the
study of error-free structures. Students learn vocabulary items and phrases to the point of
automaticity, through stimulus-response techniques and pattern drills. The computer simply
provided tasks from a pre-existing pool of language practice items and gave general,
impersonal feedback. This was obviously done in a text-only environment, with no illustration
or animation of any kind. Thanks to its ease of use, made possible by the existence of an
authoring language, PLATO made significant progress during the 70s by adding sophisticated
mechanisms such as Text to Speech Synthesis. The point to be made here is that the
development of the system was motivated by practical rather than theoretical concerns. In
fact, Levy (1997:17) describes PLATO as a ground-breaking project in numerous ways, and,
whatever its limitations, it was the first project to engage language teachers and technical staff
in the development of CALL materials in a coordinated way. For this reason, the system will
survive even after the decline of Audiolingualism (see following section).
Another system that appeared in this period and that tried to rival PLATOs renown is
what would eventually be called TICCIT. Initially, in 1967, MITRE, a private corporation,
embarked on the task of devising an instructional system combining the recently developed
mini-computer with television technology and promising to deliver individually controlled
instructional material to large numbers of users. This system was called Time-shared,
Interactive, Computer-Controlled Educational Television or TICCET for short. As of the
beginning of the 1970s, the system was renamed TICCIT (Time-shared, Interactive,
Computer-Controlled, Information Television), after it had been upgraded.
As stated in Ahmad et al (1985:28) the late 60s and early 70s are of particular
historical importance to CALL. This type of CALL (or CAI to be more precise), no matter
29
how gratifying it was, remained an insignificant alternative for language learning until the
spread of the microcomputer in educational circles in the early 1980s. On the other hand,
although the theories underlying Audiolingualism had since been undermined, the language
labs, regardless of the low student turnout, went on being used ahead of their times and
educational institutions across the world systematically included labs as part of any English
learning program (Strei, 1979).
I.2.2.2. Early 70s Late 80s
In the very heyday of Audiolingualism, the attack on its theoretical foundations was
under way. Many opponents of this model were provoked by Skinners influential book
Verbal Behavior, published in 1957. Among them there was Chomsky, who, in the same
year, published Syntactic Structures, a seminal book whose influence was remarkable for
many years to come. The criticisms leveled at Audiolingualism were motivated by what
Chomsly and his followers considered flaws in the language theory and the learning theory
underlying it. In addition, many teachers adopting the audiolingual method were disappointed
by the modest achievement of their students, who often failed to transfer what they learned to
the real world. Chomsky vehemently rejected the structuralist approach to language, the
behaviorist approach to learning, and the audiolingual method to teaching. He proposed a
theory, couched in cognitive-code learning terms, which stipulates that the fundamental
properties of language emanate from innate aspects of the brain and from the way human
beings perceive and interact with the outside world through the medium of language.
This new movement of linguistics came to be variously known as transformational,

generative, or transformational-generative grammar. The transformation referred to here has
to do with how rules governing language (deep structure) generate utterances (surface
structure). For Chomsky, language is not acquired through imitation and repetition, but,
rather, it is generated from an underlying set of abstract rules, which, in turn, are derived from
innate cerebral and cognitive powers. To put it differently, linguistic competence is innate
and learners only have to acquire a limited set of rules that can be used recursively to produce
endless numbers of sentences. This cognitive approach viewed language learning not as a
stimulus-response process, but as an active process of generation and transformation of
knowledge.
30
At the time when Chomsky proposed an alternative linguistic theory and eventually a
sound learning theory, no clear-cut second/foreign language teaching methodology endorsing
his views emerged. The lack of an alternative to Audiolingualism in language teaching at that
time led, according to Richards and Rodgers (1986:60), to a period of adaptation, innovation,
experimentation, and some confusion. By the beginning of the 70s, a new line of thought
termed the communicative approach started to take shape and would later give rise to
several communicative methods. This new trend was generally attributed to Hymes (1972)
who introduced the notion of communicative competence as opposed to Chomskyan
linguistic competence in an attempt to make up for the inadequacy of Chomskys theory
which failed to account fully for the influence of social and cultural context on the semantic
and structural aspects of language.
Other influential studies (e.g. Gattegno 1972, Curran 1972, Wilkins 1976, Asher 1977,
Lozanov 1978, Widdowson 1978, Brumfit & Johnson 1979, Krashen 1981, Terrell 1982, etc.)
which sealed the prevalence of Communicative Language Teaching followed. Although they
differ in strategy, they have many features in common: meaningful rather than mechanical
practice, inductive rather than explicit presentation of grammar, exclusive use of the language
being learned, focus on fluency rather than accuracy, etc. With a humanist perspective, these
communicative methods put the learner at the center of their concern and seek to help her/him
achieve communicative competence, i.e. the ability to communicate effectively with other
speakers in the real world taking into account the context of the conversation. For this reason,
teaching materials need to be authentic and meaning negotiated in context. This trend in
teaching was influenced by Krashens and Terrells (1983) The Natural Approach, whose
main thrust is that learners acquire language items in a predictable natural order, and for this
acquisition to be effective, incremental doses of comprehensible linguistic input should
ideally be presented in relaxed situations. Making mistakes in such a context is considered a
natural by-product of creative linguistic performance.
If the period between the 1970s and the 1980s was characterized by the rise of three
interdependent theories: the Generative Theory in linguistics, the Cognitive Theory in
language learning, and the Communicative Theory in teaching, then a relevant question to be
asked is: what type of computer technology prevailed at the time? As mentioned in the
previous subsection, the invention of miniaturized integrated circuits would revolutionize the
computer industry, especially with regard to the size and, by extension, the range of utility of
the computer. In 1969, a group of engineers invented the first microprocessor, a general-
31
purpose, mass-produced chip with the processing power of the mainframe. This chip,
however, needs software (a set of instructions) and hardware (input and output devices) to
make up a working system. A year later, Intel developed memory chips that could store data
to be processed; thus, the microcomputer was born. Networking, developed earlier, started to
be used purposefully, and the US Department (Ministry) of Defense devised its first network
of computers called ARPANET, the predecessor of what would later be known as the
Internet. Electronic mail was invented in 1971, but it was rather limited in scope. In 1973, a
new mode letting computers with various programs communicate with each other was
developed. This new mode was based on a protocol known as Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol, or TCP/IP. It was at this stage that the bona fide Internet started to
be used by the US Military.
The 1970s remains by all standards a period in which the microcomputer established
itself as a consumer product. The relative low cost of the microcomputer (in comparison with
the price of the mainframe) means that ICT facilities are now much more widely available.
What implications then does that have for the teacher and education as a whole? The teacher
may well have access to a workstation at school/university or at home, and it is likely that
many students in a given class will own one. The real contribution of the microcomputer is
that it has extended access to ICT enormously and has opened up horizons for new
developments. The mid 1970s witnessed the birth of two giant computer companies that
would become rivals, Apple (1976) and Microsoft (1977), whereas the late 1970s saw the
invention of the first hypermedia system (1978) and the commercialization of micromodems
(1979).
More developments occurred throughout the 1980s after IBM introduced the first
Personal Computer (1981), a generic term used to refer to IBM-compatible microcomputers,
as opposed to Apples Macintosh (1984), two different computer platforms running different
operating systems. In association with IBM, Microsoft released its first version of Windows
(then a dependent software program that cannot run without an operating system) in 1985. In
1986, Phillips invented the CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory), an optical storage
device onto which data can be written via a laser. Two years later, Jarkko Oikarinen of the
University of Oulu, Finland made a major innovation in networking by inventing Internet
Relay Chat (IRC) in 1988.
32
From a pedagogical perspective, the emergence of the microcomputer and the
concomitant innovations mentioned above meant greater flexibility in terms of theory
implementation. Unlike the mainframe computer, which could only be used with the
Audiolingual method, the microcomputer can be used with a variety of methods, including
Communicative Language Teaching. Having said this, many computer-supported learning
projects developed at this phase kept on drawing from the Audiolingual method. What is
more, learning systems that started within the Audiolingual framework resumed their
development under the same structuralist paradigm. A case in point is TICCIT (Time-shared,
Interactive, Computer-Controlled, Informational, Television), which paved the ground for
educational multimedia in the decade to come. One of the most important features of this
system is that it opened a margin for learner control, a quite new concept at this time. This
influenced many subsequent CALL programs including those developed by authoring
software.
Throughout the 1970s, the TICCIT system underwent several changes in an attempt to
serve the needs of the teaching and learning communities. With the US federal governments
financial support, MITRE, the private company in charge of the TICCIT project, succeeded in
upgrading this system and developing it into a complete instructional authoring and delivery
medium. Developments in hardware, software, and ancillary materials during the mid 1970s
meant further success for the TICCIT program, which became capable of delivering whole
courses in, among other subject matters, English grammar, spelling, and composition to two
US community colleges.
As teacher intervention in the courseware was minimal, computer engineers were

requested to develop authoring software that would give vent to teacher imagination in
courseware development. Thus, Apple released an authorware program called HyperCard in
1987. Other similar programs such as GUIDE, Toolbook, and PLANIT made their way into
the field. Such programs consist of ready-made templates into which the teacher (or any other
user) inserts her own pedagogical content. Courseware writers no longer need to learn
complex programming language or machine code the workings of which are unfathomable
except to the expert programmer. HyperCard, distributed initially for free, was a phenomenal
success in courseware authoring in spite of the fact that it ran only on Macintosh. This is
probably due to its user-friendliness and inexpensive cost.
33
However, the excitement of teachers about the coming of the computer as a savior was
often met with disappointment when they realized the fast pace in which computers evolve,
thus gradually losing interest and becoming critical of the medium in general. Even though
there is a possibility for teachers to develop their own CALL programs using authoring
software, the fact is that the majority of them lack the training or the time to make even
simple programs, let alone more sophisticated ones. This sense of inertia can be attributed to
the many questions that were raised about the real role of the computer in the teaching and
learning process and the proportion that ICT should take therein. This issue is further
elaborated in Chapters IV and VI.
What is worth noting is that the technological advances hitherto made did not go against
the principles of Communicative Language Teaching, which became prominent in the 1970s
and 1980s. For example, thanks to the new networking facilities, communication between
students and teachers and among learners became possible. What remains to be known,
however, is whether courseware development could keep up with the computer technology
development.
Underwood (1984:52-54) proposed a series of what he referred to as premises for

Communicative CALL, some of which are summarized below:
- focus on using forms to communicate rather than studying the forms mechanically
- implicit rather than explicit teaching of grammar
- generation of original utterances rather than manipulation of prefabricated language
- unjudgemental evaluation of student work
- modeling rather than suppression of errors
- no rewards or congratulatory messages
- exclusive use of the target language
- fun factor
Nevertheless, as the influence of Audiolingualism persisted well beyond its theoretical

framework, many courseware programs developed in the 1970s and 1980s were flavored
with the features of this behaviorist school. Sanders and Kenner (1984:34) describe this state
of affairs as technology in the 1980s, courseware in the 1960s. For Warschauer (1996:5),
the dividing line between behaviouristic and communicative CALL involves not only which
software is used, but also how the software is put to use by the teacher and students (italics in
the original). Underwood (1984) reviewed and categorized some communicative courseware
programs such as simulations, games, text manipulation, text generation, gap-filling, error
34
correction, dialogue completion, cued dialogue, multimedia, etc. Although the Internet, E-
mail, and IRC had already been invented at this time, they would only become widespread in
the 1990s after the invention of the World Wide Web and the development of multimedia
computers running operating systems with a graphical interface.
I.2.2.3. Early 90s 2000s
The period of the 1990s was a crucial period in the development of CALL. This is
mainly due to the revolutionary evolution of ICT, which has transformed many sectors in
society and led to openness to the world now relieved of the tension between the superpowers
of the cold war. In Linguistics, research has made great strides to unravel the secrets of
Language.
Recent developments within the generativist framework (the Minimalist Program in

syntax and Optimality Theory in phonology) can be attributed to the important findings
achieved in the syntactic and phonological analyses of particular grammars (languages)
throughout the 1980s and early 1990s. Chomsky argued against his previous theory of
language by claiming that recourse to innate properties of language cannot be the only
explanation for the existence of certain generalizations of formal linguistic structure. This
newly suggested framework has led to new insights into the structure of the human linguistic
capacity. If the Generativist paradigm sought to capture the maximum of linguistic
phenomena in a parsimonious (redundancy-free) theory, the Minimalist paradigm has gone
further in suggesting that economy is built into Universal Grammar (UG) itself, hence the
considerable cut-back in theoretical machinery. For Chomsky (1993), the four levels of
representation put forward in the transformational-generative framework, namely Deep
Structure (DS), Surface-Structure (SS), Phonetic Form (PF), and Logical Form (LF), are
unwarranted now under the Minimalist paradigm given the fact that Language is a pairing of
sound and meaning, the principles from DS and SS being then reallocated to LF. Therefore,
the only relevant levels that are conceptually necessary are PF and LF, the other two levels
(DS and SS) being dispensed with. While LF is the level at which principles of grammar are
characterized, PF is the level at which phonetic and phonological information is encoded.
The cognitive approach to CALL came under attack for using the computer in an ad
hoc, disconnected fashion and, as expressed by Kenning & Kenning (1990:90), the computer
made a greater contribution to marginal rather than central elements of language learning.
35
The alternative learning theory that started to emerge in this post-Cold War decade is
Constructivism. While it can be considered as a continuation to the (socio-)cognitive theory of
learning, it has drawn its theoretical foundations from other disciplines, which sets it apart
from other theories of learning. If the (socio-)cognitive approach views language learning as
an active process of generation and transformation of (socially molded) knowledge, the
constructivist approach views it basically as a proactive process of knowledge construction. In
fact, Constructivism, as part of a cognitive family tree, has roots in philosophy, psychology,
sociology, and education (Mahoney, 1991). According to Bruner (1990), the learner selects
and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a
cognitive structure to do so.
The main premise of this school of thought, which is credited to Jean Piaget, is that
knowledge is actively constructed by the learner, not passively received from the
environment. Kafai and Resnik (1996:3) hold that learners actively construct and reconstruct
knowledge out of their experiences in the world. As put by Chun and Plass (2000:160),
constructivist approaches to learning advocate allowing learners not only to interact directly
with information to be learned, but also to add their own information and construct their own
relationships. It should be noted that there are several strands within the constructivist
perspective, two being the most widely investigated: cognitive Constructivism and social
Constructivism. While knowledge in the former strand is the result of the accurate
internalization and (re)construction of external reality by an individual, in the latter, it is the
result of social interaction and language usage, and thus is a shared, rather than an individual,
experience. Lambert et al. (1995:17-18) identify seven principles of constructivist learning
theory:
-Knowledge and beliefs are formed within the learner
-Learners personally imbue experiences with meaning
-Learning activities should cause learners to gain access to their experiences, knowledge
and beliefs
-Learning is a social activity that is enhanced by shared inquiry
-Reflection and metacognitition are essential aspects of constructing knowledge and

meaning
-Learners play a critical role in assessing their own learning
-The outcomes of the learning process are varied and often unpredictable
36
It is often emphasized in the literature that Constructivism is a theory of learning, not a
theory of pedagogy. However, its implications are far-reaching for teaching and
characterizing some tenets of Constructivism in pedagogical terms is not impossible. Besides,
it still belongs to the big family of fluency-before-accuracy methods subsumed under the
heading of the communicative paradigm. Chen et al (2004:33) elucidate the link between the
two by emphasizing that CALL fosters communication in which students draw on their
abilities to anticipate new information, notice insufficient knowledge, and relate the new
information to pre-existing information. For instance, learning styles, learning strategies,
teacher roles, and delivery mode are among the areas where immediate impact of
Constructivism can be sensed. Teacher roles are re(de)fined as strategic, such that the teacher
is considered as coach, mediator, and manager of learning.
Many researchers have found that ICT can realize constructivist ideals of learning
(Schank and Cleary, 1995; Bonk and Cunningham, 1998; Weasenforth et al, 2002, among
others). As reported in Hanson-Smith (1997), Chamot and O'Malley (1996) have extensively
researched the benefit of a cognitivist approach to language learning. They claim that
... the student can be taught to monitor, train, and enhance his or her own cognitive
strategies at a variety of levels, such as memorization, planning, and self-
evaluation. More generally, in the field of technology, enthusiasts have used the
term constructivism to describe an educational approach in which the student, in
any subject area, actively constructs meaning while drawing upon a variety of
learning styles and input from a variety of sensory systems.
Previously, teaching methods, based on rigorously elaborated theories of learning, have

tended to be specialized and exclusive in technique to the extent that it is inconceivable to
find a teacher with communicative affinities using a teaching technique from another
framework. Nevertheless, it is now generally taken for granted that effective language
learning requires a mastery of a large number of complex and integrated skills and that
effective language teaching is more likely to result from using a combination of several
different language teaching techniques as no single technique can be said to be entirely
successful on its own. Obviously, this eclecticism must not be unprincipled, but rather
commensurate with program objectives. By and large, the most popular teaching methods are
in tandem with the principles of Communicative Language Teaching.
As far as ICT is concerned, the 1990s was by all standards a decade of revolutionary
developments. Although these developments took different directions initially, they ended up
37
being integrated down the road. The Internet would have the shape in which we know it
today, at least graphically. In 1990, a team of software engineers headed by Tim Berners-Lee
invented HTML (HyperText Markup Language), which would culminate in the launch of the
World Wide Web (WWW) a year later. In 1993, the University of Illinois contributed to these
efforts by designing the first Web browser, Mosaic, and the first search engines (Infoseek and
Lycos) made their way onto the Internet. Search engines enable users to search the whole of
the Web for key words and phrases and locate related websites, a facility that closely fits in
with the tenets of Constructivism. Initially, websites contained only text and graphic images;
however, with the advent of multimedia computers, they further incorporated sound and
video, a facility on which the four language skills would easily be mapped. This new type of
networked multimedia hardware has many pedagogical advantages, among which
simultaneous transmission and reception of various media and interactivity. By equipping the
learner with such technology, she can listen, read, watch, speak, and write in an integrative
fashion within a communicative constructivist context.
The instigators of technological evolution have come more from the business sector
than from the educational world. After the invention of Pentium processors in 1994 and
Windows in 1995, the first operating system with a graphic interface to be designed by
Microsoft, Internet use became widespread. The Internet was officially introduced in Morocco
in 1995. The mid 1990s also saw the launch of RealAudio, an audio streaming technology for
live broadcasting on the Web, and DVD (Digital Video Disk / Digital Versatile Disk), an
optical laser disk capable of storing high-quality video and other forms of data. The
integration of all these facilities into one platform has made ICT both more attractive and
more useful. More importantly, the learning experience has become even more interactive,
thus simulating everyday experiences. As teachers get acquainted with such multimedia
teaching tools, they find that age-long course books that they use exploit only two media at
any one time: text and visuals, while Web-based or CD-ROM-based courseware can
incorporate all types of media at one go, providing teachers with a package offering flexibility
and ease of use as well as more reality-simulating contexts for language practice. As Kramsch
(1999:31) says computers seem to realize the dream of every language teacher to bring the
language and culture as close and as authentically as possible to students in the classroom.
The courseware produced at this phase of CALL development is based on principles of

Constructivism, in which learners are given the choice and autonomy to manipulate language
in order to construct their own individual model. In particular, the Web provides a huge and
38
varied quantity of new resources (text, data, graphics, sound and video) available to the
language learner. The widespread use of the Internet at this period means a lot for language
education. At no time before have learners been exposed to such a rich resource of
information. Thanks to E-mail and other text-based applications (both synchronous and
asynchronous), learners can get in touch with peers from different parts of the globe. In
addition, learners can manipulate and adapt information that can easily be transferred on the
Net to teachers or other learners. Recent advances in Web technology have made it possible
for multiple media to be diffused on the Internet, especially after considerable increases in
bandwidth (the speed with which data travels in a network). These developments are behind
the growth of Web-based learning and E-learning. More will be said about this in the
following section.
Berge and Collins (1995) make reference to the integrated use of technology and
characterize it as offering many educational opportunities and possibilities when driven by
sound visions of learning. Additionaly, Warschauer (1996) suggests that this phase of
computer-based learning be called Integrative CALL, for the challenge here was to
develop models which could help integrate the various aspects of the language learning
process. Fortunately, advances in computer technology were providing the opportunities to do
just that (italics mine). Many courseware programs have been produced at this period that it
is impossible to mention them all (see Appendix 2 for a list of selected CALL software). What
is worth noting is that Auralog was the first courseware development company to have
incorporated speech recognition in CALL. In fact, multimedia and the Internet constitute the
cornerstone of CALL in the 1990s. CALL programs which support a (socio-)cognitive and
constructivist approach to language learning are those which enable learners to be exposed to
authentic language and to construct their own knowledge. Types of these CALL programs
include multimedia software that simulates the four language skills, search software that
enables learners to locate specific information on CD-ROMs or on the Web, text-
reconstruction software that enables teachers and learners to manipulate text in various ways.
With the advent of Internet-related technologies such as ColdFusion, CGI, ASP, and PHP
(server-side programming languages that ensure customized Web delivery), the Internet has
become even richer in terms of pedagogically usable content, allowing the learner to
construct her own knowledge while the teacher, using tracking systems and dynamic
databases, can keep an eye on the activities in which the learner is engaged.
39
Current CALL is characterized by its eclectic approach, which, it is claimed, satisfies
various learning needs and styles. Baud and McDonald (1991) state that it is necessary to
work flexibly and eclectically in order to respond to the unique demands of each situation. It
is not only CALL that has gone eclectic, but also the teacher, whose roles have undergone
radical changes towards a more humanist and collaborative perspective. Students have come
to be at the center of curriculum goals as they are provided with a safe and secure
environment in which risk-taking and error-making are accepted as natural phenomena in
learning. This learner-centered trend focused, among other things, more on student needs,
individual learners characteristics and paths, and learning styles.
Each trend in CALL is paralleled with an overlapping period in the development of

didactic methods. Furthermore, and as mentioned earlier, the overlap between the various
phases of CALL development makes the correlation between teaching methodology and
courseware design unfocused and rigor-lacking. Warschauer (1996:3) admits that the
introduction of a new phase does not necessarily entail rejecting the programs and methods of
a previous phase; rather the old is subsumed within the new. In addition, the phases do not
gain prominence one fell swoop, but, like all innovations, gain acceptance slowly and
unevenly.
As the ICT revolution reached its apogee in the mid-1990s, some skeptic voices started
to be heard in the academic circles, saying that education and technology are intrinsically
incompatible in an attempt to discredit the growing popularity of computers in education. This
kind of negative attitude might be attributed to the notoriety of the Behaviorist language labs
whose use in language learning has intermittently fallen into disrepute among language
teachers. By and large, the skeptics mistrusted anything new or different that tried to creep
into their own realm, justifying their stand by their lack of understanding of how to use ICT
on the part of both teachers and learners, and the lack of sound pedagogy underlying the
activities or tasks which appeared as a result of the advent of ICT. It is likely that negative
experience with language labs has led teachers, in western societies at least, to be skeptical of
the potential of the new technologies in the classroom. Chen (1996) redeemed this skepticism
by recognizing that
teachers are often placed in these labs with no training, not even a manual on the
labs features and use, while a class of fifty students wait for the teacher to
assimilate. With teachers struggling to find use of the technology they already
have, it is unrealistic to expect them to quickly swallow another technology
solution pill.
40
While these reservations might be legitimate, there are compelling reasons that show
that the expansion of the scenarios for the use of computers in language learning is not
impossible. This point if further elaborated in Chapters IV and VI.
I.3. The Scope of Virtual Education and Modes of Delivery
One of the major research questions of the present work being to find out the extent to
which ICT can enhance the educational system, increase teacher effectiveness and improve
student achievement, this section sets out to examine the scope of education in the realm of
Virtual Reality. In other words, this section seeks to determine the areas or items taken up in
computer-supported education through the exploration of current ICT practices in educational
institutions and the types of technologies deployed for teaching and learning. The integration
of ICT in this process has given rise to various scenarios as far as delivery is concerned. CD-
ROMs, DVDs, hypertext, multimedia, hypermedia, the Internet, intranet, ethernet, Virtual
Reality, LAN, WAN, courseware, e-learning, voice chat, text chat, MOOs, bulletin boards,
Newsgroups, voice mail and e-mail, visio-conferencing, video-conferencing, Web 2.0,
podcasts, wikis, blogs, and other many such buzz-words are often tossed around in the
literature on Educational Technology and computing. The list goes on and on to include more
words, which have penetrated not only the world of education, but virtually all walks of life.
The words represent powerful, exciting, readily available, and increasingly affordable
technologies.
The revolutionary evolution of ICT and its eventual integration in education brought
about many changes in the process of teaching and learning, including the whereabouts, time,
and mode of delivery. A number of initiatives and reports have made reference to the greater
infusion of ICT in teaching and learning and its transformational power. Kenny (1998)
describes such educational transformations by stating that continuing technological
development, particularly in the areas of information storage, retrieval, and communication,
can be expected to alter the manner of teaching at every educational level and in every
conceivable setting. Computers, as stand-alone devices, and the Internet, as a network of
connected computers, are effective mediums for learning new skills, be they linguistic or
academic. Computers provide a virtually unlimited potential to create and experiment, thus
helping learners to learn. Moreover, the Internet provides a means to distribute tools and to
communicate ideas. However, training via the computer and the Internet must be performed
correctly. It is not just a simple translation of traditional ways of teaching into e-learning;
41
rather, it involves using the new advantages that computers and the Internet provide so as to
allow students to take stock of their own learning.
At certain moments in the past enormous amounts of hype surrounded CALL and the
potential of ICT during the information age. Much of that hype has now become reality and
even commonplace. A relevant question that arises here is: do we really need a place to teach
and/or learn in the information age? The notion of physical space, among others, as an
indispensable component in the conventional teaching and learning operation has been
subverted with the advent of e-learning as a new mode of course delivery. A newly introduced
concept in the alternative mode, namely distributed learning is being tossed around in
educational circles. Networking has provided valuable solutions to the questions of
remoteness, scheduling, and population. Never again will those who complain about the
disadvantage of distance find an excuse to miss a training program.
As the nature of the student population continues to change, new school curricula will
take shape as a result of the new knowledge and skills of this dynamic technology-driven
population and as a response to their new demands and those of the job market. The
satisfaction of the diverse needs of the rising student generations is a strategic imperative.
Educational programs have to do so in order to prepare students for lifelong learning and for
making a positive contribution to the growing global information society, where everything
from taking public transportation to undergoing a checkup is based on the use of information.
I.3.1. Stand-alone Computers and the Individual Learner
Computers were originally meant to work separately from other devices as their main
function was initially performing the users instructions. Even after the invention of networks
for, inter alia, administrative purposes, the computer continued to be used as a personal
machine. In the same vein, the coming of the Internet did not turn all personal computers into
clients by default owing to the high cost and low bandwidth. Accordingly, software
programmers and CALL designers have made every effort to satisfy the needs of a growing
population of (not necessarily wired) computer users. An electrically plugged computer is
all that stand-alone applications require. While some stand-alone programs can in principle be
run from the computers hard disk after installing them onto it, most courseware is run from a
CD-ROM or DVD. In the 1990s, much foreign language courseware has been put on CD-
42
ROMs, eliminating the need for many floppy disks. Moreover, most CALL materials on CD-
ROM are based on the hypertext principle, which renders their exploration very practical.
Having said this, it remains to be proved how effective such applications are in
language teaching and learning. From a pedagogical point of view, stand-alone programs are
meant to be used more for self study and remedial work than for structured formal study.
Ideally, they help in individually-oriented tasks such as tutoring, drilling of forms, introducing
cultural aspects of the target language, and the like. These self-directed learning activities
encourage independent access to knowledge, where, to a large extent, students can plan their
work, adjust the pace of it, monitor their progress, and evaluate their performance. This need
not imply any lessening of academic standards for award programs, since the learning is still
subject to guidance and assessment by teachers. One benefit of self-directed learning is that it
can prepare students well to continue their education, formally and informally, during the
years after graduation. As pointed out by Ellis (1994:516), self-directed language learning
refers to situations in which learners are able to determine their own learning objectives,
choose their own ways of achieving these, and evaluate their own progress.
As mentioned earlier (Section 1.2.1), independent learning according to Dickson (1987)

has two aspects: 1) the learners autonomy, which is an attitude toward the learning process,
and 2) self-instruction, which is a mode of learning. In a more recent publication, Dickinson
(1993:330-31) brings out five features of independent learning in which students are able to:
understand what is being taught, i.e. they have sufficient understanding of language learning
to understand the purpose of pedagogical choices;
formulate their own learning objectives;
select and make use of appropriate learning strategies;
monitor their use of these strategies;
self-assess, or monitor their own learning.
In principle, the choice made by students (on their own or with the help of an expert
user/teacher) in using stand-alone applications shows that they are ready to assume the
responsibility of their own learning. In addition, the way they choose to use the material is up
to them, the underlying assumption being to let them set learning goals for themselves as they
browse through the courseware. Self-directed learning using stand-alone applications is
pedagogically rewarding, in the sense that it may reduce negative aspects of affective factors
on language learning like anxiety, inhibition, and feelings of inferiority associated with group
learning. As a consequence, students develop a sense of self-satisfaction and motivation.
43
I.3.1.1. The Educational Use of General-purpose Software
The majority of language teachers take it for granted that many software programs of
the so-called general-purpose category can well be used for educational purposes. Generic
software packages that are claimed to be educationally useful include, for instance, word-
processors, database software, and spreadsheets. Word-processors are perhaps the most
widely used applications in computing. They allow the users to create fine-looking documents
including graphics, tables and photographs. They normally include a spelling checker, a
grammar checker and a thesaurus, and tools for writing web pages. As is the case with many
packages, no single software program is fully mastered by a single user. Very few people
know that word-processors can be used for example to design professional newsletters and to
build web pages. At a more practical level, a word-processor can be used in both guided
writing and free writing. For instance, students might use the embedded proofing tools such as
spell-checkers and grammar/style checkers that generally come out with word-processors to
correct and reconstruct text in terms of redundancy, misspelling, and grammatical errors.
Generic functions such as cut-and-paste and color coding can be used in working out cloze
exercises and ordering jumbled text. Piper (1987) and Pennington and Brock (1992)
acknowledge the usefulness of word processors for writing skills. Furthermore, a built-in
thesaurus is a beneficial educational tool as it gives an opportunity to students to use a wide
range of expressions and structures, thus helping them enrich their vocabulary repertoire
(Leefa, 1992). The caveat, however, is that the tools lack of consideration of linguistic and
pragmatic context leads to a situation where students use words inappropriately.
Stevens (2000) presents and discusses language learning techniques and grammar-based
templates for becoming proficient in word-processing. Hanson-Smith (1997) acknowledges
the pedagogical value of word-processors in developing student writing skills.
With the word processor, students can be asked to perform major revisions on
multiple drafts without fear of fatigue or the introduction of new errors because of
laborious recopying or retyping. Paragraphs can be reordered with the touch of a
few keys. A split screen feature allows teachers to comment in the margin, or lets
students keep an outline on the desktop at all times. Spell checking, a common
feature of word processors, not only catches typographical errors but can help
students learn to spell. Grammar checkers, although limited in their ability to find
typical language learner errors, can allow teachers to customize what is searched
and commented on.
While word-processors provide a very useful time-saving tool for writing and
reconstructing text, the embedded proofing tools play an important role in the enhancement of
44
student writing. An interesting result of a research study on the use of grammar checkers
conducted by Chen (1997) showed that students who got detailed and personalized error
feedback improved their writing skills better than those who received only generalized
feedback. Be that as it may, grammar and style checkers of the present time are found to be
wanting because they mark some wrong structures as right and some right structures as
wrong. In addition, the current spell-checkers have certain limitations as they cannot parse
natural language correctly and are not context-sensitive. They cannot detect some types of
mistakes such as the difference between its and its and slips of the keyboard, where
omission of letters does not result in an error as in stream vs. steam first vs. fist.
Moreover, neologisms, proper names, and some compound nouns can pose a problem to
spell-checkers. This can be a cogent and a soothing argument for the skeptics who sometimes
think that the computers invasion of the educational scene is meant to destabilize the position
of the teacher.
In addition to word-processors and their built-in proofing tools as generic software with
useful educational application, there are other types of computer programs which can also be
used in the same way. As a case in point, spreadsheets and databases, which can be used
either together or separately, have an important education value. Both of them can be used to
tabulate, sort and store data in a set format. Flexible column manipulation and the automatic
line numbering facility are key tools in both programs, which enable the teacher/user to record
and calculate grades easily and store them for later use. While the spreadsheet can be used to
keep records of students, add up marks, and calculate final score weightings, the database
allows the user, in addition to what has been said for the spreadsheet, to retrieve, query, and
cross-reference data. In other words, if the spreadsheet allows the user to classify, sort out,
and handle data in a methodical way, the database allows the user to manage scholarly
information, locate it with other interface programs, and query the resource bank for specific
information. Some CALL practitioners (e.g. Graham Davies) might regard the spreadsheet
and the database as generic tools that are very peripheral for the language teacher.
Warschauer and Meskill (2000) report on a case study in which students were assigned
business-related tasks on Microsoft Excel whose statistical functions and graphing facility
would enable a neat presentation of figures and visual graphs. Students had, for example, to
calculate the depreciation of factory machinery over a given period of time. Their final
assignment for each task consisted in writing a formal business memo to the instructor in
which they described the problem, provided needed data, and made recommendations for
45
future action. The major objective, say Warschauer and Meskill (op. cit.) is for the students
to acquire structures and vocabulary related to business concepts, not to get a right answer.
As one might notice, such tasks can be said to be conducive to constructivist learning in the
sense that the learners are involved in shaping the learning process and constructing their own
understanding of language and content.
Ager (1998) proposes some activities on spreadsheets and databases for primary school
children. He even encourages teachers to show them how to interrogate data using a database
management system very early on in primary schools when children are using much smaller
databases, so that they will be able to use the much larger ones effectively (p. 69). Ager
presents the teaching and learning outcomes which can be achieved by using each type of
software.
I.3.1.2. Teacher-authored Courseware
Another type of stand-alone applications are those made by the teacher using either
high-level programming languages such as C and C++ or authoring tools which provide
completable templates of courseware. The quality of such courseware depends much on its
pedagogical foundation and how it has been programmed/authored. While courseware design
is the province of the software developer who has the necessary technical expertise,
courseware authoring can be done by anybody who can manipulate the computer including
the teacher. In other words, the authorware allows the author to develop learning and teaching
materials with significantly less programming than if a programming language were used, or
with no programming at all. The topic of programming being too technical, it will not be
covered in any depth here.
Davies (1997) has found out that the do-it-yourself approach to CALL software
creation has rarely worked. Only those with hours of dedication at their disposal have made a
success of it. The past is littered with dead authoring packages: TES/T, Pilot, Microtext,
TenCore, etc. BASIC was simply too difficult for most language teachers. He says this, of
course, after experience has taught him that language specialists and teachers might not be
qualified or ready to become programmers: I speak from bitter experience. What the
language teacher needs is a very basic authoring tool that requires the minimum of effort
(Davies, op. cit.). This justifies the unpopularity of his 1985 book Using Computers in
Language Learning: a teachers guide. He, nevertheless, said in a previous work that the
46
elegant solution to software creation is collaboration between linguists and programmers
(Davies & Higgins 1982:44). Later in Davies (1997), he reiterates his conviction thus:
I still believe, however, that linguists who need to communicate with programmers
ought to understand the way programs work. (...) [In other words,] (...) the best
CALL software development team consists of two people: a linguist who
understands something about programming and a programmer who understands
something about language.
Davies (op. cit.) mentions two authoring programs which he claims have enjoyed
continuing success for a long time: Fun with Texts (first published by Camsoft in 1985) and
Storyboard (first published by Wida Software in 1982). Their long existence, he says, is
attributed to their approach characterized by user-friendliness. They generate the maximum
of student activity with the minimum of effort on the part of the teacher: all the teacher has to
do is find a text, type it - or copy and paste it if it already exists in electronic format - and
store it on disk (Davies op. cit.)
The Authoring Suite, by Wida Software, is an update on a previous authoring range

incorporating into a single Windows program the established Storyboard, Gapmaster,
Testmaster, Matchmaster, Choicemaster, Pinpoint and Vocab. Authors can enhance text
activities with sound, video, graphics, and rich text, which they snatch from the Internet or
from reference CD-ROMs. Students can make comments on the activities by using the
notepad and teachers can call up and respond to them.
Having said this, these authoring packages should be used in combination with other
software for handling human speech (e.g. Wavestudio, CoolEdit, etc.) and images (e.g.
Photoshop, Freehand, etc.) in order to illustrate and supplement the courseware being
authored. Therefore, it is recommended that teachers who are interested in producing authored
courseware become familiar with such software. In addition, the technology lends itself to
converting all existing materials into digital format so as to become exploitable by the
computer. Tanguay (1997) asserts that since English instruction consists primarily of text,
pictures, voice, video, conversation, and interactive environments, English instruction can be
almost fully digitized.
I.3.1.3. Packaged CD-ROMs and DVDs
The CALL market was initially replete with basic drill-and-practice courseware that
focused mainly on vocabulary or discrete grammar points. However, with the growth of
47
computer science and the emergence of a number of innovations therein such as multimedia
and speech recognition, more interactive programs started to make their way into the
educational arena. Despite their focus on structures, simulation programs present students
with real-life situations in which they learn about the target culture and the linguistic context
of various situations. The CD-ROM has several uses in language education, including
information retrieval (concordancing and indexing), interactive audio (speech recognition and
playback), games (entertainment), and interactive multimedia (simulations). Thanks to the
emergence of the CD-ROM as a digital storage device, multimedia content has found a
suitable medium to reach a wide student population. Furthermore, the combination of text,
sound, pictures and video is generally known to be both motivating and effective.
As the number of educational software programs continues to increase, it is important to

distinguish the main categories existing on the market. The CD-ROM packages on sale can be
classified into six types: reference programs, edutainment programs, testing programs,
authoring programs, skill-focused programs, and integrated learning programs. A list of
selected courseware programs, with targeted levels and pedagogical foci, is provided in
Appendix 2.
a) Reference programs
These are, by and large, used for self access and independent study, e.g. concordancers,
electronic dictionaries and encyclopedias. Teachers can use them to help in their lesson
preparation, as they provide rich resources in the form of text, sound, video, etc. Learners can
also use them as research materials for classroom presentations or project work. A
concordancer, such as MonoConc by Athelstan, enables the user to search large bodies of text
for all occurrences of a given word. The best concordancer for language students and
teachers, according to Warschauer (1996), is Oxfords MicroConcord, which includes several
large corpora taken from British newspapers. Almost all renowned dictionary publishers have
issued electronic versions of their hard copies on CD-ROM. The same thing can be said about
encyclopedias whose search facilities of electronic encyclopedias enable instances of words in
context to be found easily. For example, digital encyclopedias such as Encyclopaedia
Britannica, Comptons Encyclopedia Deluxe, and Time Almanac, to cite but three, allow
students to conduct research in the target language. Microsofts Encarta is claimed to be the
best of the CD-ROM encyclopedias (Healey & Johnson, 1995; Davies, 1997, among others).
48
b) Edutainment programs
These are entertaining educational CD-ROMs that offer a game-like approach to

language learning through funny activities or adventure games. This type of CD-ROMs is
known for its motivating power whose main advantage is that learners never get tired of using
the program again and again. Schulz (1995) addressed the question of grammar teaching in a
fun-inspiring environment, for many students complain about the way grammar is generally
taught. Moreover, edutainment CDs provide simulations focusing on country-specific
situations in a task-based format, which leads learners to engage with authentic language
materials. Educational games, in turn, provide an entertaining environment for students to
learn culture and the target language through problem-solving and competition. Examples of
this type include Zaks Word Games by Longman, MindGame/MindLines by Clarity, and All-
in-One Language Fun by Syracuse Language Systems, to cite but few.
c) Testing programs
These are CD-ROMs that prepare users to take standardized exams such as TOEFL,
TOEIC, SAT and the like or that assess student achievement in language learning. They
contain practice tests and answer keys meant to familiarize the potential test takers with the
instructions and the format. By way of illustration, here are two titles in this category. For the
TOEIC, there is, for instance, Alexis, a test preparation system published by Encomium,
which assesses the readiness of the users to take the official test in order to judge their
eligibility for work in business in English speaking environments. For the TOEFL, there is a
test preparation software package on a CD-ROM, published by American Language
Academy, called TOEFL Mastery for the CBT, featuring practice with the question types and
format of the computer-based test (CBT) and includes a Student Guide to help with test-
taking strategies.
d) Authoring programs
These are software packages that come out on CD-ROM, but which are meant to be
installed on a personal computer, allowing the user (the teacher most of the time) to work on
the platform and the provided templates so as to create her own courseware. These programs
enable teachers to incorporate their own materials, thus making the programs more relevant to
their own lessons. Warschauer (1996) distinguishes among three types of authoring packages:
some are specifically designed for language teachers (CALIS, DASHER), others for educators
49
(Digital Chiseler) and others for the general public (Hypercard, Hyperstudio, Supercard,
Toolbook, Macromind Director).An example of an authoring package for creating tests is
Question Mark Testing & Assessment published by Question Mark. This software
incorporates templates for several testing activities including gap-filling, matching, true/false,
and multiple choice. It can be used to make catch-up tests for students who were unable to
take a test with the others in the class.
e) Skill-focused programs
These are courseware applications focusing on a single or a couple of language skills.

For instance, there are CD-ROMs that are only designed to develop the users/learners oral
skills, viz. speaking and/or listening. As a case in point, there is Addison Wesleys Longman
English Works, a two CD-ROM course containing 39 recorded dialogues each. Users can
listen to and record their part of a dialogue sentence by sentence or as a whole. The built-in
speech recognition gives a chance to learners to record their voices and compare their
pronunciation with that of native speakers. Another example is Systeme-D, a stand-alone
application which is designed to help students write in the target language by providing
assistance in grammar, style, and verb forms and use (Davis, 1992). Longmans The
Grammar ROM is one of the few CD-ROMs that concentrate on all the key points of English
grammar.
f) Integrated learning programs
These are packaged courseware programs that adopt a holistic approach to language
learning. They contain structured lessons following a well-established program of study with
a balanced focus on the four language skills, grammar and vocabulary. The approach adopted
in this type of courseware is by and large modular, functional and non-sequential. Integrated
learning programs can be used in both self-directed or teacher-led environments. Interested in
such comprehensive courseware are schools that are looking for what Hanson-Smith (1997)
calls the ultimate in multimedia software: programs with all the bells and whistles, where
students can receive comprehensive, individualized instruction in all the skills simultaneously
listening, speaking, reading, and writing with record-keeping and adaptive testing to
boot. By way of illustration, there is the comprehensive multilevel package by Edusoft Ltd.:
English+ Millennium. The program provides, in addition to pre-tests and post-tests, a wide
50
range of materials, activities, tasks, and ready-made lessons which incorporate reading,
writing, speaking, listening, and grammar skills on 9 CD-ROMS.
The CALL packages newly published on CD-ROM are said to be of great pedagogical
value. There are several reasons that have contributed to the success of the CD-ROM as a
storage device and as a medium of learning. The proliferation of CDs, the availability of
affordable CD-burners, and the drop in the prices of recordable and rewritable CDs are behind
their rapid and wide acceptance. Despite the shortcomings regarding the quality of motion
video on CD-ROM and its relatively limited storage capacity, their ubiquity remains intact.
Besides, these problems will be overcome in the near future with the movement to the
alternative DVD. From the pedagogical standpoint, CD-ROM-based courseware presents four
general qualities: i) combination of media, ii) quantity of content, iii) interactivity, iv) degree
of learner control, (cf. Brett, 1995; Ager, 1998, among others). By way of warning, these
qualities should not be confused with those of multimedia, although there is some overlap.
Hanson-Smith (1997) noted how CD-ROM and multimedia [are] almost synonymous in
most peoples minds.
Despite all the positive aspects of CD-ROM technology, it is found to be limited as far
as video is concerned. That is why the trend now is to go towards the state-of-the-art DVD
technology. DVD (Digital Video Disk also Digital Versatile Disk) is an optical laser disk that
is capable of storing high-quality video as well as other forms of data, e.g. programs, text,
pictures and graphics. It seems likely that DVDs will supersede CD-ROMs in the foreseeable
future. As a successor to the CD-ROM, the DVD will have a capacity 8 to 10 times the
storage potential of current CD-ROMs. It will be able to deliver multimedia content much
more quickly than the CD-ROM. The educational use of CD-ROM that has been dealt with so
far is referred to as off-line CALL. On the other side of the coin there is on-line CALL
(sometimes also referred to as NBLL, Network-based Language Learning), which has to do
with people and institutions that are connected to a computer network including the Internet.
Despite the pedagogical advantages of the stand-alone computer as an individual tool,

its full potential lies in conjunction with other computers, forming systems and platforms for
various learning goals. As McClintock (1992) said the term computer usually calls to mind
the artifact, the stand-alone personal computer. (...) Most of us do not think much about the
[computer as a] complex system. He goes on to say that
51
... the significance of computers for education will not be well understood by
thinking simply of a lot of separate machines sprinkled through existing schools
and colleges. Computers are an emergent infrastructure, a system, fully as
complicated as that of the car. We need to think about what that system is and how
that infrastructure will work. Computers as a system can be a powerful agent of
change in education.
The raison dtre of the system referred to here lies obviously in networking, which
takes out a personal computer from the seclusion of a corner to the company of other
computers by joining various types of networks (intranet, Internet ...) that can be used for
educational purposes. In fact, these very stand-alone courseware programs sometimes come
out in networkable versions for wider use by large wired student populations.
I.3.2. Computer Networking for Effective Language Learning
Aside from stand-alone computer programs, networked computers expand the way
language teaching and learning is conducted. By networking is meant the getting together of
computers around a server or the plugging of a computer to join the network of networks, the
Internet. In the former case, one can imagine a number of workstations connected together in
order to share electronic files or to commonly use the same resource like a CD. Berge and
Collins (1995) emphasize the supremacy of pedagogical benefits of networked computers
over those of stand-alone PCs:
As an agent for socialization and collaboration, the networked computer has an

even greater potential in education than does the stand-alone, knowledge-server
type of computer. The active environment of social learning provided by a
computer with access to local, national, and international networks increases
interaction and communication among students, their teachers, peers, parents, and
other members of the world community.
Additionally, the networked computer with access to the Internet has even more
pedagogical value. The effect that the Internet has on the way teaching is conducted is so
clear. The networking culture requires participants to be more than just consumers of
information and knowledge. They are compelled to become contributors as well.
I.3.2.1. On-site Multi-user CALL
By on-site multi-user CALL is meant students use of networkable language learning

applications inside the educational institution. As explained by LeLoup and Ponterio (1998:4),
the CD-ROM and DVD are superior media for multimedia distribution because they can
hold huge files and display them nearly instantly either on a local machine or over a Local
52
Area Network (LAN). However, LANs, in their current state, demonstrate major
shortcomings in handling CD-ROMs and DVDs. The key problem has been raised by
Eastment (1994:75), who has wondered how CD-ROM could be used effectively in a
conventional Computer Room. For simple text, networking CD-ROMs is practically feasible.
However, video and audio transmission over a network is fraught with difficulties, as the data
outflow from the server never ends up perfectly synchronized at each client computer.
An alternative solution to this, says Eastment (1994:75), is
... to set up each of the student stations as multimedia machines with their own CD-
ROM drives, and provide each station with the CD-ROM discs it needs. It is
problematic enough working like this from floppy disk, where at least you can
copy the information on to multiple copies and keep your master safe. Working
with CD means that every single workstation would have to have its own original
CD-ROM disc in place, Frankly, I cannot imagine many schools going down this
path. Soon, perhaps, the technical problems will be solved, or new software will
emerge which will prove more classroom-friendly. For the moment, however,
CD-ROM is likely to be confined either to individuals or to small groups at a single
PC.
This type of networking being costly, the solution proposed by Eastment might not be
economically viable. The drawbacks of networking computers according to Ager (1998:12)
are to do with the cost of cabling, the restriction the cabling places on moving the computers
around and the technical expertise required to actually set the computers around and the
technical expertise required to actually set the computers up to work on a network.
Therefore, it has been decided that this alternative be abandoned despite its pedagogical
benefits. To get around this issue related to the cost of multiple copies of CD-ROMs and
cabling, a solution has been put forward. The solution consists in mounting a network
composed of a robust server computer, which can host all courseware to be used by students,
and a number of light-client workstations, which have the minimum components that will
make it run the operating system (diskless and driveless desktop computers). In addition to
this, more and more courseware is installable on LANs (e.g. DynEd, Merit Audio, Commest,
etc.) regardless of whether it will run from full-fledged client computers or light-client
computers.
I.3.2.2. Distributed CALL
Another type of on-line CALL that is used in many universities in the developed world
is one based on WANs (Wide Area Networks) such as intranet systems like JANET (Joint
53
Academin NETwork) in the UK and CCALLNET (the Canadian CALL NETwork) both used
at the post-secondary level, and the Internet, the largest WAN on earth. In few words, this is
what has been termed distributed learning. The latter refers to features of a learner-centered
environment, which integrates a number of technologies to enable opportunities for activities
and interaction in both asynchronous and real-time modes. The model is based on blending a
choice of appropriate technologies with aspects of campus-based delivery, open learning
systems and distance education (Institute for Academic Technology, University of North
Carolina, 1995). According to Wagner (1999), distributed learning focuses on the needs of
individuals looking for information, performance support tools, and instructional
opportunities and converges modalities, such as print, graphic, audio, and video data-
transmission, into a single medium, the Internet.
The terms intranet, extranet, and Internet should not be intermingled although
they all refer to the networking of computers of some kind. The related term on-line can be
used in all cases. However, the difference has to do with the size and scope of networking
involved. While the Internet is open to the whole world, intranet is a restricted computer
network that may cover a classroom, a computer lab, a campus, or a host of universities. An
extranet is only available to users from within and some users from outside, as determined by
the institution. This may consist of a LAN or a WAN. Course delivery over LANs and WANs
is what is referred to as NBLT (Network-based Language Teaching; cf. I.1 above), which
Kern and Warschauer (2000) define as language teaching that involves the use of computers
connected to one another in either local or global networks. They further elucidate that
NBLT does not represent a particular technique, method, or approach. It is a constellation of
ways by which students communicate via computer networks and interpret and construct
online texts and multimedia documents, all as part of a process of steadily-increasing
engagement in new discourse communities.
LANs and WANs offer teachers a new approach for creating new activities that provide
more time and experience with the target language. They allow students and teachers to
correspond with each other via computer or to conduct collaborative activities in the target
language. Expanding the unique capabilities of computer networks facilitates communication
with students both at home and abroad, which allows for direct interaction with both peers at
home and native speakers abroad. Such interaction, says Gonzalez-Lloret (2003), is very
crucial, for it facilitates comprehension better than learning conditions without interactions.
54
While WANs such as JANET and CCALLNET belong to educational or governmental
institutions, which regulate their access and ensure their update and maintenance, the Internet
does not belong to any institutional entity and is thus uncontrollable. However, it is a good
example of a learning technology for large-scale literacy. For example, people can use it to
find information and to practice all the language skills, especially reading and writing. When
the Internet joins two or more people together who want to exchange information and ideas in
order to improve their language skill level, it then becomes a tool for teaching and learning.
With the advent of the Internet in the 1990s, CALL began to change (cf. I.2.2.3 above).
The Internet has become a wonderful educational tool for teachers and learners alike as it
provides authentic resources to practice the target language without having to travel to any
country where it is natively spoken. This has, as a consequence, raised the need to deliver
learning via the Internet using tools such as WWW, E-mail, etc. In fact, Tanguay (1997)
asserts that the Internet is good for English teaching. And it is going to get better
exponentially. At the height of the Internet mania, John Chambers, CEO of Cisco Systems
Inc., declared: The next big killer application for the Internet is going to be education.
Education over the Internet is going to be so big it is going to make e-mail usage look like a
rounding error (cf. MacDonald, 2002). The emergence of the Internet has brought about a
change in the interrelationship among the three components of CALL: the teacher, the
computer, and the learner. There was a movement from human-to-computer interaction to
human-to-human interaction. Moreover, with the expansion of the Information Superhighway,
communication at a global level has never become so widespread. This has given rise to a
well-established arena of practice: CMC (Computer Mediated Communication).
Kaye (1991:5) defines CMC as:
the use of computers and computer networks as communication tools by people

who are collaborating with each other to achieve a shared goal, which does not
require the physical presence or co-location of participants, and which can provide
a forum for continuous communication free of time constraints.
There are two types of CMC: synchronous communication that requires the
communicating parties to be available at the same time as with IRC and videoconferencing
and asynchronous communication that takes place without the communicating parties needing
to be available at the same time as with Listserv and E-mail. The two types of CMC present
many advantages such as overcoming geographical barriers, flexibility of study programs, and
reduced tuition fees. Besides, the possibility to use pseudonyms in CMC tools constitutes an
55
incentive for introvert learners with high affective factors. The quasi-anonymity of CMC
coupled with the immediacy of the tools for online synchronous communication makes these
virtual environments seem ideal for role-play activities (Warner, 2004). With the advent of
CMC, one-to-one communication and one-to-many communication have become facts of life.
Learners can now communicate directly, inexpensively, and conveniently with people all
across the globe.
In addition to CMC and NBLT, there are many other terms used to refer to this type of
learning: distance learning, E-learning, on-line learning, Internet-based learning, and web-
based learning, all of which have distinct meaning, but with an inevitable overlap. Distance
learning is an educational situation in which the teacher and student(s) are separated by
physical distance. E-learning bridges the instructional gap between a teacher and her
student(s) using a computer network for delivery, interaction, or facilitation in either
synchronous or asynchronous mode. It covers a wide range of applications and processes
such as Internet-based learning, web-based learning, computer-based learning, virtual
classrooms, and digital collaboration. It includes the delivery of content via Internet,
intranet/extranet (WAN/LAN), satellite broadcast, interactive TV, and CD-ROM. On-line
learning refers to the fact of being logged on in real time to an Internet-based learning system
to synchronously learn new information and interact with peers. The definition of distance
learning is broader than and entails the definition of E-learning.
The focus of this section being learning via networked computers (E-learning), distance
learning will be eschewed as it includes traditional correspondence courses and does not
preclude the use of the four-wall classroom. Goodyears (2000) definition of E-learning is all-
embracing as it covers academic and non-academic environments:
... e-Learning is the systematic use of networked multimedia computer technologies

to empower learners, improve learning, connect learners to people and resources
supportive of their needs, and to integrate learning with performance and individual
with organisational goals ...
This definition works in the context of higher education as well as in that of corporate
training. As an amplification of the idea of networked learning, extra emphasis is placed on
the connection between the learners goals and those of the organization in which learning is
taking place. The learning can be synchronous (i.e. all learners are online and able to
communicate with each other simultaneously, like IRC) or asynchronous (i.e. learners do not
go online at the same time, like Email). The selection of the most appropriate E-learning
56
delivery method (synchronous, asynchronous or a mixture of the two) depends on a number of
factors including the time sensitivity of the training, the subject matter, the ICT infrastructure,
and the technical proficiency of the learners. In fact, many E-learning providers offer both
types of delivery methods in their products and services.
The spread of E-learning depends largely on the growth of the Internet and the increase
in the number of users. As pointed out by Murray (2000:51), the Internet is used largely for
communication through e-mail, newsgroups, bulletin boards, and Instant Messaging, all of
which in some way are modeled on existing forms of communication.
Figure 1.2: Worldwide Internet Users in Millions (Source: e-Stats.com).
As the graph from e-Stats above indicates, the number of Internet users in the world has
tripled over only half a decade. The growth of the number of Internet users in Morocco will
be discussed in the following chapter (section II.1.).
I.3.2.2.1. Synchronous E-learning
This is a type of computer-mediated communication that occurs with no time delay,

allowing users (students/teachers) to react in real time. The key notion of real time refers to
users reaction on the spur of the moment. In language learning based on this type of
communication, the processing of information produces results so rapidly that the interaction
appears to be instantaneous. Not only does real-time information need to be processed
instantaneously, but it also needs to arrive in the exact order it is sent without any distortion in
order to make the communication intelligible between the addresser and the addressee.
Without synchronous capabilities that add a living dimension to communication E-learning
57
would be wanting. Synchronous learning can be self-directed (learners communicating with
peers without the control of a teacher) or teacher-led (learners and learning managed by a
teacher). In both cases, all participants can be logged on at the same time and communicate
directly with each other. Educational content can be delivered using many technologies such
as IRC, audio/video conferencing, telephony, and live digital broadcasts of lectures to
students in a classroom.
a) IRC
Internet Relay Chat or chat for short is one of the most popular Internet services. Chat
programs enable students and teachers to exchange written messages in real time with other
users belonging to the same chat room. In a chat room, messages entered by any user
appear immediately on the screen of all users, and a written record of the exchange is kept for
subsequent reference. Each message is preceded by the name of the sender, so there is no
problem identifying who said what. Chat being a form of synchronous communication,
participants have to be available at the same time and ideally able to type with fair speed.
Chat can take place on the WWW using a normal web browser or on a special platform using
special software. Additionally, chat can be open or closed. In the former case, users are
identifiable on the screen and anybody who logs on to the chat hall can join in the
conversation. However, a private closed chat can be arranged among participants who meet
initially in a chat hall.
At the beginning, chat was highly text-based (save the graphic icons used here and
there), but new-generation chat software permits audio and even video communication. The
expression of emotions is done through the use of emoticons, faces made with keyboard
characters e.g. :) denoting happiness, :( denoting sadness, etc. Obviously, from a
pedagogical point of view, multimedia chat is a highly interactive form of communication
which is more exciting than static text-based chat. Moreover, chat can be ongoing constantly
(uncontrolled/unsupervised) or scheduled for a particular time and duration
(controlled/supervised). Most chat programs provide the possibility to create as many chat
rooms as possible, each focusing on a particular topic of interest.
Chat, in particular, is useful for holding virtual conferences or seminars. Despite its
synchronous features, chat, be it text-based or multimedia, is not meant to supplant face-to-
face human contact, which includes more important features such as facial expressions,
58
gestures, and other non-verbal clues of communication. However, it can be a viable
alternative to language learners seeking immersion opportunities to brush up their
communication skills. In actual reality students seldom meet native speakers of the language
being learned in places where that language is considered foreign. However, in virtual reality
chat provides an excellent chance to language learners who wish to get in contact with native
speakers and practice what they have learned in the classroom in a real communicative
situation. As pointed out by Graus (1999), what is good about chat, and contrary to face-to-
face communication, is that it gives students a few extra seconds to think about what to say.
b) MOOs
MUDs (Multi User Domains, Dungeons or Dimensions) and MOOs (MUD Object-
Oriented) are an interesting category of synchronous communication used in some education
settings. They came about when Internet surfers started using computers to play various role
playing games such as dungeons and dragons. The original MUD was designed as
dungeon and dragon game in which users hunt for treasures. MOOs are a later development
of MUDs that employ object-oriented programming techniques and are easier to develop and
upgrade. A MOO is an environment in which participants, using the keyboard, can
synchronously communicate in small groups, either in the privacy of their own rooms, or in a
public host room.
MOOs allow users to interact with others not only by sending text messages, but also by
performing simulated actions (e.g., frowning, waving, standing, sitting, running, etc.). This
distinctive feature makes MOOs so unique and potentially much richer language learning
environments than IRC, where the interaction is limited to conversation and emoticons. As a
tool of synchronous communication, MOO uses text to describe the character of users and
surroundings. To put it differently, participants create, manipulate, and even program objects
in playful, and educational ways.
In both IRC and MOO users can converse in real time, write to many people at once or
send private messages, and show actions and emotions with graphic icons. The difference
between the two applications is given by Turbee (1996a):
With IRC, someone opens a channel, others connect to the channel to chat,
everyone enters lines of text in order to communicate, and the channel is closed
when the last person leaves. With MOO, the user connects via telnet to a program
59
that is running on one computer, enters lines of text to communicate, and
disconnects when done. (...)
The differences between the two, however, all stem from the fact that a MOO can
be programmed, compiled, and saved while it is still running. This means that the
MOO doesn't have to be shut down for work to be done on it. In order to program
in IRC, however, it must be shut down, hacked, recompiled, and started up again.
As can be noted, the difference is more technical than pedagogical. In fact, MOO offers
many advantages to language learners. MOOs potential as a language learning tool has been
demonstrated by McCarty (1996), Bauman (1997), Gibbons (1997), Higgins (1997), and
Tyrer (1997), among others, all of whom focus on the social and cultural aspects of learning
via a MOO. It provides an opportunity for authentic language practice, a virtual haven where
learners can freely express themselves, and an international environment where they can make
acquaintances. Warschauer et al (1994) point out that such an environment encourages
introvert learners who might not feel at ease in a face-to-face exchange to engage in authentic
and anonymous conversations. Turbee (1996b) regards anonymity as an important feature in a
foreign language context as it enables learners who lack self-confidence to use the target
language in a way they might not in a face-to-face setting. Furthermore, Bruckman (1996)
notes that the success of MOO points to the power of helping people to be creative and
actively involved with technology. That MOO fosters independent learning is self-evident.
Learners take control of their learning situation while the teacher acts as a facilitator, who
guides her students on the screen.
c) Telephony
Telephony, or audio-conferencing, is a way of using the Internet as an alternative to the

main telephone network. A computer equipped with an Internet connection and a microphone
enables users to talk to each other live. Its main advantage is the low cost of long-distance
calls. Special types of software called voice-through-IP or voice-over-Internet applications are
needed to establish audio-conferencing. However, a low bandwidth can discredit the
educational use of this tool as it can result in voices being cut off or lost, thus rendering the
whole experience frustrating and annoying. Nevertheless, with the development of high-speed
connection, telephony is tremendously improving while the quality of voice helps reduce the
cost of international calls to equal that of a local phone call.
The educational utility of telephony is limited to the contribution it makes to developing

speaking skills, especially for learners lacking self-confidence who find it difficult to engage
60
in a face-to-face conversation. Many voice-through-IP software programs come out with a
text-based chat tool, providing at the same time a speaking and a writing facility together with
a virtual answering machine to save incoming calls when the computer is not attended. It
follows from this that telephony alone might not be as beneficial as when it is used in
conjunction with other tools. Stevens and Hewer (1998) conducted a study on the
combination of telephony and E-mail and found out that student oral output in telephony
improves in terms of fluency and confidence when contributions are rehearsed in advance by
E-mail.
d) Videoconferencing
The type of videoconferencing that is of relevance here is obviously the desktop

videoconferencing using the Internet, not the one using TV sets and telephone lines.
Videoconferencing is a means by which learners from geographically distant areas can
interact with each other in real time. They can hear and see each other and share ideas.
Videoconferencing can be point-to-point (i.e. directly linking two sites) or multi-site (i.e.
three or more sites). These types of links refer to the number of interconnected sites, not to the
number of participants. Accordingly, the quality of transmission is affected by the type of link
used.
Goodfellow et al (1996:5) considers videoconferencing as a technology which has an

immediate and beneficial application to language learning, because it enables face-to-face
communication at a distance. Videoconferencing is perhaps the only synchronous tool that is
capable of providing a high level of interaction and meaningful feedback. As pointed out by
McAndrew et al (1996), synchronous feedback to the speaker is a crucial component of oral
practice. It might be true that oral practice boosts participants motivation in a CALL
environment, but for dialogue to occur naturally, and with maximum effectiveness in terms
of reciprocal understanding, it is helpful if participants can also see each other, both to
motivate the dialogue and to allow visual cues to be used McAndrew et al (op. cit.). This
interactive multimedia capability can be harnessed to broadcast live lectures in digital format,
which can, in turn, be saved for asynchronous use later.
Moreover, videoconferencing is not costly at all. Any Internet-connected computer with

an ordinary video camera, a microphone, and special software (free or fairly cheap) can emit
and transmit a videoconferencing signal. The only problem might perhaps be that of
61
synchronization, which is ascribed to the speed of bandwidth. Desk-top videoconferencing
offers valuable support for interaction in distance education classes by virtue of its unique
feature of bringing students face-to-face with native speakers in authentic settings. The
value-added of videoconferencing for distance language learning is thus to make emote
interaction between participants more natural or closer to face-to-face communication, by
adding the visual dimension Goodfellow et al (op. cit.:6). However, Andrews (1994) warns
that a great deal of training is needed for both students and teachers if the medium is to be
truly interactive.
All in all, synchronous E-learning environments such as those cited above can get
frustrating at times, and often require intervention by ICT specialists. Klemm (2003)
recognizes that synchronous communication is educationally important. But it is not always
possible. Students and professors have conflicting schedules and in a distance education
environment find it difficult to schedule real-time communication either between students and
professor or among students. Moreover, while streaming technology with high bandwidth
should facilitate audio and video delivery, many computer configurations are, by and large,
not up to the required level. To get around this inadequacy, opting for asynchronous learning
tools might be a viable alternative.
I.3.2.2.2. Asynchronous E-learning
This is a type of computer-mediated communication that occurs with a time delay,

allowing users (students/teachers) to react at their own convenience and pace. In other words,
communication does not occur in real time. Like synchronous learning, asynchronous learning
can also be self-directed (learners communicating with peers without the control of a teacher)
or teacher-led (learners and learning managed by a teacher). However, unlike synchronous
learning, asynchronous learning does not require participants to be on-line at the same time.
Rather, there is an interval between when a message is sent by the addresser and when it is
used and reacted to by the addressee. Asynchronous tools provide access to course materials,
including digitized texts, multimedia of all types, and websites, all of which can be used
individually or collectively. In fact, this type of E-learning fosters collaboration among
participants. In addition, it is self-paced since it enables learners to complete assignments at
their own pace. When using asynchronous tools, differences in location and time zone are less
of an obstacle to communication. As Klemm (2003) points out, asynchronous learning is
extremely popular in distance education, because it enables anytime, anyplace
62
communication. Additionally, computer software that supports asynchronous communication
provides written documentation of who said what, when, and to whom. Examples of
asynchronous tools include E-mail, Listservs, discussion boards, and shared-document
collaboration systems.
a) E-mail
Electronic mail refers to the computer system by which text messages and attachments
files are sent and received through the Internet or a LAN. With the development of
hypermedia, new forms of E-mail now include multimedia content. This type of
communication being asynchronous, the addresser and addressee do not need to be online at
the same time. In fact, it takes a short while for an E-mail message to be delivered to its
destination. Although E-mail is largely text-based, it is more conversational than the
traditional text-based letter simply because the turnaround time is faster (Sherwood, 1994). E-
mail is not meant to do away with classical paper-based ways of communication (Murray,
2000). Rather, users adapt the tool to serve certain functions, thus become an additional mode
in their linguistic repertoire (Williams, 1999). Son and O'Neill (1999:70) observe that E-mail
is fast, convenient, inexpensive, and can be stored, modified and printed. It can transfer long
or short messages across the world to other people connected to the Internet.
There are many researchers who have dealt with the pedagogical value of E-mail in
language learning, among whom Kinkead (1987), Austin and Mendlick (1993), Warschauer
(1995), and Klemm (2003). In fact, the educational uses of E-mail are legion. Perhaps the first
thing that students like to do when they log on to the Internet is check their E-mail. Speaking
of its pedagogical impact, Crystal (2001:128) argues that Email has extended the languages
stylistic range in interesting and innovative ways. In my view, it is an opportunity, not a
threat, for language education. Therefore, a teacher should take advantage of this tremendous
energy and harness it by integrating email into her student-centered classroom so as to help
learners manage and control their own learning. It seems that almost all students have email
accounts of their own, which can be a very effective means of alternate communication
between the student and the teacher.
Warschauer (1995) exhorts teachers to make their E-mail address available to their
students as a way of leveling the playing field and overcoming the language and status
difficulties ESL students often have in communicating with their teachers. Students and
63
teachers can use Email to clarify doubts, arrange meetings, give/submit assignments,
administer/answer surveys, talk about school or personal considerations, or ask/answer
questions that they were too shy to ask or did not have time to ask in class. Speaking of the
latter point, Kroonenberg (1994/1995) contends that the most timid language students can
come alive while creating meaningful communication.
In addition to this, e-mail can be used for activities and projects such as online
publishing of electronic newsletters or magazines and electronic pals (also e-pals or key-pals).
Speaking of e-pals, Robb (1996:8) asserts that it is a highly motivating way for students to get
meaningful and valuable practice in reading and writing.
Not only can a keypal exchange improve specific skill areas, it can also have a
profound impact on your students attitude towards the target language and culture
and provide them with their first chance to really use the language outside the
classroom context.
Keypal exchange is a very common use of E-mail for language study. Students write E-
mails in the target language and send them to either a native speaker or a learner of the same
language, the objective being to improve writing and reading skills through meaningful
exchange of Emails. In fact, E-mail exchanges provide access to authentic language and a real
opportunity for interpersonal communication.
b) Listservs
Listservs (otherwise called newsgroups, majordomos, electronic discussion groups,

discussion lists, distribution lists, mailing lists, and mail list servers) refer to an E-mail-based
program that distributes messages to users on a computer network who share a common
interest and whose addresses are stored together on a list. The term Listserv is originally a
registered trademark of L-Soft International, Inc. Listservs originated on BITNET, a network
of educational sites different from the Internet, but they are now common on the Internet.
Listserv users are people who have signed up for discussions on a given topic. Any message
sent to a member of the listserv is automatically distributed to everyone else in the group.
Then, respondents examine the postings at their convenience and, if they wish, send back
replies to every subscriber to the list. While doing this, a set of rules and protocols termed
netiquette is observed. The service that manages the tool is hosted by a server on the Internet
that automatically redistributes messages to participants E-mail addresses. All messages that
pass through this tool are kept for reference by members or for retrieval by late-subscribers.
64
As LeLoup and Ponterio (1995a) point out, subscription in listservs is valuable and
beneficial for professional development, especially for those who live in geographically
remote areas. LeLoup and Ponterio (1994, 1995b) conducted a study on FLTEACH, a listserv
specialized in foreign language teaching, which sets a good model that discusses, among other
topics, various issues related to teaching methodology and provides, among other resources,
handouts, activities, lesson plans, syllabi, software, etc. In fact, there are so many listservs of
interest to so many potential participants. As Murray (2000) says, anyone who is on a listserv
(...) can attest to the volume of information, the variable quality of that information, and the
myriad pathways for retrieving information.
Although both asynchronous in structure, listservs are slightly different from

newsgroups. While listserv messages are sent to the subscribers E-mail address, newsgroup
messages are not. They are located at a particular URL (Universal Resource Locator) on the
Internet, especially on the web or Usenet, a separate Internet service which allows users to
search for, read about and write on a topic of their interest. Unlike listservs whose contents
and services are hosted by a well-defined Internet server, newsgroups are not hosted at any
particular server, but are passed on from one server to another according to topics or demands
of SIGs (special interest groups). These topics are organized in such a way that navigation
through them is easy and convenient. For example, newsgroups can be classified under
headings such as lang for language, efl for English as a foreign language, sci for
science, news for news, comp for computers, etc.
Most E-mail programs and web browsers usually have embedded tools that allow users
to navigate through newsgroup postings, post new messages, and, if they wish, create their
own newsgroup. Subscribers are not obliged to contribute to the newsgroup or listserv. They
can just lurk, i.e. read postings without responding to them.
One may think that educational uses of newsgroups and listservs are limited to reading
and writing, but, actually, their pedagogical benefit is well beyond that. It is true that little
research has been conducted on the use of newsgroups for EFL learners. Along constructivist
lines, language students can build their knowledge by consulting a wad of electronic
documents, thus acquiring knowledge management skills. The participatory approach of these
two tools fosters collaboration among learners. Besides, the chance of voicing ones say
makes no one feel isolated. Indeed, the fact of being exposed to different opinions on a given
65
issue helps in acquiring problem-solving skills enabling the learner to deal with difficult life
situations.
c) Discussion boards
Discussion board (also known as electronic bulletin board, discussion forum, computer
conferencing, or threaded discussion area) is a software program that allows some users to
post messages on-line and others to reply to those postings at times and places convenient to
them. Thus, one student might post a query on a given day, and another student in a different
time zone might reply the next day. Klemm (2003) notes that currently, the discussion board
is the de facto standard tool in distance education. Typically, an instructor posts a provocative
topic and asks the students to post opinions on the topic.
It should be noted that unlike the other asynchronous learning tools, discussion boards
are run from special software, which may come out as a stand-alone product or part of a
Learning Management System (LMS). With such software, structured dialogs can take place.
For example, a teacher can post a comment on the electronic board; then, students can post
their replies, with all of these postings being ordered according to date of entry. This
hierarchical arrangement of postings is what is meant by the term threaded in the
appellation threaded discussion area. A thread is likened to a continuous chain of postings
on a single topic.
The educational uses of discussion boards are similar to those of listservs and
newsgroups, except that the former has a facility that allows users to tracks down threads of
information through advanced search tools and links with several entries. Kasper (2000:114)
points out that these electronic discussions provided students with a context in which to
collaborate not only with peers in the physical classroom, but also with students in other parts
of the country and the world. However, Klemm (2003) finds flaws with this system. He
complains that discussion boards afford only a clumsy way for students to respond to each
others postings. Students cannot directly edit each others messages. There is no way to
annotate any given note in context; one must create a new note and place it in the appropriate
place in the topic outline. Students cannot even refer to each others content without cutting
and pasting text from the e-mail being referenced. He goes on to say that discussion boards
fail to compensate for the lack of personal interactions that typically occurs in a traditional
classroom and campus setting.
66
d) SDCC
SDCC or shared-document collaboration/computer conferencing (otherwise called

enterprise solutions, Web conferencing, meetingware, project ware, or peer-to-peer netware)
is a system in which documents (electronic files in text, audio, or video format etc.) are
accessed from a file server asynchronously and, according to document settings, modified and
redistributed by group members. As Klemm notes, shared-document computer conferencing
(SDCC) overcomes the limitations of bulletin boards. The basic advantage arises from
allowing students to share documents completely; that is, they can not only read each others
documents, but they can also edit each others documents.
The educational value of SDCC has been reviewed by many researchers including
Sherry et al (2000) and Klemm (2003). An SDCC software, designed and field-tested by
Klemm, is reported to allow students to insert, delete, and annotate shared documents in
context, create community documents, provide all the hypertext facility of Web pages, and,
most importantly,
1) accommodate independent teams of learners, 2) create workspaces for private

individuals or groups, 3) provide variable levels of shared access permissions to
any given document, and 4) support pop-up in-context sticky notes (writing in the
margins).
(Klemm, 2003: page)
Like discussion boards, SDCC systems require a special software program, which
provides shared workspaces for managing and modifying information, which leads to
evolving intellectual products that are continuously available for editing and annotation in
that same workspace by all peers and instructors (Klemm, op. cit.).
The asynchronous CMC, explains Lee (1999), has been widely used in the domain of
collaborative writing, brainstorming, and fostering critical thinking habits of the participants.
However, it is not without disadvantages. The fact that students do not get immediate
feedback from other participants, according to Lee (op. cit.), can cause frustration in terms of
spontaneous communicative purpose. The same frustration has been noted in synchronous
CMC. Additionally, the advantages and disadvantages of both modes of CMS seem to be in
complementary distribution. As stated earlier, all of the above-mentioned tools, be they
synchronous or asynchronous, are available as separate or embedded programs. However,
most of those tools can also be part of the suite of services in a course management system,
which is meant to provide a full array of E-learning tools.
67
1.3.2.2.2. Learning Management System
A learning management system (LMS) (also known as course management system,

integrated application software, online delivery system, educational delivery application, or
online tool suite) is a software program that contains a number of integrated learning/teaching
functions, both synchronous and asynchronous. Popular LMSs include WebCT, Blackboard,
e-College, and LearningSpace, to cite but a few. These LMSs provide a different way for
students to conduct discussions via IRC, E-mail and bulletin boards and for teachers to post
class notes and administer on-line quizzes, all within the same software package. This
Internet-based software manages, tracks and reports on every interaction made via its tools.
Thanks to this system, teachers can not only manage the flow of information, but also keep
track of the performance of the students, thus monitoring their progress and assigning grades.
In addition, an LMS can perform student registration and also indicate how much course
content has been covered.
WebCT (www.webct.com) is a widely used course delivery system that provides a

variety of course management functions and Blackboard (www.blackboard.com) allows
anyone to create an online course and make it available on the web for free or for a small fee.
There are many free services on the Internet that enable teachers, without knowledge of any
programming, to add an online component to their classes, or even host an entire course
online. These are web-based systems that can bring learning materials, class discussions, and
even tests online.
All applications discussed earlier in this section being integrated into one package, an
LMS has all their pedagogical values combined. Thus, it is easier for all parties involved in
the educational process (students, teachers, and course designers) to do their work from a
common interface than to do different tasks on different platforms. Such common interface
allows representation of various types of information (text, multimedia, files, etc.) through
hierarchical and multi-linear strands linked by hypermedia.
Developments in synchronous and asynchronous CMC are said to have brought a

promising future for E-learning. Unlike teacher-led learning and CD-ROM-based learning, E-
learning enables educational institutions to reach an unlimited student population via the
Internet, as a channel of course delivery, mentoring and feedback. In turn, any student from
anywhere can take courses anytime she sees convenient. Although Barnes (2003) warns that
68
the prevalence of CMC can bring to the fore the issue of cyberplagiarism, the benefits of
CMC in education outweigh its drawbacks. As Greenfield (2003) put it, CMC exchanges
offer a host of possibilities for increasing student language proficiency. Be that as it may,
skeptics and laggards should be reassured that E-learning will not take over the position of
conventional education anytime soon. Besides, some technical barriers are as yet to be
hurdled before E-learning can be said to prevail in the educational arena. In a nutshell, the
eventual maturation of E-learning depends on the progress made in bandwidth. The
commonest approach nowadays is what has been termed blended learning. Marsh (2001:1)
defines it thus:
... blended learning combines e-Learning tools (everything from video streaming
over the Web to e-mail) with traditional classroom training to ensure maximum
effectiveness. Students can prepare for, consolidate and recall classroom
experiences online, while gaining the benefits of interaction with teachers and
students via an actual or virtual classroom.
As such, blended learning can be used as a middle-of-the-road solution which draws the
best from the various existing delivery modes to achieve flexible, cost-effective education
capable of reaching a variety of students, characterized by diversity in geographical location
and learning styles and levels.
The following table compares the potentials of the three modes of delivery referred to
earlier, namely, E-learning, instructor-led learning, and CD-ROM learning.
69
Q Optimal E-Learning ILT CD-ROM
Hardware And Software Requirements

Access To Courses
Instructor Interaction
Cost
Dynamic And Fresh Content (version control)
Scalability
Interactivity With Other Learners
Immediate Access To Course Updates
Performance/Results Tracking
Consistency (instructor and format)
Retention
Flexibility To Learner (time, etc.)
Quantity Of Content
Personalization
Figure 1.3: Comparison of Learning Delivery Methods (Source: U.S. Bancorp Piper Jaffray)
I. 4. Conclusion
The extensive survey of the literature above has dealt with various issues related to the
development of CALL as a relatively new field of study in Applied Linguistics. Widespread
terms and acronyms in ICT and CALL have been defined and two approaches to computer
based education, namely teacher-centered and learner-centered, have been singled out.
Thereafter, a critical appraisal of the historical development of CALL was undertaken.
Since its inception in the early 1960s, CALL has never ceased developing. It has gone
through several stages of transformation at the level of technology and at the level of
pedagogy. CALL initially appeared on mainframe computers, then developed on personal
computer platforms, and, eventually, logged on to the information superhighway via the
networked multimedia computer. Throughout these stages a variety of applications have been
designed, but none have been so influential as those developed in the late 1990s onwards. At
the beginning, limitations of computer hardware narrowly restricted pedagogical options, but
subsequent developments in language teaching methodology and computer technology have
70
made major contribution to reach more interactive courseware, providing effective support for
the acquisition of listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills.
Another interest of this introductory chapter has been the scope of computer-based
education in terms of modes of delivery. CD-ROM as a popular medium for distributing
multimedia CALL was shown to be supportive of self-directed and self-paced learning in both
stand-alone and networked contexts. Computer mediated communication, which has given
rise to network-based learning, now allows access to authentic materials and inter-relates
learners from all over the world in both synchronous and asynchronous modes. CD-ROMs
and asynchronous E-learning have the advantage of enabling students to learn at their own
pace. Quick students are not held back by slower students. Additionally, full access to the
learning material gives students the possibility to practice at a level that is appropriate to their
abilities. Therefore, students can learn by themselves anytime they feel like it. Synchronous
E-learning, however, provide for live interaction in virtually real situations, thus fostering
communicative competence. When integrated into a single application with a clear
pedagogical goal, these tools enhance learning opportunities in an unprecedented way.
One major conclusion that can be retained from the foregoing is that computers have
now become ubiquitous commodities and a fact of life; therefore, transformations in the
educational arena are bound to happen. It is then important that all parties involved in the
educational process be prepared for the change. Morocco, as an emerging developing country,
cannot but join the digital trend of the global educational community. What are the authorities
in charge of educational reform doing to prepare the ground for a smooth and effective
integration of ICT in the Moroccan educational system? What infrastructure is in place? What
actions are being taken to eradicate the electronic illiteracy of the populations involved?
These, among other issues, constitute the concern of the next chapter.
71
Chapter Two:
The Integration of ICT in the Moroccan

Educational System
72
II.0. Introduction
The objective of this chapter is to set the background relating to the integration of ICT
in the Moroccan educational system. It is composed of five sections. The first one discusses
the applicability of computer-based education, particularly CALL, in the Moroccan context,
invoking the economic, technical and human factors affecting the computerization of the
sector. The second section looks into the reform plan proposed by the authorities, especially
aspects related to the integration of ICT in education. The third section is concerned with the
implementation of an action plan regarding the pedagogical use of computers and the Internet
in primary and secondary public schools. A project for computerizing higher education is
discussed in the fourth section. The fifth section discusses the issue of preparing/training
teachers to use ICT in their day-to-day teaching practices.
Morocco has a great ambition to put through its reform plan in many sectors including
that of education. In 1999, a special commission was set up to look into the problems facing
education and training in Morocco and draw up a charter that defines the fundamental
principles of the new system and the aims of the reform. As stated in the charter itself (First
Part, clause 21), the education and training sector is given top national priority after
territorial integrity. Among the recommendations put forward by this charter there is the
necessity of incorporating ICT in the educational system as a means of promoting the
proposed reform. Since its publication, some actors involved in the process of teaching and
training have started to eradicate their electronic illiteracy and gain hands-on experience in
using ICT in an attempt to comply with the exigencies of the rising information society and
prepare for new forms of teacher-student interaction in new learning environments.
Up till now, teaching (especially content-based) has been based on dissemination of

knowledge through the mediums of teacher and textbook. However, with the advent of
computers, multimedia and the Internet this long-standing situation has started to crumble.
Knowledge can now be made available on CD-ROM and the Internet. New parameters and
factors have made their way into the educational arena, compelling it to change for good. This
new state of affairs being taken for granted, what resources, assets and skills does Morocco
have to prove its ability to plunge into computer-based education?
73
II.1. The Applicability of Computer-based Education in Morocco
With the rise of globalization instigated by, among other factors, the unprecedented
boom in the world population and the necessity to serve the growing needs of this
population, a new world order characterized by the hegemony of a unipolar world policy, and
the revolutionary evolution of telecommunications including the mobile phone, satellite TV,
and the Internet, the whole world has virtually shrunk into a small village. This global
village, a notion proposed by Marshall McLuhan in the 1950s, is manifested locally in
information societies that are being gradually formed in many places around the world.
Economy, in turn, is shifting from one based on raw material and capital to one based on
information and know-how. The new global economic order as referred to by Warschauer
(2000b) or informationalism by Castells (1996) perforce impact all peoples of the world as
globalization undermines the notion of the state as a self-contained political or economic
entity.
The present post-industrial economy is characterized by its reliance on immaterial

production, which, of course, does not in any sense dispense with its great need for material
goods. According to Rowe (1993), power and authority in this type of economy are measured
less by the accumulation of economic surplus-value and more by understanding and control of
linguistic and other symbolic modes of representation. In the postmodern class hierarchies,
Rowe re-imagines labor power in relation to the making of discursive, representational, or
informational products. At the highest level of this postmodern class system, he includes
those capable of theorizing the production of commodities in intertextual, antiformal terms
of production as translation (p. 69). It follows from the foregoing discussion that the new
global (immaterial, knowledge-based, and information-based) economy requires highly
trained people, capable of adapting themselves to several situations by virtue of their
transferable skills, dispensing high quality expertise acquired through education and
experience, and finding solutions and making informed choices by virtue of problem-solving
and search skills.
To make up for its past lag, Morocco as a growing and leading African nation has
subscribed to this trend by adopting a number of strategies going along the lines of
globalization. So, in order to comply with the requirements of the new era, Morocco has
demonstrated its ability to meet the big challenges raised by a highly uneducated social fabric
and thus started a process of reform in all sectors in an attempt to achieve comprehensive and
74
sustainable development. Anxious to improve the telecommunication capacity of the country,
the government of Morocco has declared on several occasions since 1994 that it is determined
to invest in the sector of ICT as a catalyst for change. The government has thus launched
many projects intending to disseminate the use of ICT in active life: Administration en
ligne in 1998, Le plan 2008, une classe, un multimdia et Internet in 1999, and La
stratgie E-Maroc in 2001. This latter strategy hinges on five main axes:
1- Education, training, research and culture,
2- The administration and local collectivities,
3- Corporations and the economy,
4- Generalization of ICT in social life,
5- Electronic commerce.
The aim of this strategy is to reform and modernize public life in Morocco via the
infusion of ICT in all sectors. Every one has realized that it is no longer a matter of choice.
The world is changing and Morocco cannot afford to ignore the developments and
transformations occurring in other countries. It is believed that by computerizing the
administration, for instance, paper work will be reduced, inter-ministerial relations done
electronically, procedures made easy and, thus, the bureaucracy alleviated. The strategic bases
of the promotion of ICT in public administration for a better e-service are integrated in the
software program Idarati, put forward by the Ministry in Charge of Modernizing Public
Sectors, which aims at achieving a greater incorporation of the administration in the
information society. The years 2003 and 2004 saw a major transformation in e-service with
the launch of the social security website (www.damancom.ma), the customs portal
(www.douane.gov.ma), the Ministry of Justice website (www.justice.gov.ma), among other
websites. More details on this are available at www.egov.ma.
In order to succeed in such promising plans and projects, especially those related to the
sector of education, a number of factors need to be taken into account, namely, the socio-
economic condition of the country, the state of the ICT infrastructure in place, and the
qualification of the people on whom reliance to effectively integrate ICT is placed. Each of
these factors is treated separately in the following subsections.
75
II.1.1. The Socio-economic Context
As stated earlier, the fabric of the Moroccan society is characterized by a high rate of
illiteracy, which according to La Direction de la Statistique, reached 48.3% in 1999 (cf.
Indicateurs Sociaux, 1999: 133). The exigencies of modern society, which is based on
information and know-how, require its members to be not only literate, but also highly
educated in more than one language. Moreover, citizens in this society must be adaptable to
rapid change, able to cooperatively cope with complex problems using advanced
technological solutions, and able to compete in a global marketplace. In addition, there is a
notable demographic boom that goes on in parallel with the development efforts being made.
With this dimension in view, the burden of upgrading the quality of literacy, and thus the
standard of living, proves to be considerably challenging.
The efforts made by governmental and non-governmental agencies to eradicate

illiteracy are geared towards refining the life style of the Moroccan people, thus rendering
them able to make informed choices and prepared to function in a rising information society.
Without quality literacy, among other things, it seems almost inconceivable that people could
be willing to purchase a personal computer or use the Internet. However, the lingering high
rate of illiteracy has given rise to a culture characterized more by orality than by literacy,
hence the unprecedented success of the mobile phone in Morocco. The number of subscribers
in the mobile phone networks of the two operators is at the threshold of 10 million.
In recent years, Morocco has been trying to change its economic activity from its
reliance on agriculture as an unstable sector that depends heavily on rainfall to the more
relatively stable service-based economy such as telecommunications and ICT. Morocco, as a
member of the WTO (World Trade Organization), needs to upgrade its vital sectors by
enhancing the quality of production and service and training the working force and personnel
in order to be able to secure a place in the global market. Obviously, for this change to come
about, developing the required expertise through focused training is necessary and preparing
potential domestic customers through dissemination of literacy is even more essential.
Although the policy of generalizing schooling was one of the key principles of National
Education since independence, it is only recently that this policy has started to yield some
promising results. In 2002, the Ministry of National Education expressed its intention to
enable 92% of six-year-old children to enroll in different primary schools across Morocco
76
Despite the relative success of these efforts, as more than 92% were actually registered
that year, the drop-out rates are notable, especially among girls studying in isolated areas, and
the quality of education dispensed, especially in rural areas, leaves much to be desired. The
majority of schooled children have barely learned basic literacy skills based on traditional
media. So, there is little room to talk about electronic literacy and media such as CMC
(Computer Mediated Communication) at this stage although a very tiny minority of those
children have indirectly benefited from a project sponsored by USAID (US Agency for
International Development) in which primary school teachers are trained to integrate ICT in
teaching. More is said about this project below (cf. Section 2.1.3.).
Public education in Morocco is free, and according to the law, primary schooling up to
the age of 15 is compulsory (Royal Decree issued on 22 November 1963, published in Le
Bulletin Officiel n 2665). In addition to this, more than three quarters of the budget allotted to
this sector comes from government funding. This financial burden, it is claimed, tends to curb
the translation of educationalists and pedagogues efforts into effective projects. The
instability of the economy, the shortage of domestic financial resources, and the inability of
parents/guardians to pay school fees prompted the government to seek funds from
international organizations. Moreover, the policy of generalization suffers from a number of
setbacks that curtail the dissemination of literacy to large segments of the population. Among
these setbacks one can mention the seclusion and remoteness of some rural areas, population
dispersion or overcrowding, the appalling condition of access roads, lack of appropriate
infrastructure, not to speak of the dearth of teaching aids, unequipped classrooms, mixed
ability and multi-level classes, and low teacher remuneration.
No matter how big the challenges are, Morocco has expressed time and again its
intention to never relinquish the struggle for long term reforms leading to sustainable
development. A further look into the characteristics of the social fabric of Morocco in terms
of demography, literacy, GDP, and ICT is in order. The following table summarizes the facts
covering two years (2003-2004).
77
Population 1 29,891,708
Illiteracy rates 2 48.3%
GDP per capita 3 DH 12.18
Growth rate 4 3.3%
Fixed line phone subscribers 5 1,200,000
Mobile phone subscription 6 8,500,000
Computer ownership 7 400,000
Dial-up Internet subscribers 8 80,000
Internet users 9 2,000,000
Table 2.1: Key figures on the Moroccan population
Notes: The data in this table are taken from different sources, 1-
September, 2004: Haut Commissariat au Plan
(http://www.recensement.hcp.ma), 2- La Direction de la Statistique, 3-
International Telecommunication Union (www.itu.int), 4- LOpinion
(December 2004), a Moroccan French Language daily newspaper
(www.lopinion.ma), 5-6-7- Moroccan Internet Society (www.misoc.ma),
8- Sangonet (http://www3.sn.apc.org/africa), 9- Misoc.
Although these figures put Morocco on top of many African nations, especially as far as
ICT is concerned (See Table 2.3 below), illiteracy rates and GDP unfortunately drag it down
to the bottom of the list. Despite the disparity of the figures, high hopes are pinned on the fare
schooling rate, the awareness of the locomotive intelligentsia and the willingness of the
authorities to speed up the growth rate and build a state of rights and law based on principles
of modernity, openness to the world, and ability to meet challenges. Moreover, there is an
active civil society that is gaining more momentum on the scene, as large segments of the
population are being helped to organize themselves into NGOs that seek to solve their own
problems with financial and logistic assistance from government and international bodies.
Preparing for the challenges of globalization, the state has started to privatize many
sectors including that of telecommunications and has granted some kind of autonomy to many
institutions such as universities. Furthermore, decision making is no longer monopolized by
central high-ranking authorities, as more responsibilities and power are being devolved to
local directors and elected entities. Personal initiative and enterprising activities are
encouraged, the purpose being to involve all parties in the general development process
(thinking locally and acting globally). Taking stock of the long-term bearing of globalization
on education, the late King Hassan II addressed a letter to one of his advisors in 1999 asking
him to form a special committee to be in charge of drawing up a national charter on education
and training. In this letter, the king said:
78
... the globalization of economy and the globalization of trade constitute distinctive
signs of the coming [(21st)] century. States and nations are dragged to an exacerbated
competition and the advancement of modern technologies is tremendous. Moreover,
in order to confront these challenges, it is pressing to set up an educational system
which can train citizens who possess all keys to knowledge and who interact in
harmony with the spirit of modernity so as to assimilate the scientific and
technological progress and use it for the benefit of our society while constantly
adapting oneself to it.
(Cf. Le Matin, Nov. 26, 1999) Translation mine.
So, the advisor, heading the said special committee, set out to draft a charter along the
lines of what came in the letter addressed to him. This is further elaborated in Section 2.2.
below.
There is fear, however, that access to information technology may not be on equal
footing. This is what is referred to as the digital divide, which does not only affect nations
of the South (developing agrarian countries) in comparison to those of the North (developed
industrialized countries), but also falls along lines of gender, wealth, social status, and area of
residence (whether rural, urban or suburban). Addressing the consequential issues of
integrating ICT in education, Warschauer (2000c) points out that
... two main discourses have appeared: the discourse of reform and the discourse of
inequality. The discourse of reform suggests that schools must transform themselves
in order to make effective use of computers (...) [while] the discourse of inequality
[predicts that] increased use of technology in the schools is bound to heighten
distinctions among students based on class, language, and race.
In Morocco, the discourse of reform revolves not only around the use of computers but
also the upgrading of education and the enhancement of the quality of teaching. The discourse
of inequality, however, is not instigated by the introduction of computers, as flagrant forms of
inequality have been around long before. Education is a stratified sector in Morocco with the
children of the well-to-do (the haves) having the privilege of attending classes of high
academic quality in private schools or French Mission Institutions and the poor (the have
nots) contenting themselves with mass education dispensed by state-owned public schools
that are notorious for, among other things, their lack of basic infrastructure, relatively low
standard of education, and remoteness from some rural sites.
To bridge the gaps (digital and otherwise), it is believed that effective use and
integration of ICT in key sectors of the country constitute a driving force behind the launch of
development in its broad sense. As put by Castells (1998:92), the ability to use and adapt ICT
is the critical factor in generating and accessing wealth, power, and knowledge in our time.
79
Having said this, it is important to look into the current technological infrastructure and rates
of ICT use in Morocco.
II.1.2. The Technological Infrastructure
In addition to the high rates of illiteracy and the orality of the Moroccan culture, the
penetration of ICT among the literate population is modest, not to say fair for a start. Worthy
of consideration is the rate at which the computerization of public sectors is taking place and
the state of the ICT infrastructure already in place. It is also important to know what portion
of ICT equipment is devoted to the field of education. In dealing with the technological
infrastructure, reference will be made to three main components of ICT, namely the mobile
phone, the computer, and the Internet.
As mentioned earlier, the mobile phone saw an unprecedented success with the great
number of subscribers that has vastly outstripped the number of fixed-line subscribers. To
create an environment of competition and to open the Moroccan market to foreign investment,
the government granted a license to exploit a second mobile phone network by a Spanish-
Moroccan operator and sold more than 51% of its shares in the historical operator (Maroc
Telecom) to the French giant Vivendi. To ensure fairness in competition and to prevent
monopoly, the government set up the ANRT (Agence Nationale pour la Rglementation des
Telecommunications), an autonomous regulating body in charge of monitoring operator
practices, controlling publicity, and arbitrating between operators in case of dispute. Such
move made the previously state-owned operator more customer service oriented and led to
prices plummeting to affordable levels, which cannot but be in favor of the end consumer.
This sector owes its success, among other things, to the orality dimension of the
Moroccan culture, which, in turn, is due to the high rate of illiteracy. Given the fact that large
segments of the uneducated population have some numeracy skills and given the wide-spread
reliance on oral communication, the dial service of the mobile phone is the most heavily used
of all services provided by the two operators. Thanks to the convergence of radio technology
and the satellite communication system into the mobile phone, subscribers can have a
personal connection to the Internet to check or send E-mail or consult a website. The newly
integrated mobile technologies such as GPRS (General Packet Radio Service), a non-voice
value added service that allows information to be sent and received over a mobile telephone
network, and MMS (Multimedia Messaging System), a service that allows digital pictures to
80
be sent and received from a mobile phone to another, have developed considerably over the
past few years but have yet to become extensively used by the current mobile subscribers. The
growth of these technologies is largely related to growth of Internet usage in Morocco and by
extension the growth of literacy, both traditional and electronic.
The growth of electronic literacy in Morocco depends in large part on the

schooling/literacy rates, the degree of integrating ICT in public life, and the extent to which
people have access to computers. Within the framework of the E-Maroc strategy, the
government sets out to computerize the administration and generalize the use of ICT in
society. Two ministerial departments have been created to accelerate this process: Secretariat
of State in Charge of the Post, Telecommunications, and Information Technology (SEPTTI),
and the Ministry in Charge of Modernizing Public Sectors (MCMSP). A progress report
published by SEPTTI in November 2003 states that 100% of state-owned offices, 80% of
administrations, and 11% of local collectives have an ICT structure of some sort. In an article
published on Menara website (www.menara.ma) in April 2002, it was stated that only 5% of
urban homes own a computer.
The UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) notes that ICT is perhaps the
central development issue at the dawn of the new millennium. Not only are the technologies
the key to economic growth, they can impact on most pressing global issues. (UNDP Panel
of Experts: 2001, http://www.undp.org/ info21/new/n-ecosoc.html). In a UNDP report about
the number of personal computers (self-contained computers in use that are designed to be
operated by a single user at a time) in use in 2001, Morocco was ranked at the 86th position
worldwide, alongside many emerging countries, and the penetration rate among the
population was set at 1.40 (http://globalis.gvu.unu.edu/). Since then the situation must have
changed considerably, as confirmed by a recent status report published by Misoc in May
2004. Misoc reports that the majority of computers in Morocco are Pentium II (400.000) and
that computer acquisition rate is 100.000 workstation per annum. The state of the computer
infrastructure in the Moroccan administration, as reported by SEPTTI, is shown in the
following table, the average number of workstations for each administration being 220:
81
IBM-compatible computers Macintosh
Pentium > 200 MHz 486 / Pentium < 200MHz computers
60% 38% 2%
Table 2.2: The computer infrastructure in the Moroccan administration
As these percentages indicate, more than a third of the computers in use in the
Moroccan public administration are obsolete, which means that the rate of hardware
upgrading is rather low. In a report by SEPTTI, the hardware renovation concerned 80% of
the administration in 2001. As for the networking infrastructure, the report indicates that 39%
of the administration possesses an Intranet structure, while only 26% of public offices and
11% of local collectivities do so.
As for the Internet, it was first launched in Morocco in 1995 and MTDS (Morocco
Trade and Development Services, www.mtds.com), the first Internet Service Provider (ISP),
installed the first Internet node connected to the global network at Al-Akhawayn University in
Ifrane later in the same year. A year later, access to the Internet by the general public was
launched, which explains the relatively rapid popularity of the Information Superhighway and
the proliferation of ISPs and cyber-spaces all over the Moroccan territory. There are 160
Internet service providers in Morocco, the majority of which are located in Rabat, Casablanca
and Tangier (Morocco Today, www.morocco-today.info). As for the number of cyber-cafs, it
grew to 200 nationwide in 1999 and went on growing for one more year, but the number
started to fall as more and more people opted for having Internet connection at home.
In 1999, Dabbagh Information Technology Group (www.dit.net) announced that the

number of Internet users in Morocco was 32.500 and that this number grew by 26% annually.
The actual Internet progress rate, however, is well beyond the predictions of the group.
According to Internet World Stats (www.InternetWorldStats.com), an international website
featuring up-to-date worldwide Internet usage statistics and population data for over 233
countries and world regions, Morocco counted 800.000 Internet users in 2004, as Table 2.3
below shows.
82
Top 10 Internet- Population Internet Users Use Growth Population Users
using countries ( 2004 Est.) Dec. 2000 Sept. 2004 (2000-2004) (Penetration) in Africa
1 South Africa 47,556,900 2,400,000 3,523,000 46.8 % 7.4 % 27.2 %

2 Egypt 68,648,500 450,000 2,700,000 500.0 % 3.9 % 20.9 %
3 Morocco 30,552,000 100,000 800,000 700.0 % 2.6 % 6.2 %
4 Nigeria 154,491,100 200,000 750,000 275.0 % 0.5 % 5.8 %
5 Tunisia 10,001,400 100,000 630,000 530.0 % 6.3 % 4.9 %
6 Algeria 32,080,000 50,000 500,000 900.0 % 1.6 % 3.9 %
7 Zimbabwe 14,712,000 50,000 500,000 900.0 % 3.4 % 3.9 %
8 Kenya 33,520,700 200,000 400,000 100.0 % 1.2 % 3.1 %
9 Sudan 34,222,000 30,000 300,000 900.0 % 0.9 % 2.3 %
10 Tanzania 36,581,300 115,000 250,000 117.4 % 0.7 % 1.9 %
NOTES: Data on this table were updated on September 30, 2004 and are taken from different sources,
including www.InternetWorldStats.com and www.nielsen-netratings.com. Population numbers are
based on the data contained in www.gazetteer.de.
Table 2.3: Internet usage statistics for Africa
Since the Internet is likely to be used only by literate people, who constitute 51.7% of
the overall population (see Table 2.1 above), the penetration rate among the literate
population should be higher than the 2.6% announced by Internet World Stats. At any rate,
Morocco comes in a leading position among African nations. Although only 6% of the
worlds Internet users live in the developing world, 84% of the worlds population lives in
such countries (Futurist, 2000). This digital gap is further accentuated by the disparities that
exist between the industrialized countries of the North, whose populations afford to use ICT,
and the poor countries of the South, whose populations still lack the basic facilities. Several
studies, however, place Morocco among the leading countries using ICT in Africa and among
the top ten using the Internet. Based on the table above, the following graph represents the
portion of Internet users in Africa.
83
Morocco
Nigeria
8%
7%
Tunisia
6%
Algeri
a
5%
Egypt 26% Zimbabwe

5%
Keny
a
4%
Sudan
South Africa 34%
3%
Tanzania
2%
Figure 2.1: Top 10 Internet Users in Africa (2004)
One common hindrance to using the Internet in developing countries is that the
monthly connection cost of the Internet far exceeds the monthly income of a significant
portion of the population (United States Internet Council 2000: http://www.usic.org). Time
and again, ICT in general and the Internet in particular have been considered as instigators of
development. Heeks (1999:12) believes that poor population must gain eventually from
adopting technology, because technology is development. As reported in Mbambo
(2001:19), Ticoll (2000) expresses his concern that an unplanned, unfocused and
uncoordinated spread of Internet connectivity will further the process of globalisation without
securing any real benefits for developing countries.
If access to technology is restricted by financial obstacles, then the so-called digital

divide cannot but intensify. Initially, connection to the Internet in Morocco cost DH 50.00
per hour in public cyber-spaces and very few people had the connection at home. Later, the
cost dropped to DH 10.00/hour then DH 6.00/hour, but a few people opted for having a home
connection. This was true to some extent up till the introduction of ADSL (Asymmetric
Digital Subscriber Line) in 2003. ADSL is a high-speed digital connection that operates over
an existing telephone line, allowing the same line to be used for both logging on to the
Internet and making phone calls. What is economical about ADSL is that there is a fixed
monthly fee to be paid regardless of how much time is spent on line. It has been noted that
since the launch of this new technology, the number of Internet subscribers has increased
84
exponentially. ITMaroc.com (2004) reports a growth rate of 540% since December 2003.
Indeed, with the arrival of ADSL, the Internet has experienced an upswing in Morocco, where
it is now seen not only as an information provider, but also as a driving force in education and
training.
Contrary to what Internet World Stats declare, Moroccan Internet Society or Misoc for
short (www.misoc.ma) claims that the number of Internet users was estimated in mid 2004 at
2,000.000. Misoc, the first of its kind in Africa, is an NGO whose objective is to promote the
use of the Internet in Morocco. Since its foundation in 1995, i.e. the same year when the
Internet was officially launched in Morocco, it has organized several workshops and seminars
in different cities around Morocco (Computer Industry Almanac, 1999; www.c-i-a.com). In a
study-day held in Marrakech on May 22, 2004, Misoc announced the latest statistics on
Internet use in Morocco:
Internet users Subscribers/day .ma domains All domains Bandwidth
2,000,000 400 8,000 10,000 600 Mg/s
Table 2.4: Internet growth in Morocco (in 2004)
SEPPTI, in turn, published the figures relating to Internet usage and involvement in the
public administration, state-owned offices, and local collectivities in 2003. While Table 2.5
shows the technical aspects of Internet connection, Table 2.6 indicates the rates of
exploitation of the available Internet services, i.e. E-mail and the Web.
Internet connection ISP Internet connection Access mode

type bandwidth
LS RTC RNIS IAM Local 128 Kb 64 Kb 56 Kb network isolated
providers
Administration 75% 20% 6% 89% 11% 43% 41% - 78% 28 %
Offices 52% 10% 4% 83% 17% 43% 13% - 59% 55%
Local 25% 50% 25% 75% 25% 25% 25% 50% 25% 75%
Collectivities
Table 2.5: Modes of Internet connection in the public sector
LS : (Fr. Liaisons Spcialises)

RTC: (Fr. Rseau Tlphonique Commut)
RNIS : (Fr. Rseau Numrique Intgration de Services)
85
Personnel
Internet Email host Rate of
Web Domain Contact with Usefulness
connection Email
sites names E-mail Email of Email
rate usage
accounts Local ISP
Administration 70% 47% 56% 59% 1% 74% 20% 41% 63%
Offices 100% 70% 70% 91% 3,5% 64% 36% 48% 73%
Local 44% 22% 33% 33% 1 0% 100% 11% 100%

Collectives
Table 2.6: Presence on the web and E-mail usage rate in the Moroccan public sector
What these figures reveal is that even with the relatively obsolete ICT infrastructure and
the low rate of hardware upgrading, the Internet utilities are not exploited to the full. The
majority (70%) of state-owned offices, which are generally privileged by the government, is
present on the web with independent domain names; however, only 3.5% of the personnel
have an E-mail account! The same thing can be said about the administration, where only 1%
of the staff have an E-mail account, and local collectivities, where 1 in a thousand staff
members has E-mail. This is so despite the fact that the majority of the public sector
employees are aware of the usefulness of E-mail as an effective means of communication,
both internally and externally. In fact, the rate of E-mail usage among those who already have
personal E-mail accounts is only around the average for the administration and offices, while
it is only 11% for local collectivities. It remains to seen how much usage is made of the
contact E-mail addresses by the general public.
As for the private sector, only a third of the companies declared at the Social Security
Fund (CNSS) in 2002 have Internet connection (25,000 out of 75,000 companies) according
to Menara website (www.menara.ma). Moreover, E-mail usage rates are said to be high in
multinational corporations. Detailed statistics for the private sector are not available, but, by
and large, the situation does not differ a lot from the public sector. The overall Internet
connectivity in Morocco is relatively not high, but the government has launched a few
projects that will propel Morocco into the global information society. Although there are as
yet few virtual institutions identifiable on the Internet, the scope of ICT usage has improved
considerably over the last few years.
In a survey on Internet usage in Morocco carried out by IEC Marketing and reported by
Pastore in Geographics (2001), it was found that the average Internet user is a single man
under the age of 35, that almost 70% of users are aged between 21 and 35, and that only
86
one-quarter are women. These figures are very significant for education because the majority
of the teacher population in Morocco are aged over 35 and thus it is important to know their
ratio to the general public. In an interview, Mrabet, a professor at the ENSIAS (Ecole
Nationale des Sciences Informatiques et Analyse des Systmes), Rabat, said to ITMaroc.com
(Jul. 26, 2004) that Morocco, through its administration, corporate companies and training
institutions, must subscribe to the process of globalization by using ICT as a means of
development. It remains to be said, however, that entry into the global information society
requires special skills which are addressed in the next section.
II.1.3. The Challenge of Human Resources
It goes without saying that no development project can be successful without taking into
consideration the human being as the agent of change and target of development. Castells
(1998:92) argues that the ability to use and adapt ICT is the critical factor in generating and
accessing wealth, power, and knowledge in our time. It follows then that the creation of
wealth depends in large part on the development of human resources that will generate this
wealth. With the rapid changes brought about by globalization and technological
development, teachers need to understand the current socio-economic factors and their
influence on education and be, at the same time, willing to contribute to the growing
information society by adapting themselves to the new situation. This is possible if ICT use is
incorporated within the process of teacher training and development.
If the ratio of ICT specialists to personnel in public administration is 13 to 5,123

(0.25%) and in state-owned offices 35 to 3,740 (0.93%) as announced by SEPTTI in a 2003
report, then the solution to the issue of the lack of ICT skills among the personnel is to adopt a
strategy of in-service training. However, according to the same report, only 2% of the
administration personnel and 12% of the staff in state-owned offices benefited from an in-
service training program. The report also notes that there is a problem of brain drain as 1out
of 3 newly recruited ICT specialists leaves the administration and while each state-owned
office takes in 5 ICT specialists, 6 leave their jobs.
While the Moroccan population is in an advantageous position as far as its demographic

structure is concerned, graduates in ICT-related disciplines constitute only a small proportion
of the educated population. According to APEBI (Association des Professionnels des
Technologies de lInformation), the number of ICT graduates does not exceed 2,634 a year
87
and the number of students doing ICT studies constitutes only 4.5% of the university students
(cf. APEBI, 2001: 40). As for ICT-based vocational training, it is taken care of by the OFPPT
(lOffice de la Formation et de la Promotion du Travail), which, according to APEBI, trains
695 technicians specialized in information systems, 440 technicians in data processing and
office packages, and 20 technicians specialized in multimedia production. These numbers are
far from being satisfactory for the market needs, which, according to APEBI, will grow to
103,000 ICT professionals in 2008 (cf. APEBI, 2001: 43). In an attempt to satisfy the
requirements of the local market in terms of ICT expertise, the Moroccan government
launched in 2006 a nationwide program to incite specialized institutions to train more students
so as to reach 10,000 ICT engineers by 2010 (www.maroc.ma).
As far as general academic education is concerned, it is not known how computer

literate students or teachers are. What is known, however, is that the in-service training of
educationalists has been provided for in the National Charter of Education and Training
(NCET). What actions have been and are being taken by the various parties involved in
education? Many educationalists are talking the talk, but what is more interesting is to see if
they are walking the walk. As effective use of ICT requires changes in teaching
methodology, teachers need to be prepared for the new roles and trained for the new
techniques. One of the research questions that this study seeks to answer is related to training
teachers to use ICT in the pedagogical process. This is further discussed in IV.1.1.3. and
VI.2.2.2.
II.2. A Look into the Stipulations of the NCET
The world has undergone radical changes at the turn of the last century as a result of the
disintegration of the communist block. As the world policy makers pull towards a unipolar
world order, most member parties of what has been referred to as non-alliance countries have
fallen under the sway of globalization. Among the areas that have been affected by this trend
there is education, whose authorities have become aware of the fact that programs of study
need to comply with new arrangements and circumstances so as to prepare not only
functioning graduates ready to operates in the job markets but also able citizens of the
world who are responsive to everything that happens in the global village.
With the ever growing demands of the modern information society, educational systems
of the global village that of Morocco included are urged to train world citizens to function
88
in new domains and in different situations by helping them learn (not teaching them)
transferable skills that will allow them to adapt quickly and problem solving skills that will
allow them to retain their utility as productive citizens who contribute to sustainable
development. Therefore, an educational system based on rote learning of information and
lecturing cannot live up to the demands of the new era. Moroccan students need to learn to
think independently and critically so as to come to the level of being able to search, analyze
and synthesize information. The educational system should be able to turn students from a
community of learners to a learning community, to quote Sergiovannis (1994) words.
A quick look at the development of events suggests that subscribing to the process of
change is an inevitable matter and that the longer the delay, the more devastating the
repercussions will be. Both educationalists and decision-makers have become aware of the
importance of integrating ICT in the learning and training process because of its roles as a
tool of information management and a medium of communication. Personal computers have
been around for about 30 years, a period which was characterized by major changes in the
type of technology they incorporate. Multimedia was introduced about halfway through the
period and the web was launched in 1993. ICT is here to stay with even more developments
both in the hardware part and the software part. This is the type of world many children have
found themselves in; thus, elementary schools ought to prepare the active population of
tomorrow in the use and functioning of ICT. This is no easy task, given the fact that schools
are behind the curve when it comes to owning technology, let alone utilizing it.
It is in this spirit that the NCET has been drawn up. With the digital world quickly
moving ahead, the national educational institutions must find ways to invest in technology,
train staff, and be flexible so as to keep up with the world around. As mentioned earlier, the
educational sector is given top priority in the Moroccan reform agenda, which explains the
royal patronage of the reform commission set up by the kings advisor. The task of this
commission or COSEF (Commission Spciale dEducation et Formation) was defined by the
late king HM Hassan II in a letter addressed in 1999 to his advisor who was instructed to
select committee members and draft a charter along the guidelines mentioned in the letter:
The task of this committee is to propose fundamental options which will allow an in-
depth reform of this vital sector in accordance with our ultimate goal of building
Moroccos national school of tomorrow, a school worthy of carving out a place in the
next century.
89
King Mohammed VI has also reiterated the objectives of the reform in his first Throne
Speech on July 30, 1999 by declaring that:
(...) The issue of education is at the top of our present and future preoccupations for
its extreme importance, its impact on the training of generations and preparing them
for entering professional life in order to contribute to the building of the nation with
competence, know-how, abnegation, and faithfulness. This is to aspire to enter the
21st century by highlighting scientific potentialities, technological innovations of the
time as well as wide perspectives they open for the subscription in the process of
globalization. (...)
To meet the nations needs, COSEF has identified issues critical to improving education
and thus set up reform criteria accordingly. These issues include:
1. Disparities by gender, urban- rural residence, and income;
2. Declines in the quality of education;
3. Mismatches between skills and jobs; and
4. An overly centralized education administration and staffing.
The NCET came into existence in late 1999, and yet there has been little progress as far
as the general approach to the educational process is concerned; and there is little evidence
that our educational system is developing the above-mentioned skills in Moroccan students.
Although educational actors are faced with mandates for the infusion of ICT in the
curriculum, ICT is not universally seen as a panacea for current educational problems. Unless
changes are introduced into the educational framework, the reform will go the way of
previous attempts. However, some scholars like Sakamoto (1992; 1996; and 1999) believe
that educational reform is possible by ICT integration. Thus, the NCET has been drafted and
presented in two major parts, the first dealing with the basic tenets of the educational system
and the second with the areas of reform and pivots of change, including the question of ICT
integration. Four years after the CNET has seen light, it is important to see how practicable its
recommendations are and how much ground has been covered so far. For the purpose of the
current study, special focus will be placed on the part where the NCET addresses the
integration of ICT in the educational system and training teachers to use it.
While the NCET defines the underlying philosophy of using ICT in education,
concerted efforts need to be made in order to implement the philosophy on the ground. Such a
90
philosophy is not obviously supposed to show or explain how to effectively use ICT; nor is it
predisposed to demonstrate how it is going to remedy the current inadequacies in the system.
Rather, it deals with the principles defining the framework of application. This, among other
concerns, constitutes the backbone of this chapter.
II.2.1. ICT in the Basic Tenets of the NCET
The First Part of the NCET, entitled Basic Tenets, is further subdivided into two
subparts. The first one lists the permanent foundations of the educational system and the
second one sets its major aims. The five permanent foundations of the NCET are meant to be
guiding principles of the currently undertaken reform and basic assumptions of the Moroccan
educational system as a whole. Some of these foundations are said to be deeply rooted in the
Moroccan identity characterized by cultural diversity in its Arabic and Amazigh (Berber)
dimensions and long-standing values like Islam and Constitutional Monarchy, while others
are globally recognized as Human values like openness to the Other, modernity, respect of
human rights, etc. Among the five permanent foundations there is one that deals with the use
of ICT, namely:
The system of education and training aspires to make the country move forward in
the conquest of science and in the mastery of advanced technologies. It thus
contributes to strengthening its competitiveness and its economic, social and human
development, at a time characterized by openness to the world.
(NCET, Part I, Art. 5) Translation mine.
History and experience have shown that education is not only a system of imparting
knowledge or apprenticeship, but also the main locus of productive activity. Then, the
rationale behind the tenet above is to make of Moroccan students and trainees active
producers and not just mere consumers of science and technology. As the world moves
toward knowledge-based economy, it is important that Morocco carves out a place in the
twenty-first century by dispensing quality education to students and trainees in order to equip
them with the skills and tools that will enable them to be competitive. Despite the current
economic constraints related to inflation and unemployment, Morocco is determined to invest
in the new technologies by opening up to foreign investment. Besides, many multinational
corporations and global companies have chosen to open regional subsidiaries in Morocco as a
leading country in North-West Africa. Indeed, Casablanca has become a regional hub for
many multinationals working in the ICT sector. Thus, it hosts the regional headquarters of
91
Microsoft, Oracle, IBM, Compaq, Hewlett Packard, Dell, Wanadoo, Telefonica, Motorola,
Samsung, Alcatel, and Ubisoft, among others.
The potentials of ICT in economic, social and human development are already being
felt in the constant growth of ICT usage and the expansion of the sector. A communiqu
issued by the Royal Palace after the meeting of the committee of experts for the promotion of
investment presided by HM king Mohammed VI on July 10, 2000 underscored the potential
of ICT in the creation of employment opportunities and recruitment of the youth, especially
the graduates, and the integration of sensitive sectors such as the administration, education,
and services, taking into account the positive impact of ICT on all economic and social
sectors (cf. APEBI, 2001:18). Hopefully, the convergence of efforts made in all sectors will
help Morocco make a historic leap into the global information society. However, major efforts
need to be made in the field of education and training in order to make of it a catalyst for
change. The maturity date of the reform whose courses of action are outlined in the NCET
is set for 2009. In fact, Article 20 of the NCET states that the 2000-2009 decade is declared
national decade of education and training.
The objective of the fifth clause in the permanent foundations of the NCET is to make
of Morocco a producer of science and technology. However, given the fact that Moroccan
scientific institutions lack international recognition and the slim budgets allocated to scientific
research, a lot has to be done to train experts and build confidence in their potential. Key to
the issue of training is the question of language of instruction. Moroccos educational system
is known for its multilingual facets (Tamazight, Arabic, French, Spanish and English).
Moroccan students have to struggle with this linguistic diversity early in primary school,
which creates some kind of frustration as to what linguistic path to pursue. Learning science
in the mother tongue is costly as a lot of translation from foreign language references is
required. The frustration becomes even more serious when science graduates cannot function
in the other languages as effectively as they would in the language in which they have
received their training. It is known that science has for ever been an institutionalized global
enterprise, which renders its findings a common capital. However as English is the
internationally recognized language of science and technology, progress entails an
understanding of this language.
English is generally known as the lingua franca of science and the language of
communication par excellence. The majority of science journals and references are published
92
in English or translated into it. According to Garfield and Emeritus (1998), 95% of articles
were published in English in 1997 and according to Graddol (1997:50) English is the
medium for 80% of the information stored in the worlds computers. It should be noted then
that to make ones voice heard in the realm of science and technology, it is important that
Moroccan scientists publish their findings in specialized journals written in English, thus
leading to what has been termed scientific acculturation (cf. Hodgson, 1993). Hasman
(2000:4) considers English as a tool that opens windows to the world, unlocks doors to
opportunities, and expands minds to new ideas. Thus, the oral and written mastery of
Arabic, the countrys official language, and further openness to the use of the most widely
used foreign languages in the world is stated as one of the permanent foundations of the
Moroccan educational system (NCET, Part I, Art. 2).
As foreign languages are vehicles of foreign culture, it has also been stipulated that this
openness should not be undertaken at the expense of the local culture. Thus, rooted in
Moroccos cultural heritage, the educational system seeks to prepare a virtuous citizen of
exemplary rectitude, moderation and tolerance, open to science and knowledge, with a spirit
of initiative, creativity and enterprise (NCET, Part I, Art. 1). Coupled with this openness
there should be a spirit of dialogue and acceptance of difference leading to the practice of
democracy within the framework of a state of rights and law (NCET, Part I, Art. 2). With
these stipulations, the NCET aspires to develop an educational system that fosters empirical
and critical thinking without risk of alienation or hindrance by the cultural heritage.
Hopefully, such a system will eventually foster enlightened citizens, ready to assume their
national and civic responsibilities, aware of the challenges facing their country, and able to
deal with social, economic, political, ethical, and environmental issues arising in due course.
Convinced of the failure of the old educational system to provide answers to the new
challenges, the educational authorities and experts responsible for drafting the NCET set forth
the major aims of the Moroccan educational system in eighteen articles in the second subpart
of the Basic Tenets. These articles define the roles, rights and duties of the different partners
involved in the educational process and enactment of the reform. Attainment of these aims
requires full engagement of learners, teachers, parents, administrators, local authorities,
ministerial authorities, the government, civil society, and the private sector. All these partner
entities must strive to play their full part in order to make of Moroccos educational
institutions (schools, universities, training centers etc.) a locus of intellect, excellence and
productivity, thus serving the immediate environment and society at large. In particular, the
93
university is becoming a rallying point around which researchers and citizens get together.
Thus, as an open institution, it is an observatory of universal scientific and technical
advances (NCET, Part I, Art. 10a) and a driving force for development (NCET, Part I, Art.
10b).
The NCET also stresses equal-opportunity as a basic principle leading to equality in

access to education for all (cf. NCET, Part I, Art. 12). Moreover, the state is committed to
encouraging science, culture, and creativity, especially in areas of strategic value (NCET,
Part I, Art. 13c). The last four statements (Articles 20-23) of the first part of the NCET set the
tone for implementation, show state commitment and call for national mobilization. It is
recognized, however, that the reform of the system of education and training requires long-
term work (NCET, Part I, Art. 23) and that for the aims to be achieved discipline and
perseverance are a must.
II.2.2. ICT in the Reform Areas of the NCET
Having discussed the Basic Tenets (Part I) of the charter and their far-reaching
implications, it is important to examine the areas of reform stated in the second part of the
NCET, especially those relating to the use of ICT in the educational process. This part of the
NCET contains six major areas of reform and nineteen pivots of change and suggests an
agenda for implementation. While there are many Articles that emphasize the importance of
incorporating ICT in the sector of education, the tenth pivot, entitled Using the New
Information and Communications Technologies, deals exclusively with that in three Articles
(119, 120, and 121).
However, what can be inferred from the stipulations of the NCET is that they focused
only on preparing the ground for a future use of ICT, and not the ins and outs of using it in the
day-to-day practices in the current educational arena. This preparation concerns two areas,
namely teacher training and ICT equipment provision (cf. Part II, Arts. 119, 120, and 121).
Although the introductory Article (119) makes reference to the role of ICT in optimizing the
use of educational resources, it places emphasis on in-service training. It further fine-tunes the
rationale behind having recourse to the use of ICT in education.
... this objective should not be thought to mean that technological media will
systematically supplant the real pedagogical relationship constituting the foundation
of the educational process, viz. the vital master-disciple relationship, based on
understanding and respect.
(NCET, Part II, Art. 119) Translation mine.
94
The place of the computer in the new educational arena is that of assistance, hence the
term CALL (Computer-Assisted Language Learning), i.e. it is an ancillary tool or a piece of
equipment that is meant to assist the learner and the teacher in their respective endeavors.
Therefore, the human dimension is by all means there. Computers alone cannot perform the
educational act since they would have to deal with human beings. One of the principles
underlying this study is that language teaching is both an art and a science. The corollary of
this is that only the scientific side of it can be handled by the computer, and that the artistic
side is best performed by a human teacher. As Cameron (1994) put it, computers alone will
never replace the need for the human instructor. Only an actual instructor can teach students
to utilize computer-based tools to further their educational goals.
Having set the ultimate objective of using ICT, the NCET goes on to assert that ICT is
mainly used as ways for the future and then defines the areas in which immediate
integration of ICT is required, thus turning it to good account in order to:
overcome, as much as possible, the difficulties facing education or in-service

teacher training such as remoteness or isolation of target learners;
rely on distance education at lower-secondary and secondary levels for remote
regions;
further equal opportunity of access to documentary references, databases, and
communication networks, while solving, rapidly and at the least possible cost,
problems having to do with the inadequacy and the uneven distribution of basic
documentary references.
While the computer is meant to assist learners and teachers in their respective work, it
should by no means be considered the panacea of all problems plaguing the educational
system in particular or the field of education as a whole. To this date, none of the objectives
set by the NCET in this regard has been met and very few initiatives have been taken to show
the intention to implement distance learning on the ground, except the modest attempts at the
tertiary level and the CATT PILOTE project jointly elaborated by MNE (Ministry of National
Education) and USAID (United States Agency for International Development).
As far as the supply of ICT equipment is concerned, the NCET designates the
educational authorities and qualified operators as the main parties responsible for the
provision of computers and peripherals. By qualified operators is meant ICT experts who
are able to make informed choices about equipment and aware of the importance of recouping
the cost of the purchased computers over a given period of time. In this respect, the MNE
signed a series of agreements with the regional management of Microsoft, the latest of which
95
was signed in April 2004 (Maghreb Agence Presse, cited on ITMaroc.com). Microsoft
launched a world-wide program termed Partners in Learning, whose main objective is to
familiarize the rising learner generations with using computers and the Internet by helping
educational authorities integrate ICT in their respective educational systems. The regional
subsidiary of Microsoft in Morocco is also engaged in the process of computerizing
education. On the latters website (www.microsoft.com/northafrica/education), it is stated that
by these initiatives, the objective of the Education team of Microsoft North Africa is to
support actors in the field of education, students and teachers, but also the educational
institutions, in their adoption of the new technologies. This is while developing offers and
accessible solutions and while putting at their disposal specific tools and approaches adapted
to their needs.
In fact, over the last couple of years the MNE has entered into partnership agreements
with several social and political actors whose plans of action consider education to be at the
core of the strategic challenges facing Morocco (cf. Le Matin, April, 2004).
The NCET also underscores the role of individual institutions in getting equipped:
Each education-training institution shall facilitate the purchase of computer

equipment and the different pedagogical materials and science tools by means of
bulk-buying with special incentives, for teachers, learners, and administrative
personnel.
Obviously, the provision of ICT equipment requires a colossal budget. Despite the
MNEs policy in delegating powers to local education-training institutions, financial matters
remain the main obstacle towards their autonomy. The rate of investment in computerizing
education is discussed in the following sections.
The period for attaining the above-mentioned objectives is set at 10 years. In fact, the
first decade of the twenty-first century (from 2000-2001 to 2009-2010) is officially dubbed as
Decade of Reform, which reform concerns the most vital sectors of society (education,
tourism, housing, health care, political parties, civic rights, etc.). As far as education is
concerned, it is claimed that emphasis is placed on enhancing the quality of teaching and
training. One way of achieving this latter objective, it is believed, is by introducing ICT in the
process.
Given the decisive and growing role that Educational Technology plays in the
systems [of education] and methods of teaching, and in view of Article 119 of this
charter, authorities in charge of education and training shall look after the integration
96
of this technology into school life, on the basis of the following objective: a computer
lab and multimedia library in every institution by the end of the next decade, starting
from the 2000-2001 school year.
The latter objective is dealt with in further detail in the following section on the MNEs
project dubbed 2008 Plan: a classroom - multimedia - the Internet. The last Article of the
tenth pivot entails that each educational institution should include in its operational plan a
strategy for the appropriate use of ICT in teaching and learning which accords with and
articulates with the nation-wide plans as set in the NCET.
While the tenth pivot of change focuses on the general policy and the rationale behind
introducing ICT in the fields of education and training, the other pivots, although they deal
with other educationally relevant issues, repeatedly allude to the importance of utilizing ICT
to reach their respective objectives. For example, the fourth pivot, entitled reorganizing and
inter-linking the education-training cycles, calls for an initial introduction to modern
information, communication and interactive creation technologies (NCET, Part II, Art. 66a)
in the second cycle of primary school. Moreover, in dealing with educational issues relating to
learners with special needs (the able-with-difference), interactive television and the new
information and communication technologies will also be used (NCET, Part II, Art. 89).
In addition, the eleventh pivot, encouraging excellence, innovation and scientific

research, also invokes the role that ICT plays in managing and disseminating the findings of
scientific research:
Missions relating to documentation, technological watch, and dissemination of

research results will be strengthened; the setting up of a high-speed computer
network, linking research and training centers with one another and connecting them
to the Internet and to international scientific and technical databases, will be
hastened.
This Article refers to what would be called MARWAN (MARoc Wide Area Network),
a network connecting all computers working in scientific research nation-wide. MARWAN is
discussed in more detail in section 4 below.
The last pivot (the nineteenth), raising funds and optimizing their use, makes also
reference to the role that ICT plays in meeting the qualitative challenges, which call for
investment in quality. Among the qualitative courses of action with financial effects,
there is: the equipment of educational institutions with the necessary teaching and software /
hardware materials (NCET, Part II, Art. 167b). Here, it is important to note the link that the
97
NCET makes, although not directly, between the enhancement of the quality of education and
the integration of computers in the educational scene and the priority that it gives to this
matter in order to meet the current and future challenges of education and thus help the parties
involved in the enactment of the terms of the NCET live up to the objectives it has set for
itself. This corroborates what has been said earlier about the NCET focusing only on
preparing the ground for a prospective use of ICT, and not the current day-to-day practices in
the educational arena.
Ideally, the operational plan of each educational institution is expected to include

actions for the provision of ICT facilities, including the setting of target ratios of students to
computers and the maintenance of standards for software and hardware, the provision of ICT
technical support, teacher development programs to ensure competence in the appropriate use
of ICT, and the provision of basic ICT skills for all students. Additionally, environmental
scanning of CALL should be conducted to ensure that every educational institution is current
in its application of ICT and takes advantage of advances in the field.
II.3. The 2008 Scheme for ICT Integration in Primary and Secondary Education
This scheme constitutes a delineation of the long-term national strategy proposed by the
educational authorities. The strategy was designed to accomplish a major national educational
goal set forth in the NCET, and the entire thrust of the strategy and resultant document has
been since referred to as either 2008 Plan: a classroom - multimedia - the Internet or 2008
Plan. The goals have far-reaching consequences for all schools at all levels and for all
subject areas. Coming as a sequel to the stipulations of the NCET, especially the tenth pivot
of change, the scheme is a project undertaken to develop a strategic plan for the gradual
integration of ICT into the teaching/learning environment, including the curriculum
development process. It is conducted by the MNE and backed by the government with the aim
of enhancing the standards of the Moroccan educational system and keeping up with the
global trends in the sector. The scheme is also meant to be an action plan for equipping
educational institutions with the software and hardware necessary for translating the
recommendations of the NCET on the ground. Promising to provide assistance by mobilizing
its resources and potentials, the MNE calls upon all partners involved in the field of education
to take part in this operation.
98
For considerations having to do with human resources training and financial constraints,
the implementation of the project is made to span over nine years (1999-2008). Moreover, it
goes along the lines of the so-called Decade of Reform (the first decade of the twenty-first
century) covering many vital sectors in the country. However, five years have passed and, in
the face of slim budgets to go around, over-packed curricula to cover, and public expectations
to satisfy, the implementation of the project seems to be still stuck at a bottleneck. Also, this
is probably due to the sense of inertia that seems to prevail among the majority of teachers
and the growing need for training and support that remains largely unmet. This issue is taken
up in Section 2.5 below.
Given the fast rate at which ICT evolves and the way in which it revolutionizes
education and work, the MNEs project should, ideally, prepare students to function fully in
the growing Global Information Society. ICT will allow all educational institutions, training
centers, libraries, documentation centers, etc. to get connected, thus achieving the synergy to
which they aspire. In an official document outlining the project, issued in 1999 by La
Direction de la Stratgie, des Etudes et de la Planification (DSEP) of the MNE, it is stated
that ICT can help expand opportunities for students to improve their skills and maximize their
potential, thus increasing their employability chances.
The new information and communication technologies (NICT) must be seen as an

opportunity for the [educational] institution to improve its results. Their appropriation
by the educational community will contribute to the overall and integrated training
that we wish for our pupils, while enabling the institution to better accomplish its
mission.
(DSEP, 1999:13) Translation mine.
Obviously, for such a mission to succeed, it is incumbent upon the teachers to be aware
of the utility of ICT and its potential in the real life. Therefore, their responsibility is two fold:
a responsibility vis--vis the young students they teach, who, in the future, must be prepared
to enter the job market with great confidence, and a responsibility toward themselves if they
wish to get credit for their active participation in building the Information Society of the
twenty-first century.
There are around 20,000 educational and training institutions that will benefit from this
project. They will be equipped with around 34,800 computers and 18,000 printers. As far as
Internet connectivity is concerned, the MNE plans to get all schools connected, provide them
with web space to secure presence on the information superhighway, and design an umbrella
website to run all the schools websites. When interconnected, all institutions would be linked
99
to data banks fed by teachers, pedagogues, and other potential users, who would all enjoy a
wealth of information made at their disposal by peers. More details on hardware equipment
and software materials are provided in Section II.3.2 below.
II.3.1. Rationale and Objectives
The rationale underlying this scheme is related to the challenge raised by modern
society, as there is a great need to increase the use of technology in the educational system so
as to meet the new requirements of the job market. Public and business interest groups
continue to emphasize the need for schools to deliver quality programs which enable students
to be productive members of a technology-driven society. DESP (1999:13) has defined two
long-term objectives: (1) ensuring that prospective citizens master the new information and
communication tools which are indispensable to them during the period of schooling as well
as in the active life, and (2) making the potential of multimedia at the service of teaching and
training.
Achievement of the first objective depends largely on the extent to which teachers are
prepared to assume new roles such as that of facilitator of learning and the extent to which
they are capable of harnessing the potential of ICT to serve the educational process.
Logically, before teachers can sensitize the rising generations to the usefulness of the
computer in all fields, they themselves need to examine both the potentials and limitations of
computers as they relate to the teaching and learning operation and to determine their proper
place in educational settings. Therefore, teacher training is of paramount importance here, as
ICT is meant to supplement rather than supplant conventional teaching. By extension, the
human element is indispensable in the teaching operation and cannot by any means be done
away with.
The second long-term objective makes reference to multimedia as a feature and

component of interactive ICT. The focus of this objective, although not exclusively related to
language teaching and learning, is the interactive potential of the computer in practicing the
four skills in the context of what is available across a range of multimedia technologies
ranging from CD-ROMs to the World Wide Web, and the advantages that multimedia
technology may have over classroom teaching. Of course, the hype surrounding ICT should
not lead teachers to forget to use good pedagogy, for it is the latter that can yield good results.
100
Therefore, teachers should be vigilant not to fall into the trap of thinking that just by getting
their students to use the Internet or CD-ROMs, language learning will take place!
In addition to these two long-term objectives, DESP urges every educational institution
to define its own pedagogical objectives in general terms and on the basis of results sought.
As objectives are defined, implementation actions should also be predicted. DESP (1999:14-
15) provides three examples of these objectives and actions, which can be presented thus
(Translation mine):
Objective 1:
Explore the potential to be drawn from ICT, notably multimedia in order to
further and revive the pedagogical act.
Action 1:
In consultation with industrial partners, communication facilities will be
installed in order to test, in all cycles, multimedia-based teaching, interactive
supervision and other forms of teaching and learning favoring pedagogical
revival.
Objective 2:
Mobilize the school network to overcome the challenges brought to the fore by
the new needs of in-service training and knowledge transfer.
Action 2:
Deepen collective thought on the challenges facing the network in view of the
new needs of in-service training and knowledge transfer, and explore the human
and technological potential of the educational community to take up the new
challenges.
Objective 3:
Translate the objectives of the overall and integrated training into a pedagogy:
simultaneous development of specialized competencies and intellectual and
personal skills.
Action 3:
Organize and run an awareness-raising operation in the educational environment

about the schools willingness and commitment to dispense an overall and
101
integrated training to its pupils and adapt the pedagogy accordingly. Identifying
the means necessary for this pedagogical revival and the teaching and learning
strategies pertaining to it allows for the adaptation of this revival and its
penetration throughout the school network.
The above objectives and actions are not the only ones possible. Rather, they are meant
to serve as benchmarks for others to be defined by teachers and/or instructional designers.
Additionally, DESP goes on to spell out the purpose of introducing ICT in the various cycles
of National Education.
Thus, two purposes have been envisioned for the primary level: 1) raising awareness
about the sociocultural and technological phenomenon of ICT; and 2) taking into account
the ICT dimension in the context of early-learning activities. In concrete terms, this means
that pupils will initially use educational games, which enable them to get accustomed to the
keyboard and overcome obstacles relating to the manipulation of the machine. Then, as they
are making progress, they can:
Retrieve files;
Exchange ideas and lead open discussions in groups;
Send and receive messages;
Make communication;
Access documentary and encyclopedic websites;
Arts;
Life and earth sciences;
History and geography;
Physical education, emulation, competitiveness;
Foreign languages.
Create a class website and publish it on the Internet;
Make use of it in an interactive way so as to renew learning and knowledge
offering;
Use materials favoring strategy and thinking;
Use pictures and sound (CD-ROM, ...).
(DSEP, 1999:17) Translation mine.
At the lower secondary level, pupils will then build on previously acquired skills and
explore richer activities such as using word processors, spreadsheets, software for drawing
and map-making, etc. Obviously, the main concern here is not to develop ICT skills for their
own sake, but, rather, learn how to use the various computer packages as tools that will help
in developing other skills such as higher thinking, problem solving, etc. Knowing how to use
ICT is useless unless one knows what to use it for.
102
As for the upper secondary level, it took precedence over other levels of education in
introducing computing as a self-contained subject-matter a year prior to the launch of the
2008 scheme. Although the initial phase of the operation covered only around forty high
schools (lyces), the objective was to carry out the project on a small scale basis while
keeping on equipping the other schools with the necessary software and hardware. However,
given the rapid rate at which computers evolve, the ones purchased for those high schools are
now obsolete and need updating. Some ICT professionals had even warned that the MNEs
call for tender was hasty, as there was as yet no clear vision of how to integrate ICT in the
educational programs. Neither the program to be dispensed via this new material nor the
trainers are as yet available, commented a trainer in ICT (cf. LEconomiste, Nov. 23,
1999:7).
To determine the success of this plan, a number of questions need to be asked:
- How credible is this project? Does it have widespread support among the parties
involved in the implementation?
- What will be the impact of the plan on student performance and teacher practice?
- Will the implementation of the plan result in an improved quality/equity of access for
the learning and teaching communities?
- Will the educational system become more efficient?
- Will the final stage of the plan be practical in the long term?
One way of answering some of these questions is by eliciting the views, attitudes and
impressions of teachers and students (cf. Chapters III, IV and V), while answering others
requires waiting till the end of the implementation period (2008) to find out what results can
be reaped. Furthermore, convinced of the ability of ICT-based programs to improve the
methods of access to knowledge, modes of learning, and the organization of institutions,
DSEP predicts some spin-offs emanating from the implementation of the project.
offering equal opportunity in access to knowledge and information;

making training and teaching faster, more flexible, and more accessible;
reducing the costs of teaching and training;
increasing the number of people who benefit from in-service training;
developing collaborative learning and team work in order to improve performance
and productivity;
103
bringing out the teaching team from its isolation and preparing the ground for
exchanges within the educational community.
(DSEP, op. cit.:14) Translation mine.
It goes without saying that the most effective scheme of work for ICT is one that has
been developed by a group of committed teachers and ICT professionals, taking into
consideration the specific purposes of the school and the learning needs of their pupils.
Ideally, there should be a framework identifying the key aspects of ICT which need to be
covered in each session. However, given the lack of training of the teaching team and the lack
of funds for purchasing the necessary computer equipment, the National School is still
grappling with problems of supplies such as paper, chalk and the like, not to speak of
computer consumables and peripherals. This issue and the challenge of implementing the
2008 Plan are discussed next.
II.3.2. Implementation and Funding Issues
The period expected for implementing the 2008 Plan has been set at nine years (1999
2008) and according to DSEP, by the end of this period all schools will have been connected
to the Internet, an individual website and an E-mail account reserved for every institution and
teachers who would wish so, and multimedia technology installed in each classroom. The
MNE has expressed its commitment to provide the required ICT infrastructure to around
20,000 educational institutions across the country. The cost of the project is estimated at 428.3
million dirhams divided as follows:
Estimated costs (in millions of DHs)

Hardware and software 377.8
Office equipment 35.7
Building work 4
Fungible and operating charges 10.8
Phone lines -----
Total 428.3
Table 2.7: Estimated cost of the 2008 Plan. (Source: DSEP, 1999:20)
Having discussed in the previous section the reasons for which funds would be allocated
to this project, it is important to ascertain how those objectives will be achieved. Normally,
the link between planning and implementation should be clear. It is meant to provide project
plans, pilot mini-projects, funding initiatives, cost-benefit analysis and recouping rates. The
extent to which this is true for the MNEs 2008 scheme remains to be investigated and how
the different regional academies contribute to the smooth passage from the pilot phase to the
final stage needs to be examined.
104
To insure the gradual equipment of educational institutions with the necessary hardware
and software, the MNE has announced that it has signed a series of agreements with several
economic and social players. Concurrently, DSEP has outlined an action plan for the pilot
phase and defined its requirements in terms of funds, equipment and human resources. The
pilot phase, which was supposed to be carried out in the 1999 2000 academic year, is said to
concern around 600 institutions, according to DSEP (1999). In the selection of those schools,
priority has been given to those equipped with electricity and telephone (cf. Appendix 7 for
details on wired and unwired schools in Morocco). However, according to an undated
document issued by DSEP and published online (www.men.gov.ma), the generalization of
ICT in all Moroccan educational institutions would take place only in 2005, which can be
taken to mean that it has been decided that the period of piloting be extended!
The cost of this (never-ending!) initial phase was estimated as follows:
Estimated costs (in millions of DHs)

Hardware and software 29.9
Office equipment 1.8
Building work 1.5
Fungible and operating charges 0.8
Phone lines 0.2
Total 33.2
Table 2.8: Estimated cost of the pilot phase. (Source: DSEP, 1999:23)
A more detailed table showing the number of institutions and the cost of units, for the
pilot phase as well as the overall project, is provided in Appendix 7. It should be noted in
passing that the NCET gives regional academies the power to manage the affairs of the
educational institutions under its supervision, including the purchase of computer equipment
(cf. NCET, Part II, Art. 120). This decentralized management policy is motivated by the fact
that computer purchase contracts usually require close proximity for maintenance
convenience. However, there is a general lack of awareness among regional educational
authorities with regard to the utility span of the purchased units. Ideally, recourse should be
made to the expertise of ICT consultants who are in a better position to make informed
choices of the right equipment for the right school in a given period of time. This is essential
because the nature of the purchased materials requires a clear strategy of exploitation lest they
become under-exploited and thus obsolete halfway through the intended period. Besides,
upgrading outdated materials sometimes costs more than purchasing brand new computers,
whose costs keep falling at a rather rapid rate.
105
A close examination of the situation reveals that lack of planning prevailed throughout
the initial phase of implementation, which seems to have lasted longer than the period
intended in the first place. Normally, a clear and justified purchase plan should be at hand
prior to the final acquisition of the materials. A sensible plan should include at least seven
major areas, namely:
1) assessment of curricular needs to determine what (aspects of what) courses need

ICT support,
2) evaluation of software in terms of pedagogical utility and needs satisfaction,
3) comparison of computers available in the PC-market to determine what

configurations would recoup investment over what period of time,
4) distinction between necessary and unnecessary hardware features, considering the

possibility of sharing peripherals,
5) consideration of other costs such as CDs, paper, printer cartridges, maintenance

charges, upgrading fees, etc.
6) delivery of equipment by the manufacturer or local distributor, and
7) provision for after-sale service and technical support in installing the computers and
network cabling.
In order to prepare the ground for the purchase, each institution should provide its local
academy with the information that may not be known to the educational authorities of its
region. For this purpose, checklists and worksheets need to be designed and used as
guidelines in the fact-finding efforts. Assistance of a well-versed ICT user might be needed to
explain to the teachers and staff members the different educational computer applications and
to answer any questions that they may have about the use and utility of the materials. Such an
ICT user should be able to reassure teachers that the computer is not meant to supplant them,
but, rather, to further facilitate what they are already capable of doing well and relieve them
of the drudgery associated with the day-to-day teaching.
DSEP has decided on the number of computers to be installed in each school (5

multimedia computers) without taking into consideration its learner population and the
106
resulting computer-pupil ratio, not to speak of the number of hours to be devoted to learning
(on) the computer. Although research and the experiences of schools in the forefront of the
current digital revolution stress the enormous learning opportunities available through ICT,
the hard realities are that very few schools (mainly private ones) have a computer for every
five students (a ratio deemed adequate to allow regular use) and the number of classrooms
connected to the Internet, if any, is not known. In schools with large concentrations of
students, the numbers are often even lower, not to speak of the schools lacking electricity and
telephone. Moreover, despite the fact that ICT is made available in some schools, a substantial
number of teachers report very little or no use of computers for teaching. This discrepancy is
likely to bring about inconsistency in achieving the objectives of the 2008 Plan. Additionally,
the slow rate of electrifying schools in rural areas is likely to foster a rift between haves and
have-nots, thus widening the digital gap between the rural areas and urban centers.
The 2008 Plan also establishes guidelines for Internet news messaging, internal staff
recruitment, and teacher training. In addition to primary schools, the Plan calls also for the
setting up of multimedia labs in all teacher training centers such as CFI (Centre de Formation
des Instituteurs), CPR (Centre Pdagogique Regional), etc. This time, DSEP has planned to
provide eight computers for each teacher training center, which is a fair number at an early
stage given the small numbers of enrollment in-takes. The question of teacher training and the
role of computers in the training centers are elaborated in section II.5.
Given the colossal investment required for this project (428.3 million dirhams) and the
financial burden on the general budget allocated to the sector of education (approximating
70%, the largest in the country, especially as far as expenditure on human resources is
concerned), it was thought that the implementation of the 2008 Plan might encounter some
financial setbacks. What is worth noting is that using computers usually requires an even
greater expenditure of time and money than conventional teaching methods (Layne and
Lepeintre 1996). Fortunately, the budget allocated to the Plan was boosted by the agreements
signed with several partners (Maroc Telecom, IBM, Microsoft, Vivendi, etc.) and
international agencies (USAID, UNESCO, etc.), which expressed their readiness to contribute
to the efforts made by the MNE. Among the education programs funded by USAID there is
CATT-PILOTE (Computer-Assisted Teacher Training project), which contributes to the goal
of fostering the use of Internet applications under the US Presidents Initiative: the Internet
for Economic Development (IED). By and large, an unknown portion of the money spent on
107
software and hardware purchases came from discretionary funds donated by such
organizations or from business partnerships.
Worth-noting is the fact that the 2008 Plan came in a period when the enforcement of
the NCET has not been under way yet. This was basically due to the passing away in July
1999 of King Hassan II, who initiated the project in the first place. His unexpected death
perturbed to some extent the initial implementation of the NCET, which prompted the
educational authorities to postpone the launch of the reform for a whole academic year. This
event marked the emergence of what, in the Moroccan political and economic parlance, is
called The New Era, whose effect on the sector of education was clearly noted in the status
of the educational human resources and the introduction of Tamazight (Berber) in the
educational system.
Being aware that helping teachers to use ICT effectively may be the most important step
to assuring that current and future investments in Educational Technology are realized,
educational authorities have striven for the acquisition of computers in some exemplary
schools. While most funds for Educational Technology are spent on hardware and software,
experienced practitioners in the field advocate larger allocations for training and support. In
other words, most teachers have not had adequate training that would prepare them to use ICT
effectively in teaching. From the authors modest experience in the field of teacher training
and from the preliminary results of the survey conducted within the framework of this study, a
majority of teachers report feeling inadequately trained to use ICT resources, particularly
basic computer applications. This issue is further elaborated in Chapter IV.
II.4. The MARWAN Project: wiring the Moroccan university
The 2008 Plan was elaborated by the MNE when it was not in charge of higher
education and scientific research, hence its focus on integrating ICT in the primary and
secondary levels of education only. It is believed that tertiary and higher education should
take it upon itself to promote collaboration between primary and secondary institutions in
order to improve the quality of education at all levels. As for the introduction of ICT in
tertiary/higher education, it was taken care of by the Ministry of Higher Education, Staff
Training and Scientific Research (MHE) in collaboration with the MNE, the Ministry of
Professional Training (MPT) and Maroc Telecom. The idea behind the project of wiring the
Moroccan University started in 1998 when a group of Moroccan ICT engineers visited the
108
UK to learn from Britains experience with JANET (Joint Academic NETwork), an
educational platform connecting computers and LANs in tertiary education institutions across
the UK. With the help of the Moroccan government and the British Council, MARWAN
(MARoc Wide Area Network) was launched in 2000.
MARWAN, which constitutes a strategic choice for higher education in Morocco,

consists in federating the ICT infrastructure of educational institutions and connecting the
latter to the existing international educational networks. The rationale behind such a network
is to share among the connected institutions the electronic stocks of information such as
databases, survey results, doctorate theses, research findings, experiment reports, conference
proceedings, reference materials, historical documents and the like. By facilitating exchanges
of information at the regional, national and international levels, MARWAN allows for a wider
dissemination of knowledge and offers the educational institutions, vocational training
centers, and the scientific research centers, the opportunity to use ICT for purely pedagogical
purposes. The network is believed to be the right tool for enhancing tertiary education and
professional training as two vital sectors, thus making of them a strong lever for the launch
and development of scientific research in Morocco.
With the emergence of a digital culture, where communication at the speed of light is an
important key, there is growing awareness within the education community that computers are
bound to shape the profession and that a Global Information Society and a Network
Culture are here to stay. The words global and network in the latter two concepts are
very significant in that they, by definition, involve interaction and collaboration. An academic
network like MARWAN will not be successful unless there is a driving force coming from the
large educational community which is going to use it and thus giving it a raison dtre.
Despite the fact that the initiative comes from above (the educational authorities and ICT
experts) and that the majority of educators content themselves with the classical method of
knowledge diffusion, MARWAN is presented as a target for those wishing to join the network
first.
According to the committee in charge of running the network (www.marwan.ac.ca), the

rationale behind the installation of MARWAN is (translation mine):
- to generalize education and improve its quality by developing various modes of

distance learning and training (tele-teaching, tele-medicine);
109
- to develop scientific and technical research by using the many ways of
communication offered by this network and by the creation of databases and
specific document banks;
- to improve the transfer of technology and international cooperation by connecting

the network to the other similar international networks;
- to generalize and vulgarize the use of ICT by covering all institutions of education,
training, and research at all levels and across the whole Moroccan territory;
- to improve and rationalize the management of resources by sharing and exchanging

them and by achieving a cost-effective replacement of the classical modes of
communication and transfer and publication of information by ones based on ICT;
- to create jobs by generating new professions and services based on ICT.
MARWAN was built in several stages, the first of which consisted in installing routers
and access servers in order to interconnect 16 cities via the Maroc Telecom infrastructure in
links of 2Mbps (megabytes per second). Every city has its own knot consisting of routers
and access servers which allow institutions of higher education and professional training to
interconnect. Initially, this network joins together about 631 institutions of education, training,
and research across 16 cities. The beneficiary cities and the connection bandwidth are shown
in the following table.
64Kbps RTC-MARNIS
2Mbps
MPT MNE MHE Total MPT/MNE/MHE
Casablanca 4 42 21 76 139 12
Rabat 4 23 21 76 120 12
Fez 4 13 15 25 53 12
Marrakech 4 12 16 21 49 12
Agadir 2 13 13 13 39 12
Tangier 2 7 7 11 25 12
Meknes 1 8 11 20 39 12
Oujda 1 11 9 12 32 12
Tetouan 1 11 9 10 30 8
Settat 1 14 9 6 29 12
Kenitra 1 7 5 8 20 12
Mohammedia 1 5 6 4 15 12
El Jadida 1 4 5 4 13 8
Beni-Mellal 1 4 4 3 11 12
Laayoune 1 4 3 2 9 12
Errachidia 1 3 3 2 8 12
Total 30 181 157 293 631 184
Table 2.9: The number of academic institutions constituting MARWAN (www.marwan.ma)
110
Tetuan
Mohammedia El Jadida
Kenitra
Tangier
Rabat Casablanca
Backbone Access
Leased Line
Fez Marrakech
Core router
Access router
Meknes ErRachidia Oujda Settat Agadir Beni Mellal
Layoune
Figure 2.2: A general overview of MARWAN (www.marwan.ma)
While MARWAN was meant to be a mega-network within which all Moroccan

university networks are subsumed, from its inception till now it was limited to a minor role. If
the piloting phase lasted for about four years (1997 2000), from then up to mid 2003,
MARWAN was limited to a Web site (www.marwan.ac.ma) providing a statement of purpose
and distributing news to subscribed participants. In other words, the network served only as
an ad-hoc Listserv while waiting to assume its main academic role of connecting academia
and serving the educational community and students in terms of distance training, research,
development, and support. Afterwards, MARWAN changed its look on the Web, hosted some
research centers in Rabat and Casablanca, and upgraded its bandwidth with the coming of the
ADSL (from 2Mb to 34 Mb).
It was hoped that MARWAN would play a major role in shifting the culture within all
Higher Education institutions towards effective and widespread use of the Internet and
networked information resources through training courses in network skills using both
traditional and new methods of training. Unfortunately, the MARWAN managing committee
did not live up to what was expected of it. The ostensible reasons for this failure are related to
the slow rate of wiring universities and the prevailing sense of inertia among the majority of
111
educators. According to LEconomiste (April 22, 2004), MARWAN benefited from an
investment of 26 million dirhams from 1998 to 2003.
The actions that are expected to be carried out from 2004 to 2007 include:
Negotiating with Maroc Telecom the establishment of a new high speed connection
for a quicker access to institutions and smooth connection to the new partner
GEANT, a European academic network;
Making a bid for financing the installation of inter-university networks;
Reconfiguring the management equipment of the MARWAN network;
Recruitment of seven staff members (3 engineers, 3 technicians and 1
communication expert);
Setting up MARWAN II, a high speed academic network;
Subscribing MARWAN to RIPE as Local Internet Registrar;
Subscribing MARWAN to the TERENA organization.
As network-based learning is still in the embryonic stage in Morocco, the use of

academic networks faces a number of stumbling blocks, the major of which is directly related
to human resources training.
II.5. Teacher Training: towards a fuller integration of ICT
It has been demonstrated that investment in ICT requires substantial investment in

human resources (APEBI, 2001). Training (both pre-service and in-service), maintenance of
equipment, technical support and time to learn to use ICT have all proven to be key
expenditures. The lack of a long-term teacher-training program in ICT has been consistently
identified as one of the major factors inhibiting the widespread use of ICT in teaching and
learning. It has been recognized that effective teacher training should initially focus on raising
awareness about computers before attempting to use them as new tools of educational
delivery. Thus prospective (pre-service) and current (in-service) teachers need to be trained
not only to teach with computers but also to understand the potential of ICT in the process of
education.
Although many teachers see the value of students learning in and about ICT, some are
not aware of the resources that ICT can offer them as professionals in carrying out the many
aspects of their jobs. Widespread adoption of ICT-based pedagogy will not take place without
112
substantial support for teacher development. Teachers need support not only in technical
matters, but guidance on how to use ICT to develop effective learning programs from learner-
centered perspectives. Accordingly, the focus of any teacher training program should be on
providing the newly qualified and experienced teachers with the knowledge, skills and
understanding to make informed decisions about when, when not and how to use ICT
effectively in teaching particular subjects. McMeniman and Evans (1998:1) are of the view
that language teachers are by and large ready to change their practices and beliefs when
presented with evidence that shows positive effects of the new teaching method on quality of
learning outcomes (...) develop expertise in the new method.
Electronic literacy (i.e. the ability to use computers to improve learning, productivity,
and performance) has become as essential to a persons ability to learn as the four languages
skills. Be that as it may, ICT is not found in most Moroccan educational institutions.
Moreover, teachers, in particular, make little use of ICT for teaching and learning, and if they
happen to do so, they would typically use it for only a few minutes a week. They do not feel
much at ease with the new teaching and learning environments that are very different from the
ones they experienced when they were students themselves.
ICT-based teacher training is expected to increase interactions among teachers, enhance

pedagogy and curriculum, enrich existing educational resources, and achieve the educational
reforms considered critical for the future of the country as a whole. As mentioned earlier
(2.2.2), one of the main objectives of integrating ICT in the Moroccan system of education is
to overcome, as much as possible, the difficulties facing education or in-service teacher
training such as remoteness or isolation of target learners (NCET, Part II, Art. 119).
Exclusive reference to in-service training does not mean that other forms of training (pre-
service training, distance training, etc.) are excluded. Since the launch of the 2008 Plan and
the MARWAN network, several teacher training programs have been proposed either in
association with local actors or in partnership with International agencies and organizations.
The rationale behind this MNE plan is to reform pre- and in-service teacher training to
incorporate Educational Technology, one of its goals being to train technical assistants in ICT
applications, network functions, first level maintenance, multimedia center operations, and
follow-up activities.
If some teachers are still grappling with the basic technological tools such as word
processing and spreadsheets, how can they integrate ICT into the curriculum as a truly
113
effective educational resource? To use these tools well, teachers need visions of the potential
of ICT, opportunities to apply it, training and just-in-time support, and time to experiment.
Only then can teachers be informed and daring enough in their use of ICT. Despite the
perceived importance of ICT in teaching, up to this date it has not been central to the teacher
preparation experience in any training institution in Morocco. Most new teachers (except
those who have made some personal effort) graduate from teacher training institutions with
limited knowledge of the ways technology can be used in their professional practice.
Training Moroccan teachers in using ICT was the aim of a project entitled Distance
training through interactive television, re-training for teachers jointly conducted by
UNESCO, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and the MNE. The project,
funded by the World Bank for a total budget of three million US dollars and coordinated by
UNESCO, has started with the provision of audiovisual equipment for the studio and the
interactive television control room of the Rabat teacher training center. The aim is training
almost 600 primary and secondary school teachers in several Moroccan cities, through the
provision of audiovisual materials and organization of training sessions. Rabat hosts the main
training center for the project, thus being at the core of a network of 15 centers installed in
various cities around Morocco. In fact, it is designed to facilitate teacher training through
interactive television and satellite Internet. Aside from project coordination, UNESCO puts its
expertise in the area of distance training to facilitate the creation and dissemination of training
programs in close cooperation with the MNE and a consortium comprising the Centre
National dEnseignement Distance of Poitiers, France, the Ecole Nationale Suprieure
dInformatique et dAnalyse des Systmes (ENSIAS), Rabat, and the Ecole Suprieure
dInformation et de Communication (ESIC), Rabat.
CATT-PILOTE, another program funded by USAID in partnership with the MNE, is

meant to foster the teachers use of Internet applications in education. By attempting to
enhance the quality of education, the CATT-PILOTE program contributes to the
implementation of the 2008 Plan and the NCET. In particular, the program focuses on areas
where schoolgirls enrollment lags behind the national average. Thus, USAID was committed
to equipping 7 Teacher Training Centers CFIs (Centres de Formation des Instituteurs et des
Institutrices) in 7 pilot regions (namely, Al-Hoceima, Er-Rachidia, Essaouira, Ouarzazate,
Sidi-Kacem, Taroudant and Tiznit) with the necessary ICT materials. It then invested in and
contributed to a training program that allows trainers, trainees and all users of these centers to
use the available facilities for educational purposes.
114
At the outset of the CATT-PILOTE program, a needs assessment is conducted in order
to determine the starting ICT skill level of trainees and the organizational capacity of the
training centers. The latter designed six modules for pre- and in-service teacher training and
laid the foundation of a virtual community of educators linked via the Internet, thus providing
the impetus for a nationwide discussion of policy, and guidelines for education technology.
As teachers start with different skills and achieve different levels of expertise, the
CATT program enables trainees to progress along individualized paths. Initially, teachers
enter the world of computing at a basic level. Based on a participatory task-based approach to
pre- and in-service teacher training, teachers learn how to use computer applications such as
office software (Word, Excel, and PowerPoint) and communication software (Internet
Explorer, Net Meeting, and Outlook Express). This is followed by the teachers adoption of
computer skills, their ability to adapt those skills to teaching and learning, and, finally, their
ability to innovate using ICT. Upon completion of the training, teachers are expected to be
able to apply educational technology in their school setting and develop their own techniques
of integrating ICT in the teaching and learning process. An instrument to measure progress is
an online, self-competency test that is used at the beginning and at completion of the training.
Another crucial aim of the CATT-PILOTE program is to train a leading group of

teacher trainers, called Master Information Teachers, to train CFI multimedia users,
produce training materials, and serve as educational technology leaders, responsible for
training and retaining ICT-savvy teachers in the educational system. For example, in early
2001, 42 teachers from Rabat and Agadir were nominated by their respective CIFs to conduct
training in ICT in selected provinces. The first training session alone, which focused on basic
computer skills, hosted 262 participants. Indeed, due to the ardent zeal of teachers, the
number of teachers trained in the first year far exceeded the two-year target of 350 teachers.
Other key projects that were formulated within the CATT-PILOTE program are the
MEG (Morocco Education for Girls), GEA (Girls Education Activity), and Ibtikar (Arabic
innovation/creativity). The latter consists in a bilingual (French and Arabic) website
(www.ibtikar.ac.ma) connecting teachers who seek to develop their ICT skills at a distance
and hosting information on local innovation through ICT. It also offers portals for CFIs,
resources, bibliographies, project items such as the self-competency tools, learning modules,
collaborative tools, help information and synchronous and asynchronous tools such as a
discussion forum, a bulletin board for messages, and chat rooms (cf. www.ibtikar.ac.ma).
115
With all this effort from governmental and non-governmental organizations, there is a
need to assess the progress teachers make in their attempt to integrate ICT in the classroom.
Such assessment requires: a) collecting information about the quality and quantity of ICT
used for student learning, b) measuring the extent of ICT integration taking place, and c)
training and retraining of teachers to keep them abreast of the latest pedagogical uses of ICT.
II.6. Conclusion
This chapter has set the background for the rest of the study by providing key
information regarding the applicability of computer-based education in the Moroccan context.
With the rising voices to reform the educational system, ICT was seen as one of the
cornerstones upon which great aspirations are held to start such reform. Education was seen as
a gateway for other no less important reforms in many aspects of governance at the social,
economic and political levels. The Moroccan educational authorities recognized that
education is a key sector paving the ground for sustainable development, which prompted
them to give the sector top national priority. Being unable to afford to stay behind the
global trend, Morocco has to contribute to the build-up of a local information society that may
easily join the global village via the various media utilized in the national school.
Being aware of the amplitude of the matter, Morocco committed itself to launching
reforms in all sectors and set for itself deadlines for implementing all projects in a lapse of
time called Decade of Reform, in reference to the first decade of the twenty-first century.
Educational reform at all levels is also time-framed in this decade. There are, however, some
impediments that prevent the reform efforts from moving forward, namely the hard socio-
economic conditions characterized by high rates of classical illiteracy. Although there is a
technological boom in the mobile phone (as it found a favorable background in Moroccos
oral culture), the number of Internet users in Morocco is still very low because of the weak
purchase power of the majority of the population. In addition, the qualification and training of
the human resources functioning in the various sectors posed some problems regarding the
pace of computerizing the administration and education.
The many transformations that have taken place here and there influenced the sector of
education, which laid the foundation for drafting the NCET, a blueprint document
determining the future of the national school. The infusion of ICT in the Moroccan system of
education is one of the main pivots of change in the Reform Areas in the NCET. It
116
focuses basically on the role of the human teacher as a catalyst for the aspired change by
equipping her with the necessary ICT resources and training her to draw its potential for
furthering the pedagogical ends of the teaching and learning operation. In line with the
stipulations of the NCET, the 2008 Plan was drawn up to gradually computerize the
educational institutions and set deadlines for integrating ICT in the curriculum. The budgets
allocated to this project were boosted by the financial and logistic aids offered by
international development agencies and non-governmental organizations. The launch of
MARWAN, the first Moroccan academic network devoted to research and collaborative
learning at the tertiary level, faced major set-backs as many universities and scientific
research centers lack either the infrastructure or the skills required for joining such a network.
It remains to be said that the bulk of the reform efforts made up till now have not come
to fruition yet, as there seem to be a lot of objective constraints and hindrances that slow
down the pace of implementation. We are now half-way through the Decade of Reform,
and neither the NCET nor the 2008 Plan have as yet lived up to 50% of their objectives, not to
speak of the effects of the changing world economy and political reforms. The impact of these
reform efforts, no matter how embryonic, are expected to positively influence the educational
community. For this reason, the views, attitudes and expectations of students and teachers are
of paramount importance here as they constitute the core data for this study. The next chapter
discusses, among other research issues, the methodology adopted in the elicitation of those
core data.
117
Chapter Three:
Research Methodology
118
III.0. Introduction
This chapter examines the methods and procedures used in investigating the ways in
which the use of ICT in education and the attitudes of teachers and learners of English
towards CALL can impact the quality and standards of language teaching and learning in
Morocco. It delineates the framework underlying this investigation by describing the nature of
the research, its foci, the target populations, data collection procedure and issues relating to
validity and reliability. Based on the information presented in the previous two chapters, some
assumptions concerning the research questions under investigation are presented and some
hypotheses are set forth for examination. Both descriptive and inferential statistical analyses
of data are presented to lay the foundation for the forthcoming three chapters.
III.1. Research Task
III.1.1. The Research Questions Revisited
The research questions of the present study were introduced in the General Introduction
and are reiterated here for further scrutiny in terms of what research method should be used to
answer them. The effectiveness of ICT in language education being the main objective of the
present study, the primary research question is to see how the computer will enhance
academic standards in Morocco for both students and teachers. This is done through the
elicitation of teachers and students perceptions of, and attitudes towards ICT and its use in
the teaching and learning operation. The primary research question is concerned with
learners and teachers attitudes to ICT and their perceptions of its usefulness in language
teaching and learning. This question is the first to be investigated as it is the most
fundamental. If the reactions to ICT were negative then this would undermine further research
into its effects. In fact, Gardner (1985) has demonstrated the positive relationship between
motivation, attitudes and achievement in language learning.
Some of the questions have been partially answered in Chapter Two, especially the first
two as reiterated below:
At what rate will computers enter the classroom, and how can decision-makers
select the most appropriate systems?
The rate of ICT (both hardware and software) integration in the classroom
has been disclosed in the scheme dubbed 2008 Plan: a classroom
multimedia the Internet and other ministerial documents published on
line at www.men.gov.ma (cf. Section II.3.2. above and Appendix 7). It
119
should be noted that the rate of ICT integration varies from institution to
institution in both the public and private sectors, depending on location or
standard. Other questions in this respect are given in the questionnaires and
in the interviews to see the extent to which the integration efforts have been
effective (cf. Section III.4.1. below).
Are teachers ready to surmount the challenge (im)posed by the information age?
What is the best way to train teachers to use computers in the teaching and learning
process?
The challenge of human resources on whom educational authorities depend

to implement the reform outlined in the NCET and the 2008 Plan has
been discussed in sections II.1.3. and II.5. above, but it was based only on
the recommendations of the NCET, which were rather broad in scope. A
whole section in the teacher questionnaire is devoted to teacher training in
ICT. Christensens (1997) study demonstrated that the impact of effective
teacher training could be measured in terms of teacher and student
attitudes. Gilmore (1998) too found that teachers who took part in a
semester-long training initiative had positive, broad-based gains in their
attitudes toward ICT, while peers without the training program did not. A
detailed discussion of teacher training efforts in the educational reform is
provided in Chapters IV (Section IV.1.1.3.) and VI (Section VI.2.2.).
What are the computers potentials and shortcomings in language education?
The potential of ICT in enhancing the standard and quality of education is a

key issue in the whole process of ICT integration, which is primarily
related to the preconceived beliefs of the teaching community. The NCET
clearly states that the part intended for the computer in the teaching and
learning process is essentially that of an aid that is meant to assist the
teacher in doing her tasks in better conditions fostering better achievement.
Helping teachers harness the potential of ICT in language teaching and
learning starts by raising their awareness about the importance of using
ICT in their life in general and in the day-to-day teaching practices. The
limitations of ICT-based language education will only be apparent when
teachers start making use of the courseware at hand, which would prompt
other CALL designers to upgrade or produce educational applications. The
120
awareness issue is addressed in the questionnaire, assuming that there is a
difference between computer literacy and computer awareness (cf.
Section III.1.2. below).
How can the computer enhance student achievement?
This question is related to the previous two: it depends on whether teachers

are trained to use ICT and their ability to exploit the computers potential
in furthering the student attainment. It is important here to assess the
teachers motivation to engage in the process of ICT integration and
compare it with that of students who, generally speaking, are ahead of
teachers in terms of computer literacy. The questionnaire addresses the
issue of attitudes of both teachers and students, which, it is expected, will
determine the motivation of each party.
What transformations is computer-based education likely to bring about? What

impact will these transformations have on the parties involved in the educational
process?
Although this question is researched as part of the teachers and students

expectations, it will be further discussed in the chapter on implications.
Surely, the introduction of ICT in education does bring about
transformations in the way the teaching and learning operation takes place.
For this reason, the case study is of great research value since it zeros in on
concrete examples of transformations, although in a private language
training context (cf. Section III.4.3. below). The questionnaires too ask
respondents (particularly teachers and students who have already
experienced CALL) to comment on some items that exemplify the impact
of those transformations.
What developments in computer-based education are on the horizon for Morocco?
This question is related to how well the NCET and the 2008 Plan will be
implemented in the so-called Decade of Reform (2000 2010). The rate
of ICT integration and effectiveness of teacher training is likely to provide
answers, especially that we have come a long way since the launch of the
reforms. Some allusions to the time lag between the launch of reform and
implementation on the ground have been made in Section II.3. The
121
progress of the reform efforts will be evaluated through the questionnaire
and the interview.
Answers to the above questions through the various data collection techniques used
(cf. Section III.4.) are expected to provide information on the application of ICT-based
education in Morocco. Students and teachers attitudes are crucial here for assessing the
effectiveness of the reform plans, at the heart of which there is the incorporation of ICT in
education. The scope of the research then is not limited to the classroom level, but, rather, it
covers the three levels proposed by Pelgrum and Anderson (1999):
macro level educational system policy making level,
meso level campus or local unit level, and
micro level classroom level.
III.1.2. Basic Assumptions
One fundamental premise on which the present study is based is that computers are not
by any means meant to replace human teachers. As mentioned in the previous chapters, ICT is
used in teaching only to relieve the teacher of the drudgery associated with day-to-day
teaching. Language teaching is often said to be partly an art and partly a science. Therefore,
the artistic part is ideally handled by a body-and-soul teacher, hence the importance of the
human element in the teaching and learning process. The scientific part, on the other hand,
can be managed by ICT, but again with the creative mind of an expert (not necessarily a
teacher). Therefore, the investigation is geared towards supporting the position of humanist
teaching where the human element (the learner and the teacher) is at the heart of any reform.
It follows from this fundamental premise that ICT is meant to supplement rather than
supplant conventional education. The computer, then, is seen, among other things, as an
ancillary, but advanced teaching aid. In fact, the widespread acronym CALL (Computer
Assisted Language Learning) carries the meaning of ancillary aid. It refers quite clearly to
language learning being assisted by the computer. That is to say, the computer is not
introduced in the educational system as a substitute for the human teacher, but, rather, as an
add-on to conventional teaching or as a resource to be used for self-access or self-study.
Unlike Hoffman (1995/1996), who thought that computers would eventually replace teachers,
Frizler (1995) believes that it is a myth that computers will ever replace teachers.
122
Although there might be a considerable number of teachers who are not computer
literate enough to integrate ICT in their teaching, it is generally assumed that there is
prevalent awareness among them about the importance of using ICT. The corollary of this is
that teachers who use ICT will eventually replace teachers who do not. It should be noted that
computer awareness should not be confused with computer literacy. While the former
refers to a very basic understanding of computers as they function (hardware components,
operating system, and software applications), the latter refers to a higher level of knowledge
involving the actual use of computers for a specific purpose such as developing new materials
and applications.
III.1.3. Hypotheses
Before setting out to describe the research field and its targeted populations, it is
important to set forth a few hypotheses, which are not by any means unfounded. They are
based on experience in the field and knowledge of the Moroccan context of education. The
results of the study will either corroborate them or refute them.
- Given the impressiveness associated with computers in general and the ubiquity of
CALL applications in education in the developed world, the majority of students and teachers
in Morocco would have positive attitudes towards ICT-based education, and would perceive
ICT as being effective for their learning/teaching.
- As younger generations are predisposed to be technology-driven, students who

master ICT would not only have positive attitudes towards CALL, but they would also
demonstrate leadership by practicing it and suggesting ways of using it collaboratively with
peers and teachers.
- Students and teachers who own personal computers are likely to use ICT in
collaborative task-based activities, peer interaction, and student-teacher communication more
frequently than those who do not.
- The younger the teachers, the more computer-literate they would be.
- The wider the digital gap between students and teachers, the more difficult ICT
integration in education would be.
- The less computer-literate teachers are, the more afraid they would be of computers
encroaching upon their professional roles and the more threatened they would feel in their
future as human teachers.
123
- Teachers who have received pre-service training in ICT are more engaged in CALL
activity than those who have only attended conferences or seminars on CALL.
- Teachers who have access to computers, software, and technical support in their
place of work are likely to use ICT in their profession better than those who receive general
training in ICT.
III.2. The Nature of the Research
III.2.1. Comparative or attitudinal?
Many research studies investigating the effectiveness of CALL in the past (e.g.
Schrupp, Busch, and Mueller (1983), Windeatt (1986), Kleinmann (1987), among others)
were comparative in nature. Such research studies were either process-based like those
comparing some form(s) of computer-based teaching with some aspect(s) of conventional
teaching or outcome-based like those comparing student achievement in both environments.
Among the adversaries of such comparative studies, there is Pederson (1987) who considered
them technocentric in that they do not address the ways in which a particular type of
teaching or learning is more effective than the other. Dunkel (1987:367) noted that it was
quite difficult to locate in print unequivocal empirical findings supporting the effectiveness of
computer-assisted instruction (CAI) or computer-assisted language learning (CALL). She
went on to explain that research on CALL should focus on the interaction of student
characteristics/attitudes toward computers and the effectiveness of CAI/CALL treatment
(p.371).
Garrett (1991:74) also considered research studies comparing conventional language

instruction with CALL to be either inconclusive or flawed enough in their methodology.
She found that the question Does it work? is simply not answerable on such a broad scale
and that research on CALL should focus on how specific computer software supports
significant learning and investigate its efficacy in local and carefully specified contexts
(p.75). Chapelle (1997:28), in her turn, states that among the objectives of CALL research
should be to look for methods that complement our fundamental understanding of the
language experience learners engage in through CALL activities.
At the turn of the century, researchers in the field of Educational Technology have come
to realize that the computer as such is not an agent directly affecting learning but it is the way
in which ICT is used in language teaching and learning and the factors influencing that use,
124
i.e. attitudes of learners and teachers, human-computer interaction, computer-mediated human
interaction, courseware contents, ICT-based teacher training, etc.
As mentioned earlier, this research work aims at assessing the application of ICT in
teaching and learning foreign languages in Moroccan private and public institutions. It seeks
to examine how ICT can enhance the quality of education, increase teacher effectiveness and
improve student achievement. This is done by eliciting students and teachers views,
attitudes and expectations of the matter and their current practices (use of ICT, if any).
Therefore, the main thrust of the research effort is not only attitudinal in nature, but also
procedural and practical. It is expected that this line of investigation will contribute to
answering the main research questions around which the whole thesis revolves, the ultimate
goal being to see the ways in which the use of computers in education can enhance the quality
and standards of language teaching and learning in Morocco.
III.2.2. Quantitative or Qualitative?
According to Poirot and Knezek (1992), there are three categories of research methods
for assessing ICT integration: 1) qualitative methods (triangulation of findings based on
multiple observations), 2) quantitative methods (gathering numbers through some objective
means and applying statistical analyses to reduce the data to findings), and 3) mixed methods
(combinations of qualitative and quantitative methods).
Generally speaking, quantitative research is used to determine associations, if any,

between two or more variables in the target population(s). It can be either descriptive or
experimental. In the former type, situations, attitudes, practices, etc. are described in a cross-
sectional fashion (i.e. at a given moment) without considering how they are likely to change,
whereas in the latter type, they are approached longitudinally (i.e. at more than one stage in
the development) while expecting some change to occur.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is used to gain insight into a unique
phenomenon without aspiring to reach some kind of objective reality, which is in principle
unobtainable, according to Bassey (1992). Rigorous statistic measurements do not mean much
in the qualitative method, the main focus being to explore and scrutinize phenomena through
the subjective lens of the researcher, who is also involved in the research. The perception,
appreciation and interpretation of the researcher are key elements to the findings. Three major
components of qualitative research have been identified by Strauss and Corbin (1990): 1) data
125
are collected from different sources; 2) the researchers past experience is essential in the
analytic or coding process; and 3) diverse written and oral reports.
As for which of the two types of research is suitable for ICT in language education,
qualitative study has been justified by the belief that CALL research is in the testing stage,
not in an evaluation stage (Windschitl, 1998). Because ICT-based education constitutes a
new environment for teaching and learning, Tella (1995) considers the qualitative approach to
research to be effective as it aims at deepening understanding of the research target. In fact,
while quantitative research on CALL leads to instrumental deterministic results (Ebersole,
1995), qualitative research yields critical appraisals of the phenomena under investigation
(Warschauer, 1998). Warschauer (Op. Cit.) advocates this type of critical research because it
is helpful for investigating students and teachers evolving attitudes or sense of identity in
changing. In this type of approach, researchers put themselves in the shoes of respondents
and analyze the situation from there in light of past experience or background knowledge of
the phenomenon. Moreover, in their treatment of internal and external validity issues in
research on CALL effectiveness, Chapelle and Jamieson (1991) categorize CALL research
methods into two types: 1) quasi-experimental, which seeks to find a link between learner
achievement and CALL, and 2) descriptive research which seeks to describe student
behaviors, strategies and attitudes to CALL.
As it uses a variety of data collection techniques, this research is both quantitative and
qualitative. The questionnaire, which is in large part an instrument for collecting quantitative
data, provides the bulk of the information used in this study. In addition to the student and
teacher versions of the questionnaire, there are follow-up interviews administered to a
selected group of teachers and students in order to further clarify certain points in the
questionnaire and probe into the use of ICT in teaching and learning. Being hard to codify, the
data collected from this latter instrument are used to corroborate or refute results of the
quantitative items. The reverse is also true as Merriams (1988) explains: Quantitative data
can be used to support findings from qualitative data. Firestone (1987) provides a useful
distinction between the two methods: () the quantitative study portrays a world of
variables and static states. () By contrast the qualitative study describes people acting in
events. Many field work experts find that the quantitative method of research is useful for
measuring what is taking place in a classroom environment in an unbiased fashion, while the
qualitative method is invaluable for explaining the reason(s) for that.
126
The case study is also used in this research, both as an instrument for collecting
quantitative and qualitative data, the objective being to have a clear picture of how CALL is
practiced in a Moroccan private training corporation through the tracking records of some of
the authors former E-learning participants. Walker (1993:173) contends that the case study as
a research technique seeks to capture and portray those elements of a situation that give it
meaning, [as] it gives insight into specific instances events or situations. It helps us to get
beyond form and structure to the realities of human life.
The student and teacher questionnaires themselves contain quantitative items designed
to collect data on students and teachers attitudes, specific ICT skills and CALL practices and
qualitative items in the form of open-ended questions which seek to elicit the participants
views and students could describe what functionality they desired within CALL applications.
Observation and electronic performance tracking are also used as useful techniques within the
case study regarding a cohort of E-learning participants in a professional environment in
Casablanca. Triangulation is used to make up for the limitation of one instrument or the other
in capturing a specific point, thus improving the validity and reliability of findings and
providing further appraisals for the qualitative part of the study.
III. 3. Target Research Populations
In order to get a detailed picture of the situation and to expose contradictions which
are often hidden, the process of targeting respondents is viewed from different perspectives:
those of the pre-service teachers, the EFL learners (both academic and professional), and the
experienced teachers. The participants in the research survey are of two main categories,
namely students and teachers. These participants were stratified to reflect the diversity of the
targeted populations. The student sample included a small contingent of corporate trainees
(otherwise called sponsored learners of English for Specific Purposes) and the teacher
sample included a fair number of teacher trainees (otherwise called student teachers).
However, while two distinct questionnaires have been designed for students and teachers, no
particular questionnaire has been designed for corporate trainees or teacher trainees. The
reason for this is that corporate trainees, who were learning English for professional purposes,
were categorized as students, whereas teacher trainees, who were at the last stages of formal
training and were preparing for the practicum phase, were considered (would-be) teachers. So,
the same questionnaire has been administered to each respective subgroup.
Three main sources have been used to identify the respondents. The first source was a
personal database of about 600 E-mail addresses that had been collected from colleagues and
127
students while at work. The second source came from E-mail postings sent to the people in
the personal database, who kindly forwarded them to other respondents. The third source was
the cooperation of teachers who willingly administered paper-based versions of the
questionnaires to their students or colleagues. Based on these three sources, the potential size
of the targeted respondents could have grown twice (1200 students and teachers combined) if
the return rate had been a hundred percent. However, the actual response rate for teachers is
42.70% (234 out of 548) and that of students is 71.47% (629 out of 880). More details on the
size of the samples and the participation rates in the two modes of the survey are given in the
following table.
Teachers Students
Sub-categories Trainees Experienced General EFL learners Corporate EFL trainees
Modes of Paper- Paper- Paper-
Online Online Online Online
administration based based based
Number of
targeted 63 0 120 365 600 256 24
respondents
Number of
responses from 16 12 6
forwarding
Number of actual
63 16 35 120 523 82 24
respondents
100% 29.16% 32.87% 87.16% 32.03%
Partial responses
rates
100% 29.27% 70.67% 100%
Total response
42.70% 71.47%
rates
Table 3.1: Sample sizes and response rates
Given the teacher-student ratio in Morocco and the difference in the number of
targeted respondents for this study, the size of samples could be regarded as fairly adequate.
In addition, it should be noted that although these participation rates are below average, they
are considered fairly favorable by the research standards in social sciences. Behr (1988) and
Mayer (1989) advocate that for quantitative research a response rate as low as 30% could be
adequate and that for qualitative research no minimum rate needs to be specified. For Kahaner
(1994), surveys with a response above some 15 to 20% are considered successful.
Therefore, the response rates shown in the table above can be considered fairly adequate.
III.3.1. Student Profile
The students who participated in the study are Moroccan learners of English from
various socioeconomic backgrounds studying in the private and the public sectors. This
sample is composed of three sub-categories: 1) secondary-school students, 2) higher
128
education students, and 3) corporate trainees (professionals working for private corporate
companies). The latter are learners of English sponsored by their employers within the
framework of in-service training subsidized by the state (OFPPT). While the professionals,
who are learners rather than students, come mainly from Casablanca, the academic students
come from different parts of Morocco. Although these sub-categories seem to be distinct
academically/ professionally, the linguistic competency level of the participants is not
necessarily commensurate with their educational level. More details on this category of
respondents are provided in the following table:
629 Students
General EFL learners
Corporate EFL
605 (96.18%)
trainees
High-school Higher Education 24 (3.82%)
499 (82.48%) 106 (17.52%)
Private Public Private Public (Private)
45 (9.02%) 454 (90.98%) 43 (40.57%) 63 (59.43%) 24 (100%)
Table 3.2: Distribution of academic and non-academic EFL learners taking part in the survey
III.2.2. Teacher Profile
The overwhelming majority of the teachers (97%) who took part in the survey are
Moroccan teachers of English from both the private and the public sectors. This category of
respondents is comprised of three groups: 1) elementary and secondary school teachers, 2)
tertiary and higher education teachers, and 3) teacher trainees. While the first two groups
work in either private or public educational institutions in different regions of Morocco, the
third group (which can, in fact, be considered as a focus-group, especially as far as teacher
training in ICT is concerned) belongs to the 2004-2005 class of ENS (lEcole Normale
Suprieure) pre-service teachers who are getting training before they are appointed in
different high-schools across Morocco. The first two groups belong to different generations
with varying lengths of teaching experience, whereas the would-be teachers (ENS trainees)
are 20- to 25-year-old graduates of English from different universities in Morocco. More
details on these three sub-categories are tabulated below:
234 Teachers
Experienced teachers Trainees
155 (66.24%) 79 (33.76%)
Elementary and secondary Higher Education
122 (78.71%) 33 (21.29%)
Private Public Private Public (Public)
53 (43.44%) 69 (56.56%) 12 (36.36%) 21 (63.64%) 79 (100%)
Table 3.3: Distribution of teachers and would-be teachers taking part in the survey
129
In addition to the different sources used in targeting respondents, different tools to
collect relevant data from these samples have been adopted.
III.4. Data Collection Procedures
This study adopts a descriptive cross-sectional survey design to elicit students and
teachers attitudes towards ICT and its use(fulness) in the teaching and learning operation.
Therefore, the collected data should reflect the situation as it is at the moment of the
administration of the instruments. The research study uses three data collection instruments,
namely the questionnaire, the interview as a follow-up to the questionnaire, and observation in
the case study. The questionnaire being the most practical and time-saving as to the sources of
respondent identification discussed above, focus has been placed on this tool as the main data
collection instrument. Since the targeted samples have been identified as teachers, on the one
hand, and students, on the other, two types of questionnaires have been designed, one for each
category. Given the sources of respondent identification utilized, two versions of both
questionnaires have been designed: an online version and a paper-based version. After the
collection of the questionnaires (both versions), a follow-up interview has been administered
to selected respondents who have not objected to a potential interview by any means they like
(phone, E-mail, IRC, MSN, etc.). However, the case study, in which observation has been
used, has targeted a group of former corporate trainees who have been involved in an e-
learning program provided by a private language center in Casablanca.
The instruments used are based on previous research conducted by theoreticians and
practitioners in CALL. Grounded in educational psychology principles which determine key
variables influencing learning environments (cf. Klausmeir and Goodwin, 1975) and the
multivariate technique of Structured Equation Modeling put forward by Schumacker (1996) to
guide measurement techniques, a theoretical research approach termed The Structural Model
of Technology Integration has been devised by Knezek et al (2000). This model is said to
form a logical basis for selecting assessment instruments at the micro level of ICT integration.
It is based on the assumption that the educators will (positive attitudes), skill (competency,
ability to perform tasks), and access to technology tools (availability of ICT facilities and
technical support), are all required for successful technology integration. Accordingly, the
questionnaires seek, among other things, to measure these three key variables.
130
III.4.1. The Questionnaires
While there is a difference between the student questionnaire (SQ) and the teacher
questionnaire (TQ) in terms of sections and question items, the online version and the paper-
based version (of each type) are identical. The online administration of the questionnaire
proved practical enough, especially that the main source of respondent identification is an E-
mail database. Respondents could participate in the survey by clicking a hyperlink in the E-
mail posting. The Web-based questionnaire has made it possible to gather responses to be
gathered in a cost effective, timely and efficient way and, more importantly, it has allowed
targeting respondents across Morocco with relative ease. Although concentration has been
placed on the Web-based version, a fair number of respondents have used the paper-based
version as well.
The main reason for relying on the online questionnaires is that the ASP (Active
Server Pages) technology used in the design of the instrument helps in automatically
tabulating and processing the data entered by respondents and drawing up graphs based on the
collected figures, thus saving a lot of time in the analysis. ASP is an Internet framework, used
in conjunction with active databases, that makes Web pages dynamic, especially those
containing forms to be filled out. Of course, prior to analysis, data collected from the paper-
based version are electronically tabulated on a spreadsheet.
The procedure adopted is as follows. A message enlisting respondents to participate in

this study has been mass-mailed through the BCC (Blind Carbon Copy) feature of E-mail
using the researchers personal E-mail list (cf. Appendix 8). In order to enhance the response
rate, four initiatives have been taken. First, teachers and students have been asked to kindly
forward the message to peers. Second, the paper-based student questionnaire has been mailed
to designated teachers, whose cooperation can be guaranteed, for distribution to their students.
Third, an E-mail reminder to complete and return the questionnaire has been sent to the
potential respondents two weeks after receiving the initial posting. Fourth, a prize draw to win
educational materials has been organized to encourage participants to engage in the survey.
The data collection process spanned a six-week period for each category of
respondents. Teachers were targeted in December 2004 and January 2005 (a period
considered propitious for most teachers), while students were targeted in late March 2005
(prior to the spring vacation) and April 2005 (at the practicum period for teacher trainees who
kindly helped out with the administration of the paper-based SQ). While the data from the
electronic version were collected instantaneously on a database, the data from the paper-based
131
version were first collected hand-to-hand from respondents then entered manually on a
spreadsheet for processing. In what follows, details of the content of both questionnaires are
presented in a comparative manner.
The following research studies have been a source of inspiration for devising the items
of the SQ and the TQ: Knezek et al (1997), Maier et al (1998), Christophel et al (1998),
Agnaou (1999), Ropp (1999), Knezek et al (1999), and Christensen (2000). The questionnaire
items are preceded by an introduction, which explains the purpose of the survey and the
participation procedure. The URL of the electronic version is given in the paper-based version
in case some participant would prefer to participate online. The introduction also guarantees
confidentiality to all respondents, especially for those who have provided their names to
participate in the prize draw and the follow-up interview. Before describing the TQ items and
the SQ items, here is a table summarizing the contents of both questionnaires. The complete
questionnaires are provided in Appendices 9 and 10.
Teacher Questionnaire Student Questionnaire

Sections Questions N of items Total Sections Items N of items Total
Background 19 9 Background 16 6
Computer Computer
Equipment/ 10 18 9 Equipment/ 7 17 11
literacy literacy
Attitudes 19 21 35 53 questions 44 questions
CALL / Attitudes 18 20 33 /
22 34 22
training 97 items 88 items
ICT in ICT in EFL
35 49 18 21 40 34
teaching study
Contact Contact
50 53 4 41 44 4
details details
Table 3.4: Content summary of the questionnaires
The TQ contains six sections (one more section than the SQ) because teachers are
asked in a self-contained section whether they have received or are involved in any pre-
service or in-service training on CALL. This has affected the length of the SQ, which has
fewer questions and items. It is true that the questionnaires are somewhat long, but, compared
with other questionnaires used by other researchers in the field (which are reported in the
literature to have more than 100 items), the TQ and the SQ have been designed in such a way
that some close or overlapping items are condensed into a single question and that the whole
questionnaire items are laid out on four pages so as not to discourage hesitating participants.
Given the fact that economic status, age, gender, and residential location (whether
rural, urban or suburban) constitute factors determining the digital divide, items along these
lines, in addition to questions on language learning/teaching experience, are posed in the first
132
section of the TQ and the SQ, which is meant to collect background information on
respondents. The second section focuses on the level, if any, of computer literacy of
respondents, the frequency of ICT use and whether they own a personal computer and Internet
connection. Responses to these questions are expected to show how ready the respondents are
to engage in computer-based education in particular and in the (global) information society at
large.
The third section of the SQ and the TQ are concerned with the respondents attitudes
towards ICT and CALL. This section uses a semantic differential (ratings along a continuum
between opposite pairs) containing 8 items referring to adjectives used to describe computers
and a five-position Likert scale (from strongly agree to strongly disagree) containing 23
items referring to some common conceptions and statements made about computers in
education and elsewhere. Each response on these items (of the semantic differential and the
Likert scale) is given a numeric value depending on whether the statement is worded
positively or negatively.
The fourth section of the TQ is addressed teachers who have received or are involved
in CALL training of some kind and elicits from them information on that training, whether
they have participated in seminars and workshops on CALL, and if they are members of
organizations specialized in the field. A filter question has been used to lead respondents who
have not received any kind of training to relevant questions on their interest in CALL training.
The section on the use of ICT in teaching/learning seeks to gauge the respondents
actual application of ICT in their day-to-day practices inside or outside the classroom. There
is a divergence in the number of items given to each category of respondents in this section;
while the TQ contains 18 items, the SQ has almost twice as many (34 items). The reason for
this is that it is assumed that teachers are supposed to help students use CALL, hence the
focus on ICT in learning more than in teaching. Besides, the teachers use of ICT is addressed
in the exclusive section on teacher training.
The final section in both questionnaires is optional. It was filled only by those who
wanted to participate in the prize draw or those would not mind sitting for a potential follow-
up interview. For this purpose, the respondents were requested to enter their contact details
and the way they would prefer to be interviewed (by phone, face-to-face, or IRC). A space
was provided at the end of the section for participants to express any ideas and make any
suggestions or comments on the questionnaire or the topic under investigation.
133
III.4.2. The Follow-up Interview
As mentioned earlier, the interview has been administered only as a follow-up

instrument to further probe into some points and issues relating to the use of ICT and CALL
by some participants who filled out the questionnaire and did not object to a potential
interview. It was administered after the tabulation of all data emanating from the
questionnaires in order to identify the potential interviewees from the teacher and student
samples and the exact probes to be pursued. The respondents were then categorized
depending on the set of questions prepared for them and the method of interviewing they
proposed in the personal details section in the questionnaire. Some of the interviews were
face-to-face and some others were conducted using a real-time IRC program.
The interviews were semi-structured. An interview that is semi-structured has a set of

guiding questions, but it does not have a predictable course of development. It begins with a
predefined question followed by supportive questions or probes. Once the objective of the
probe is attained, a new question from the predefined set is given, and so on and so forth.
Thanks to its flexible nature, it enables the researcher to investigate the motives and feelings
of the interviewees. This mode of qualitative interviewing provides a pragmatic approach to
balancing the need for information as it is structured and expressed by the participant, and the
need for relevant data that can be coded, compared and analyzed. According to Patton
(2002:348), the purpose of qualitative interviewing is to capture how those being interviewed
view their world, to learn their terminology, and judgments, and to capture the complexities of
their individual perceptions and experiences.
It should be noted that 40.5% of online respondents who have expressed their
readiness to participate in the interview (98 out of 242) have requested to use MSN, a real
time chat program. However, around 26% of those who have filled out the paper-based
questionnaires (SQ and TQ) and expressed their willingness to take part in the follow-up
interview (161 out of 621) have requested a face-to-face encounter. Obviously, there has been
no intention to interview all these respondents. Rather, the selected interviewees were either
outstanding ICT users or CALL practitioners. The questions required participants to clarify,
further explain, or supply additional information.
The duration of the interviews ranged from fifteen to thirty minutes depending on the
scope and length of probes pursued. The face-to-face interviews were not tape-recorded or
transcribed as researchers would do in ethnographic research, but, rather, only notes were
taken of the most important points and issues. The IRC interviews were saved in the program
134
log at the moment of chatting so that they could be retrieved and analyzed at will and at any
time.
III.4.3. The Case Study
The case study has relied on observations of some respondents use of an E-learning
program dispensed by a private language training center in Casablanca. This line of inquiry
uses a combination of methods such as observation and computer-recorded data. Using these
two methods in the case study makes it both qualitative and quantitative. The qualitative
aspect includes naturalistic observation, whereas the quantitative aspect consists of the
examination of the performance tracking (log) files. Unlike the questionnaires and the follow-
up interviews, the case study is longitudinal because the observations and the auditing of
respondents performance tracking (log) files span over a period of three months. In addition,
some of the participants in the case study have also responded to the SQ and have expressed
their willingness to participate in the follow-up interview.
For Merriams (1988), a case study is of three main types, namely, descriptive,
interpretive and evaluative and has three properties, viz., particularistic (it focuses on a
particulate situation), heuristic (it illuminates the readers understanding of the situation), and
inductive (it relies on inductive reasoning). Cohen and Manion (1994) and Atkinson and
Delamont (1993) are of the view that the experience and understanding in a case study might
lead to important generalizations observing phenomena and their characteristics and analyzing
interaction of relevant factors, the purpose being to discover new concept relationships and
understandings rather than verify a predetermined hypothesis (cf. Cohen and Manion, op.
cit.).
There are many benefits to this case study. The participants constitute a focus group
for this study to zero in on the actual application of ICT in language learning in Morocco and
evaluate the effectiveness of the E-learning platform used (DynEd). Walker (1993:173)
asserts that the case study gives insight into specific instances, events or situations. It helps
us to get beyond form and structure to the realities of human life. The aim of using the case
study, which is a form of descriptive non-experimental research, is to capture and portray
those elements of a situation that give it meaning (Walker, op. cit.). It is an ideal design for
understanding and interpreting the observation of educational phenomena. In fact, the in-
depth examination of the practices of corporate trainees in distance E-learning at their own
pace over a period of three months has provided a closer look at the use of ICT in language
learning in Morocco, though in a pirate setting. Observation and computer-recorded data were
135
used to cross-check learner attitudes and views expressed in the SQ, the purpose being to
increase the internal validity of the survey (cf. Chapelle and Jamieson, 1991) and extend
understandings (cf. McMillan and Schumacher, 1993), that is, detailed descriptions that
enable others to understand similar situations and extend these understandings in subsequent
research (p. 394).
The E-learning platform in question is DynEds series of courseware that allows tutor
follow up and performance tracking. During a work period at a private language training
center in Casablanca, the researcher had the chance of working with a number of participants
from different corporate companies seeking to improve their English communication skills.
The language training center installs the platforms on the companys server in order for users
to access it from the companys WAN (extranet) or subsidiaries LANs (intranet).
III.4.3.1. On the E-learning Platform
The E-learning platform used by members of the focus group for this case study is
designed by DynEd International, a US-based courseware publishing company. The platform
is composed of a series of educational software programs for English language learning that
can be used on a stand-alone basis (on a single computer) or on a LAN (on multiple
computers via a server) either locally or at a distance. The focus group involved in this case
study belonged to both categories, but all members were connected to an Internet program
called Record Manager (iRM), which allowed the tutor/researcher to track every participant.
These data were automatically saved on their local computer hard disc in asynchronous
connection mode, or over the LAN in synchronous connection mode. Then everything was
transmitted to the iRM for synchronization of data. At the same time, each student could view
her or his records at any time from within the courseware. When a participant runs the
platform, she/he selects her/his name and chooses Start, or clicks on Bookmark to return
to the last lesson where she/he has left off. Participants have also to enter a personal
password, which they will have to enter each time they run the courseware in order to be
electronically identified.
136
Placement & Assessment Courseware Programs Performance Tracking
- New Dynamic English
- The Lost Secret
- Dynamic Business English
- Placement Tests - Functioning in Business
- Record Manager (iRM)
- Mastery Tests - English by the Numbers
- Clear Speech Works
- Test Mountain
- Advanced Listening
Table 3.5: DynEd E-learning Platform
Eight courseware programs have been installed on the platform for an adult audience.
Listening and speaking skills are the primary focus throughout the series, though reading and
writing skills are also developed, particularly at the higher levels. All courseware programs
use voice recognition for user input. These are:
- New Dynamic English (NDE), the backbone of the series, is a four level course in
general English. It provides the linguistic foundation for the program and focuses on the
conceptual framework of English in a way that accelerates language learning and prepares
students to handle complex ideas and language functions, including summarization,
argumentation, and speculation.
- The Lost Secret (TLS), is a video-based course prepared in collaboration with the
BBC. It is a complement to the second and third levels of NDE as it provides review,
language extension, and additional vocabulary used in general situations.
- Dynamic Business English (DBE) focuses on the understanding and making of oral
presentations centered around ones company, job history, product comparisons, quantitative
English, and decision making. It focuses on business themes, with an emphasis on oral
presentation skills and listening comprehension.
- Functioning in Business (FIB) is a story-based course that focuses on the proper

way to manage business and social encounters. Meant to be a companion course to DBE, it
focuses on the language functions necessary to do business in key situations, as well as
general business vocabulary.
137
- English by the Numbers (EBN) develops a students ability to deal with numbers
and quantitative relationships. It helps to prepare students to exchange information over the
telephone and explain numerical information.
- Clear Speech Works (CSW) focuses on improving pronunciation by using sound

production simulations and comparisons.
- Advanced Listening (AL) is a supplementary course for advanced students who

need to improve their listening skills and vocabulary. It features lectures from Stanford
University.
- Test Mountain (TM) is a supplementary course that helps to prepare students for
standardized language tests such as TOEIC.
These interactive programs enable students to work at their own pace, with instant
access to repetition and comprehension aids such as translation, on-screen text, glossary
support, and mastery tests. Students can also record their own voices and compare their
recordings with the native speaker models provided in the course. This helps input the
language, and prepares students for the speech recognition tasks integrated into many of the
follow-up exercises. There are also Mastery Tests, Help Screens, and an on-line Study Guide
to help students focus on key points.
At the outset and before the E-learning platform becomes accessible, every participant
takes an online placement test which is meant to help the tutor/the researcher in determining
her or his level and the courseware program units they can start with. The tutor uses the iRM
to sort the participants by their placement levels, put them into appropriate subgroups, and
create appropriate study paths for each class by locking the higher level units and lessons. The
test is not designed to rate a students overall proficiency, but rather to provide a good
indication of the students starting level on the E-learning platform. The Mastery Tests,
however, are used to determine if the participant has covered the bulk of a study unit and met
its objectives. The Completion Percentage (also shown in the iRM) indicates if the student is
prepared to successfully take the Mastery Test. When passed successfully, higher level units
are automatically unlocked and this cycle goes on and on.
III.4.3.1. Evaluation of Student Performance
Once the program is underway, the Mastery Test scores (if available) and/or the
Completion Percentage saved in the iRM help determine the improvement of the participants,
thus promoting them to a higher level. As they study each course in the program, their
138
progress is monitored and assessed. Each time a participant answers a question by clicking on
a word or picture, records a sentence, completes a fill-in, Speech Recognition or other
activity, the program updates her or his study records and assesses the quality and level of
study. The complete study records for all participants are stored in the iRM for easy access
and analysis by the tutor. The records include placement scores, mastery scores, the number
of clicks on different significant icons such as Replay, Recorder, Translation,
Glossary, and Voice Recognition. Other important information shown on the iRM
includes:
Time - the total number of hours and minutes spent in the level, unit, or lesson being
viewed/studied.
Date and time - the date and time of the start of each study session is displayed in the
iRM.
The Completion Percentage value - a measure of how effectively a participant has

studied a lesson. The Completion Percentage is shown for each unit and lesson,
including the incremental values for each study session.
Score - in lessons that include scored activities, the number in the left column is the
most recent total score or percentage, while the numbers in the right column show the
number of correct responses out of the total number of items attempted.
The Shuffler Level - this is DynEds unique method for automatically adjusting the
depth and variety of the material presented in a lesson. The higher the Shuffler Level,
the more extensive the material being presented to the student. This is taken into
account when calculating the Completion Percentage.
The iRM is a teachers tool that keeps and manages student records. It is required for
Mastery Tests, locking and unlocking lessons, and for assessing detailed study activities. The
records are displayed in a hierarchical list by date or lesson and they can be printed, e-mailed,
or exported to other software. Though limited, these quantitative data are important for
evaluating the effectiveness of using ICT in language learning in a given Moroccan context. It
should be noted that some of the members of this focus group answered the SQ.
III.5. Validity and Reliability
It is important to stop at the issue of validity and reliability, especially that this
research covers a relatively large portion of the teacher and learner population and draws on
139
both qualitative and quantitative data. Thus, before administering the questionnaires, there
was a pilot survey whose main aim was to check the adequacy, validity and reliability of the
instrument as a data collection technique. The initial feedback was valuable in that many
remarks and comments given by co-operating respondents were taken into account in the
design of the final version of the two questionnaires.
Triangulation has been used as an option to confront the issue of reliability and
validity and to get a full, rich and complex understanding of the issues at hand. The
combination of both types of data as well as the use of various data collection instruments
have attempted to comply with the reliability and validity demands. This research is
concerned with securing valid and reliable information in an acceptable manner. To draw a
distinction between these two concepts, it is important that they be defined. While reliability
refers to whether the instruments and the collected data can be relied on in achieving the
objectives of the research, validity refers to whether the conclusions made based on the data
are valid in terms of research contribution. Validity and reliability are two faces of the same
coin. There are two types of validity: internal and external.
Internal validity refers to the accurate attribution of observed experimental results

to the factors that were supposed to be responsible for those results. External
validity denotes the applicability of research results to instructional and research
contexts other than the one in which the research was carried out.
Chapelle and Jamieson (1991:38)
Having delineated the issues relating to validity and its two types, it is important to
turn to the validity considerations of this research by carefully looking at relevant aspects of
the instruments used to collect data. For validation, the information obtained from the SQ and
TQ is compared with that obtained from the follow-up interviews and supplemented with the
analysis of student records obtained from the focus group using the iRM. In this way, each set
of information serves as a cross check for the other sets. Validity in this respect is by no
means sought via exact experimentation, repeated objective measurement or universal truths;
rather, it is derived from a perspective of understanding as the primary rationale (Merriam,
1998).
III.5.1. Internal Validity
Accounting for all the factors affecting the results in descriptive research is not an easy
undertaking. However, as Chapelle and Jamieson (1991) note, descriptive research methods
which seek to determine attitudes towards CALL play a major part in the investigation of its
effectiveness in teaching and learning. In an attempt to increase the internal validity of such
140
research, they advocate that multiple measures of the same attribute in the elicitation of
attitudes be utilized and that the use of observation be adopted in order to cross-check the
expressed views. Thus, this research uses not only multiple measures within the same
instrument (which is sometimes commented on as redundancy by respondents) but also
various research methods (questionnaires, interviews, observation, and the case study) to
cover the issue from all perspectives.
Chapelle and Jamieson (op. cit.:43) conclude that it is feasible indeed if not
requisite that researchers identify and explain the factors that may have influenced their
research results. In fact, for purposes of internal validity, research findings should match
reality as much as possible (Merriam, 1992). Having said this, Chapelle and Jamieson (op.
cit.) also warn that it is often impractical to administer the number and kinds of tests needed
to uncover all the possible covariates influencing student attitudes and to obtain strong
evidence for the validity and reliability of the self-reports or the survey instruments used
(p.48). They conclude that, as with all educational research,
Whereas it is easy to articulate the criteria that help ensure the internal validity of
the research, it is not easy to apply these criteria consistently when conducting
CALL investigations. In fact, researchers are rarely able to implement all of these
criteria with 100% success; if only flawless research were to be considered,
speculations and contentions about CALL use would remain forever unsupported
or refuted by empirical data.
(Chapelle and Jamieson op. cit. :54)
In view of the above, the validity of data collected for this research study is at stake
when considering the nature of respondents and the context of use. While the NCET
prophesied the integration of ICT in education in the first decade of the twenty-first century,
reality is far from half of what was expected in the first place and the levels of ICT literacy
among teachers and students leave much to be desired. Therefore, in order to counter balance
this state of affairs, recourse to the case study of a focus group using CALL in the private
sector was deemed necessary.
III.5.2. External Validity
To ensure the external validity of this research study, representativeness of the target
populations (especially for the questionnaires) has been taken into account in the
investigation, which, in fact, covered teachers and students from different parts of Morocco.
According to Chapelle and Jamieson (op. cit.:53), to achieve external validity, the researcher
must ask the following question: Within what context, with what kinds of students, and using
141
what kinds of materials, were the results obtained? Therefore, and for purposes of internal
validity as well, the contexts of investigation of this research are meant to be diverse and the
target samples different in terms of various variables such as gender, age, geographical
location, etc., thus ensuring the internal and the external validity of the research as a whole. In
fact, Merriam (1998:9) recommends diversity in sample selection because it allows for a
greater range of application of the findings.
Although randomness and anonymity were respected in the administration of the

survey questionnaires, participants in the case study were targeted as such because they were
all former students registered in the E-learning program. In fact, the latter strategy is not
without benefits since attitudes are, by definition, never static. The research survey being
descriptive in nature and attitudinal in perspective, its primary goal is to understand and not to
generalize. Therefore, the sampling procedure used here should not be thought of as biasing
the results. In fact, according to Merriam (1998:6), in such type of research, readers will be
able to determine the extent to which their situation matches the research context, and hence,
whether findings can be transferred. The case study is not meant to be a microcosm of the
larger sample of students, but an extension of the understandings (cf. McMillan and
Schumacher, 1993:394) in subsequent research, hence the external validity of the study as a
whole.
III.5.3. Triangulation
Triangulation refers to a process in which the researcher cross-validates the sources of

data and cross-checks the theoretical schemes within the framework of which data are
collected and analyzed for purposes of reliability and validity. According to Denzin (1978),
triangulation can be achieved in four possible ways based on either of these four key
elements: data, investigator, theory, and methodology. Respectively, there is the use of (1) a
variety of data sources, (2) different researchers or evaluators to look at the same issue, (3)
several perspectives to interpret a single set of data, and (4) multiple methods to study a single
phenomenon. With the exception of the second type, this research uses all the other three
types of triangulation. In fact, the use of multiple techniques is both a sound and viable
approach to assessing the effectiveness of using ICT in language teaching and learning.
The methods and instruments used in the present research study have not been selected
fortuitously. The choice is rather based on the objectives of the study itself. This is in line
with Connellys and Clandinins (1990) view that each researcher must search for, and
defend, the criteria that best apply to his or her work. In view of this, many sources of
142
information have been combined and interrelated. A word of warning is put forth by Mathison
(1988) who contends that triangulation may yield data that are contradicting or inconsistent;
therefore, it should rely on a holistic understanding of the situation to construct plausible
explanations about phenomena being studied.
This multi-dimensional triangulation confirms findings of the impacts of attitudes on

the use of ICT in English language teaching and learning, from the point of view of the
learner and the teacher.
III.5.4. Limitations
Although every effort has been made to ensure the validity of the present research
design by adopting a mix of methods and a variety of instruments to cross-check the gleaned
data, no claim can be made as to its flawlessness. The fact of stating limitations stems from
the belief that it is better for the researcher to recognize the limitations rather than claim he
or she has a perfect design (cf. McMillan and Schumacher, 1993:572). The research design
adopted in this study could have been more valuable and more representative of the field were
it not for the following factors:
- The Moroccan context being unique in many ways, the focus of the study may be too
global in perspective and not sufficiently localized.
- The representativeness of data depended on the willingness (or lack thereof) of the
initial respondents to forward the URL of the online questionnaires to other respondents.
- Some respondents could not understand some technical terms used in the
questionnaires.
- The fact that the SQ was written only in English was a major hindrance to beginner
learners of English.
- Some respondents who are not familiar with questionnaires eliciting attitudes did not
know how to deal with the semantic differential.
- The focus group included only privileged employees of some corporate companies
and multinationals.
- The majority of the members of the focus group did not respond to the SQ and none
of those who did was willing to sit for a short interview.
143
- Quite a long time has elapsed (between 12 and 18 months) since the beginning of the
E-learning sessions of the focus group. In the meantime, new valuable data may have been
produced which have not been considered in the scope of this study, which is cross-sectional
rather than longitudinal.
III.6. Descriptive Data Analysis
The survey was conducted using online data collection via the Web. The technique
was based on the ASP technology and the pages were designed with Macromedia
DreamWeaver, a website creation and management tool. While the data entered online were
automatically tabulated on databases created with Microsoft Access, the data from the paper
questionnaires were tabulated on a spreadsheet using Microsoft Excel. Thereafter,
everything was exported to SPSS, a statistics software program designed for data analysis
and visualization using highly elaborate graphs. This statistics program was used mainly to
graphically describe the data and the correlation between respondents attitudes toward ICT
and variables such as gender, age, number of years of experience, amount of ICT use,
computer applications used, whether the respondent had a personal computer, and whether
computers were used in isolation or integrated into the teaching and learning operation.
Irrespective of whether the data were qualitative or quantitative, the analysis set out to
1) describe and summarize the collected data, 2) identify relationships between variables, 3)
compare those variables, 4) identify the difference between variables, and 5) forecast
outcomes. The purpose of all the foregoing was to obtain usable and useful information.
Analysis of qualitative data was not as simple as it might seem, and although it did not require
complicated statistical techniques of quantitative analysis, it was nonetheless difficult to
handle large amounts of data in a thorough, systematic and relevant manner.
Marshall and Rossman (1995:113) elucidate data analysis as a process thus:
Data analysis is the process of bringing order, structure and meaning to the mass of
collected data. It is a messy, ambiguous, time-consuming, creative, and fascinating
process. It does not proceed in a linear fashion; it is not neat. Qualitative data
analysis is a search for general statements about relationships among categories of
data.
Hitchcock and Hughes (1995:295) take this one step further by involving the ways
in which the researcher moves from a description of what is the case to an explanation of why
what is the case is the case.
Qualitative data collected through the SQ, the TQ, the case study, and the follow-up
interviews were codified before processing. All data (qualitative and quantitative) were
144
organized and summarized according to the requirements of descriptive statistics in which
generalizations such as frequency distributions, measures of central tendency and the like are
used. Despite the limitations of such method of analysis in so far as external validity is
concerned, it is believed that it yields figures that can provide a fair description of
phenomena, thus paving the ground for a scientific interpretation of traits, variables, etc.
According to McMillan and Schumacher (1993:191), the mere presence of statistical

procedures does not ensure quality in research. Quality in research, however, depends most
on proper conceptualization, design, subject selection, instruments, and procedures
McMillan and Schumacher (op. cit.). By using descriptive statistics in data analysis, it is
hoped to derive indices that summarize the observations and characterize the phenomena in
order to provide a general picture of the situation as a whole. Thus, the frequencies and
percentages are not only meant to describe applicability for the researched samples but also to
make conclusions about the target populations as a whole.
III.7. Inferential Statistical Procedures
This research study includes a non-descriptive analysis of the statistics culled from the
two surveys and the case study. The ultimate purpose of this inferential statistical analysis is
to make sure that the reported results reflect the real situation, especially in relation to the
descriptive statistics presented in Chapters IV and V. In addition, such inferential statistical
analysis is likely to enhance the validity and reliability of the research study as a whole.
However, for a proper application of statistics, a number of assumptions should be made and,
for a better understanding of the statistical logic, some relevant concepts should be defined.
The selected concepts illustrate the basic assumptions of most statistical methods for their role
in clarifying and reflecting the quantitative nature of the results of research studies. It follows
then that the types of statistical techniques used by a researcher depend on the design of the
study, the type of data being collected, and the questions being asked.
The primary objective of inferential statistics is to make calculated inferences about a

population based on data contained in an extracted sample. However, drawing an inference is
only a portion of the whole statistical analysis. In order to draw appropriate statistical
inference for a given issue, an analysis of the sample(s) and a measure of reliability for the
inference, as well as a margin error are needed. It is this measurement dimension that makes
of statistics a rigorous scientific method and a disciplined application of logic and
probability that provides an insight into almost any subject.
145
First of all, it should be made clear that statistics, as a scientific method of
measurement, has a raison dtre in educational research because it describes procedures used
by the researcher to analyze data of various sorts and characterize outcomes of those
statistical procedures. This research study includes two types of statistics: descriptive and
inferential. The former, also called summary statistics, has to do with reporting numerical
results such as frequencies (percentages) and central tendencies (means), whereas the latter,
otherwise called dispersion statistic, goes beyond that to include an investigation of the
differences and relationships that might exist between variables in order to estimate whether
the resulting observations suggest that there is a relationship in the populations from which
the focal samples were drawn.
The data counted in a study are called variables, and a particular outcome is called an
observation. Variables constitute the main ingredient for conducting a statistical analysis of
any kind. The following subsection provides more details about variables.
III.7.1. Variables
Variables refer to properties that can be measured, controlled, or manipulated in

research. Simply put, a variable is any attribute or set of attributes that can vary in a study.
Different types of variables can be identified depending on their roles in the study (dependent
vs. independent) and the measures (scales) that can be applied to them. For example, CALL
use is a dependent variable because using ICT for educational purposes depends on other
independent variables such as computer ownership and computer literacy.
An indispensable distinction to make between dependent and independent variables is

that while the former refer to characteristics that are of most interest to the study, the latter
refer to the factors that can have an effect on the focal dependent variables. In other words,
dependent variables are measured or registered to determine what effects independent
variables have on the former. Variables (whether dependent or independent) are either
qualitative or quantitative. While qualitative variables have non-numeric outcomes in the
form of categories or labels (e.g. gender, location, and type of computer), quantitative
variables, however, have numeric values that can be quantified (e.g. time, age, and number of
faults). Quantitative variables may be further classified as discrete or continuous. Discrete
variables have outcomes which can take only a finite number of possible values (e.g. number
of people, mistakes, etc.), whereas continuous variables can take any value over some
continuous scale, although they can be rounded to the nearest integer (e.g. time, age, etc.).
146
Variables can be tallied on different measurement scales depending on their nature.
According to Brown (1992:633), four types of scales can be used to quantify variables in
statistical language studies, positing that they can be hierarchically arranged from the least
precise to the most precise as follows: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales. This
diversity in scales reflects the different ways of observing data and assigning values to them.
In fact, scales are important because they help in understanding the data collection process as
a whole.
Nominal scales, otherwise called categorical scales, are used for classifying qualitative
data into categories that cannot be ranked or quantified. Typical examples of variables
measured on nominal scales include gender, ethnicity, native language, location, etc.
Ordinal scales, as their mane suggests, are used to rank data items in terms of which has
less and which has more of the quality represented by the variable, thus the points being
lined up and numbered first, second, third, and so on (Brown, 1988:21). Variables such as
the socioeconomic status of respondents and their overall language skill level are typical
examples of variables that can be measured on ordinal scales.
Interval scales, also called continuous scales, are used both to rank data items and
quantify the interval between them. For instance, language test scores can also be measured
on interval scales because they show not only the ranking of students but also the interval
between various performances.
Ratio scales are similar to interval scales, except that they feature an identifiable
absolute zero point. For example, if school A hosts 400 students and school B 800 and both
are equipped with a multimedia lab of 20 workstations each, then the computer/student ratio is
different in these schools (1 PC for every 5 students in school A and 1 PC for every 10
students in school B). This variable is measured on a ratio scale because it makes sense to say
that school C has 0 computers and that computers are accessible to students in school A twice
as much as to those in school B.
III.7.2 Quantitative Properties of Statistical Analysis
The questionnaire surveys and the case study yield quantitative data that exhibit certain
properties which cannot be ignored, and must be taken into account in statistical analysis. For
educational research studies, two such quantitative properties are prominent: centrality (or
central tendency) and variability. How they are studied or analyzed is what reveals the nature
of the tools through which the data were collected.
147
III.7.2.1. Statistical Measures of Centrality
The mean, median and mode define the centrality of a set of measurements. Of these
three, the arithmetic mean of a data set is the most popular and best understood measure of
centrality. It refers to the outcome of the operation in which the sum of values is divided by
the number of occurrences. In other words, the mean is the average value of the data set.
Another important measure of centrality is the median, which is a point in the middle of a
series of scores in a given data set. It is not affected by the actual values of the scores. In
education, the median has several uses, among which there is depicting the performance of a
group of students in a course or dividing students into two groups. Finally, the mode is the
most frequently occurring value in a set of collected data. The mode can be used in education
research when there is, for example, a perceived interest in knowing the frequency of certain
scores. Having defined the three statistical measures of central tendency, it is important to
note that they only provide a partial perspective of data description, and that in order to get a
fuller description, other statistical measures are called for, namely measures of variability.
III.7.2.2. Statistical Measures of Variability
Variability refers to the spread in the distribution of scores. Because comparing two
different groups sometimes leads to the same mean, median and mode, measuring variability
becomes necessary. There are three measures of variability that are vital to the completion of
data description, namely range, variance and standard deviation. The range determines the
two extremities within which a data set varies. In other words, it defines the lowest and the
highest scores in a distribution. It is easy to obtain because it only involves two scores (the
highest minus the lowest). The range, however, works only with small sized corpuses of data.
Therefore, when the size of the data set is large, a more elaborate method of determining the
variability is deemed necessary. One of these methods is measuring the variance of a
particular data set. It refers to the mean of the squares of the difference between the samples
and the mean of that population or data set. Variance is a concept that involves numerical
analysis, yet it cannot be visualized graphically. Therefore, it is rarely reported as a specific
number to indicate variability (McMillan and Schumacher, 1993:208). Instead, the concept
of standard deviation (SD) is used more often to indicate how much the scores deviate from
the mean value, that is, the average variability of scores around the mean. SD is equal to the
square root of the variance (i.e. variance is SD). SD is typically reported in research along
with the mean.
148
III.7.3. Main Concepts in Statistical Procedures
There are some essential notions and considerations that need to be clear in the readers
mind in order to better understand the statistical procedures and, for that matter, the outcomes
of the inferential statistical analysis as a whole. Some of these notions and considerations are:
probability, statistical significance, the null hypothesis and margin of error, all of which are,
in fact, inextricably linked to each other.
III.7.3.1. Probability and Statistical Significance
Since there is a possibility for the descriptive statistics (frequencies and means) to occur
by chance, (i.e. there is a chance that the results based on the targeted samples do not
represent the populations as a whole), the basic building block for statistical validation is the
calculation of probability. There are many types of probability and interesting issues
associated with them. However, only aspects of probability that are needed to understand
basic statistical inference issues are addressed here. McMillan and Schumacher (op. cit.:336)
define probability as a scientific way of stating the degree of confidence we have in
predicting something. Probability (p) specifies the likelihood that a particular value of a
variable will be obtained.
Conventional probability levels which define the threshold of statistical significance

range from .01 to .05 (Brown, 1991:578). The choice of a p-value (otherwise termed alpha
level) in language education research depends on how much error can be tolerated. For
example, a p-value of .05 indicates that there is a 5% probability that the results are due to
chance (a mere fluke) and 95% probability that the results are true (not due to chance).
Specifically, when observed differences between samples are said to be statistically
significant, this means that those differences are systematic and not due to chance. Therefore,
because probability is related to the significance of the results, it is important to calculate it by
means of inferential statistical tests.
III.7.3.2. Statistical Hypotheses and Measurement Errors
When probabilities are found, they are formalized by statements referred to as statistical
hypotheses (McMillan and Schumacher, op. cit.:339). These should not be confused with the
research hypotheses presented in III.3 above, which are, in fact, meant to be tested by means
of descriptive statistics. For these research hypotheses to be statistically testable, they need to
be translated into statistical hypotheses expressed through a shorthand (Brown, 1988:114).
149
Since researchers work with a sample to get a picture of what the situation is like in a given
population, they conduct statistical studies to make inferences based on hypothesis testing.
Statistical hypotheses are stated in what is termed the null form, which leads to two
types of hypotheses: the null hypothesis (H0) and the alternative hypothesis (H1). For
example, one research hypothesis in this study predicts that there will be differences between
teachers and students attitudes towards CALL, which means that H0 will state that there is
no difference between the two groups and that H1 reflects the prediction of the research
hypothesis. When comparing H0 and H1, it is easier to test the former than the latter. By using
an inferential statistical test, the research can refute or confirm H0. If it is false, then this is
ample evidence that there is a difference in attitudes between the two groups; however, if H0
turns out to be true, then the attitudes of the groups are actually the same.
The null version of the hypothesis is created only to serve as a criterion against which
the alternative version (H1) is evaluated. At this stage, the researcher also establishes a
statistical significance level, which refers to the risk to be taken in case of accepting H1 when
H0 is true. Because it is not sure that the targeted sample is representative of the target
population, any conclusions drawn from the sample may be erroneous. Accordingly, not only
do inferential statistics provide the means to make inferences, but also the means to specify
the amount of potential error. In the process of hypothesis testing, while trying to draw
inferences about the population from evidence drawn from the sample at hand, the researcher
may make two types of errors. Type I error is made when concluding that there is a difference
between the groups being studied while, in fact, there is no difference. On the other hand,
Type II error is made when concluding that there is no difference between the groups being
studied while, in fact, there is a difference. Marczyk et al. (2005:13) present the state of
possible outcomes of hypothesis testing including these two errors in a table, reproduced as
follows.
Actual Results
Researchers Conclusion Difference No Difference
Difference Correct decision Type I error
No difference Type II error Correct decision
Table 3.6: Type I errors vs. Type II errors
150
As shown in this table, a researcher can make two correct decisions (inferences). The
first correct inference that can be drawn is when H1 is accepted and H0 is true of the parameter
corresponding to the population and the second correct inference when H0 is not rejected and
H0 is the true parameter value. Be that as it may, there is an inverse relationship between Type
I errors and Type II errors; that is, when the researcher tries to decrease the probability of
making Type I error, chances are that Type II error will be made. Hypothesis testing is
designed to protect against Type I error only, and in order to address Type II error, a different
procedure termed statistical power needs to be performed (cf. Schwab, 2005:179). As
reported in Marczyk et al. (2005:14), a probability level of 5% is a standard convention in
most fields of research and represents a compromise between making Type I and Type II
errors. It should be clear by now why a p-value should range between .01(1%) and .05 (5%).
III.7.4. Statistical Tests Relevant for the Study
There are three statistical tests that are appropriate for this study: 1) MANOVA
(multivariate analysis of variance) to compare mean scores on several attitude indices for the
two major groups targeted in the surveys (teachers and students), 2) the Chi-square (2) to
compare (sub)group frequencies, and 3) a t-test to compare pre-test and post-test scores of
participants who participated in the case study. The rationale behind the choice of these
statistical tests is discussed in Chapter VI, including a definition of each one of them.
It should be borne in mind that all statistical tests must have some basic assumptions.
For instance, they require that the distribution of data fulfill requirements such as normality
and independence, because failure to do so means that the results will be inaccurate. Brown
(1988:117) defines an assumption as a precondition that must be met for the particular
statistical analysis to be accurately applied. Although the statistical tests applied in this study
are thought to be robust as far as normality is concerned, they are considered
incommensurable with the assumption of independence (Marczyk et al., 2005). Marczyk et al.
provide a succinct definition of robustness in statistical tests:
Robustness of a statistical test refers to the degree to which it is resistant to

violations of certain assumptions. The robustness of certain statistical techniques
does not mean they are totally immune to such violations, but merely that they are
less sensitive to them. (p. 227)
One way to circumvent this inadequacy is by using degrees of freedom (df). This is a
notion that McMillan and Schumacher (1993:346) define as a mathematical concept that
denotes the number of independent observations that are free to vary. Degrees of freedom are
151
used to identify the appropriate sampling distribution for statistical hypothesis tests. Their
existence is due in large part to the fact that statistics are calculated on the basis of sample
means and standard deviation, both of which leave a small margin of guesswork, according
to Brown (1988:118). Every statistical test has a corresponding number of degrees of freedom
that is worked out, and then employed to assess the statistical significance of the test
(McMillan and Schumacher, op. cit.:346).
III.8. Conclusion
The main thrust of this chapter has been to set the methodological framework of the
present research study. In defining the research task of the study, the research questions have
been invoked in order to use them as guidelines in hypothesis making. The present research
study uses a cross-sectional approach in investigating participants attitudes and a
combination of qualitative and quantitative methods in data elicitation, for it is believed that
this mixed mode is likely to enhance validity and reliability. For this reason, a variety of data
collection instruments (the questionnaire, the interview and observation) were adopted for
use, the questionnaire being the primary source of data. A case study was also adopted as a
method of research in order to provide a sense of how ICT is being used in language teaching
and learning in the Moroccan context.
The profile of the target research samples and the way of their identification were
described. Thus, the two main categories of respondents (teachers and students) were
presented in terms of level (elementary-secondary/tertiary) and type (private/public) of
education. A detailed description of each data collection technique with its merits and
shortcomings was also provided. A focus group was used in the case study to show how its
members used DynEd E-learning platform for purposes of English language learning. The
courseware in platform and the way the performance of users is tracked were described.
This research broke with the conventional questionnaire administration by inviting

respondents to participate as much as possible in the online survey and invite others to take
part. Data were augmented with follow-up interviews and supplemented with observation and
examination of the study records of a focus group using E-learning in their English learning.
This served both as a means of obtaining more refined information and as a means of cross
validation. The use of triangulation in this research study is meant to build the validity and the
reliability of data and results ensuing therefrom. So, in order to reflect different perspectives
within the same situation, recourse to a variety of data collection techniques was necessary.
152
To comply with the requirements of internal and external validity, data were cross-
checked by using multiple measures and various methods and an attempt to cover respondents
from different regions was made by maintaining a representative teacher-student ratio (234
students versus 629 teachers). Although every effort has been made to further reinforce the
validity and reliability of data and the research study as a whole by adopting multi-
dimensional triangulation, a list of limitations was deemed necessary. The data collected
through the various instruments and methods stated above were tabulated and processed
electronically using various software applications. The data analysis procedures used in this
study have been presented and explained. The following two chapters provide a detailed
summary of the data using descriptive statistics, while the first section of the final chapter
provides an inferential statistical analysis of the data discussed in Chapters IV and V.
153
Chapter Four:
Teachers Attitudes towards ICT and CALL:

Data Analysis
154
IV.0. Introduction
The purpose of the present chapter is to analyze and discuss the results of the research
study through a descriptive scrutiny of the data collected through the teacher questionnaire
and the follow-up interview as pointed out in the previous chapter. The results should then
help in drawing a picture of the pedagogical use of ICT in Morocco, especially the way in
which it shapes the attitudes of (would-be) teachers and how this impacts the quality and
standards of language teaching and learning in Morocco. Moreover, although the study is
mainly more attitudinal than comparative in nature, it should help in pinpointing the
deficiencies and inadequacies of the traditional methods that do not incorporate ICT in the
process of language teaching and learning.
The chapter falls into four sections, the first two of which are devoted to the study of the
two sub-groups of the category of teachers, namely experienced teachers and pre-service
teachers. Thus, they discuss the (would-be) teachers use of, and attitudes towards ICT in the
language teaching operation. But prior to that, a detailed description of the sample is provided
as a background to the discussion. The third section compares and contrasts the results
registered by each sub-group, while the fourth assesses the hypotheses put forward earlier in
the light of these results.
It should be noted that the primary source of data is the questionnaire, the follow-up
interview being a source of supporting views and whose aim is to add depth to the survey.
The most important criterion for the choice of interviewees was that they should have used
ICT of some sort in their teaching/learning. Furthermore, and in order to comply with the
principle of variation, respondents with different educational and cultural backgrounds were
preferred.
While every effort has been made to obtain data that genuinely reflect the EFL teacher-
student ratio in Morocco, an assumption has been made such that the size of samples should
somehow be different in size in order to approximate the actual representation of both
populations. This is so because the statistics provided by the competent authorities are too
general. The assumption is that since the teacher population is, as a rule of thumb, fewer than
the student population, then the size of the teacher sample should be smaller than that of
students.
155
IV.1. Teachers Use of, and Attitudes towards ICT in Language Teaching
As mentioned in the previous chapter (Section III.3), out of the 548 teachers who have
been targeted in the administration of the questionnaire 234 have actually taken part in the
investigation. Accordingly, the response rate (42.70%) is adequate enough to cover the whole
range of teachers, whose detailed characteristics and profiles based on age, gender, teaching
experience, work setting, educational background and geographical location are outlined in
the following table.
-25 25 ~ 35 36 ~ 45 46 ~ 55 56+
Age 53 / 137 / 23 / 9.83% 10 / 0 / 0% 11 / 4.70%
22.65% 58.55% 4.27%
Male Female
Gender
103 / 44.02% 120 / 51.28% 11 / 4.70%
Primary Secondary Higher education
73 / 31.19% 36(+92) / 54.71% 33 / 14.10%
Work setting
Private Public
55 / 23.50% 87(+92) / 76.50%
0 >0 ~ 1 2~5 6~9 10 ~ 15 16+
Teaching experience 79 / 10 / 44 / 36 / 24 / 28 / 13 /
33.76% 4.27% 18.80% 15.38% 10.25% 11.96% 5.55%
Doctorate/PhD DEA/DES(A)/MA Licence/BA Teaching Cert.
Degrees earned
10 / 4.27% 37 / 15.81% 179 / 76.50% 8 / 3.42%
Urban Semi-urban Rural
Geographical location
164 / 70.09% 24 / 10.25% 4 / 1.71% 42 / 17.95%
Where means no answer has been provided
Table 4.1: Teacher profile
It should be noted that where small discrepancies seem to occur in the numbers, it is
because not all respondents answered all the questions in questionnaires. Therefore, the
percentages do not always add up to exactly 100%. For example, of the 234 teachers who
answered the questionnaire, 51.28% (120) were female and 44.02% (103) were male. The rate
of respondents who abstained from answering the question on gender is small (4.7%), which
should not, at least in principle, affect the correlation between gender and computer usage.
The fact that the same number of participants (11) did not answer the question on age
prompted the author to check if they are the same participants. However, only in two cases
did the respondents not answer both questions on gender and age. Other instances where
questions were left unanswered have to do with work experience and geographical location.
While the questionnaire was administered in such a way that there should be some
kind of balance between the targeted public and private institutions, the return rate, on the one
hand, and the status of some teachers, on the other, are behind the change in the balance
156
sought (23.50% private vs. 76.50% public). Additionally, 29.27% was the return rate for the
online version of the questionnaire where the majority of the targeted teachers worked in
private schools (cf. Table 3.1). Moreover, the fact that some teachers work in both private and
public schools made the question on the work setting ambiguous. Still related to the teaching
setting, there is the issue of educational levels taught by the respondents. While the majority
of them are high school teachers (54.71%), 31.19% teach in primary schools and 14.10% in
institutions of higher education.
Most (95%) spoke English as a foreign language, the remaining 5% representing

native speakers and those who did not answer the question on language. While 20.09% of
teachers hold a postgraduate degree (MA, DEA, DESS, PhD, etc.) working mainly in higher
education, 79.91% of them hold a graduate degree (BA, Licence, etc.) or a teaching
certificate. It should be noted that in order to teach in state-owned schools, teachers must have
a Licence degree or equivalent and that teaching certificates are accepted only by private
schools. Another worth-mentioning point is that secondary school teachers do not choose
where they teach contrary to teachers of higher education and private primary education.
Given the significance of the variable of place of residence/work (geographical location) in
the representativeness of the sample of the targeted teachers, a question on the place of work
is given in the survey questionnaire. Although a considerable number of teachers (42
17.95%) eschewed this question, the majority of them (70.09%) work in urban centers and
only 10.25% work in semi-urban areas.
The question on teaching experience is very important here because it helps in

demarcating the two main subgroups of the category of teachers, viz. teacher trainees
(otherwise called student teachers or pre-service teachers) with no teaching experience of
any kind, and experienced teachers with varying lengths of classroom experience. While the
former subgroup constitutes 33.76% of teachers (i.e. 79 trainees from the ENS in Rabat and
the CPR in different cities), the latter constitutes 66.24%. The reason for mainly targeting
respondents with teaching experience is motivated by the fact that the focus of the study is the
actual use of ICT in the teaching and learning operation by practising teachers. However, as
the NCET was officially put to execution in 2000, the investigation sought to take into
account the views of teacher trainees to see how commensurate the training they receive is
with the recommendations of the NCET and the 2008 Plan.
157
To display these profiles in graphical form and in a univariate manner, a horizontal
histogram is used to represent all variables with two values (i.e. gender, work setting, and
teaching experience) and pie-charts to represent the other variables which have more than two
values.
Gender Male 44.02% 51.28% Female
Private 23.50% 76.50% Public
Teaching Experience Trainees 33.76% 66.24% Experienced Teachers
Age Levels Taught

4% 5%
10%
-25 14%
23%
25 ~ 35 31%
36 ~ 45
46 ~ 55
Primary
55%
58% Secondary
Higher education
Degrees Earned Geographical Location

3% 4%
18%
16% Doctorate/PhD 2%
Urban
DEA/DES(A)/MA
Semi-urban
Licence/BA 10%
Rural
Teaching cert. 70%

77%
Figure 4.1: Teacher profile in graphical form
A quick look at the biggest figures in the above graphs shows that the majority of
respondents targeted in this part of the research are middle-aged, experienced, secondary-
school teachers with a BA degree working in public institutions located mainly in urban
centers. This information is of paramount importance for testing many of the hypotheses put
forward in the previous chapter (III.1.3). Before considering those hypotheses, it is essential
to find out how computer literate the teachers are and whether they have the necessary
computer equipment within reach (either at home or at work).
158
IV.1.1. Experienced Teachers
IV.1.1.1. Computer Equipment, Electronic Literacy and Access to ICT
This section aims at gauging electronic literacy among the 155 experienced teachers
who have filled out the TQ, which contains a whole part with nine straightforward items on
whether respondents own a personal computer and how often, and for what purposes they are
using it. Because not owning a computer does not necessarily mean not using one, the first
relevant question to be asked is: Do you use computers?. The answer to this question is
crucial in distinguishing between experienced teachers who are computer literate and those
who are not. The rate of computer literacy registered among the target sample (155
experienced teachers) is schematized as follows:
Computer literate 139 89.68%
Computer illiterate 16 10.32%
Table 4.2: Computer literacy rates among experienced teachers
While the majority of the targeted respondents claim to be computer literate, it should
be noted that computer literacy does not mean computer mastery. Moreover, claiming to use a
computer does not mean being able to make it do even what one knows it can do. Indeed, the
notion of computer literacy is not new. According to Papert (1980), it refers merely to ones
ability to turn on a computer and operate simple programs. Such a notion is largely
discredited as new computer technologies such as CMC emerge. Another essential and
relevant concept used in this respect is computer awareness, which, according to Pantiel and
Petersen (1984:11), refers to a very rudimentary understanding of computers, including basic
definitions of hardware, software, [and] the components of a computer system. This implies
that someone who does not use a computer might be aware of the way a computer functions
and the types of tasks it can perform. Therefore, the concept of electronic literacy is an
alternative notion that incorporates computer usage and the more intricate ways of
communication via the computer. Before looking into the other aspects of computer literacy
among the 139 computer-literate teachers, it is also important to see how many of them own a
PC (personal computer).
PC 59 42.45%
No PC 80 57.55%
Table 4.3: Computer ownership among experienced computer-literate teachers
159
The revolutionary evolution of ICT in the 1990s and the continuing drop in computer
prices have probably facilitated a nationwide boom in PC ownership. The UNDP (United
Nations Development Program) reports that the penetration rate of PCs among the Moroccan
population in 2001 was 1.40 (cf. http://globalis.gvu.unu.edu/). In addition, Misoc
(Moroccan Internet Society) stated in a report published in May 2004 that the computer
acquisition rate is 100.000 workstation per annum (cf. http://www.misoc.ma). Since these
rates concern only the educated portion of the population (51.7% according to La Direction
des Statistiques, cf. Tables 2.3 and 2.5), then the ownership rates registered among the
experienced teachers targeted in this research can be said to be fairly positive. Here, the
variable of income is very relevant as far as PC ownership is concerned. However, a question
on this particular point being considered too prying, it was eschewed so as not to touch on the
private life of respondents.
Concerning the frequency of use among the computer-literate teachers, there is an

apparent percentage gap between those who own a PC and those who do not, as it can be seen
in the following.
Once in a while Occasionally Frequently Almost everyday

No PC (80) 8 (10%) 52 (65%) 19 (23.75%) 1 (1.25%)
PC (59) 1 (1.70%) 14 (23.72%) 12 (20.34%) 32 (54.24%)
Total (139) 9 (6.47%) 66 (47.49%) 31 (22.30%) 33 (23.74%)
Table 4.4: Frequency of computer use among experienced teachers
Teachers who do not own a PC trail those who have one in frequency of use by a
substantial margin. This might be attributed to constraints on access to, and use of computer
labs in schools or to the cost of using a computer in a private club or a cyber-caf. It is quite
understandable that while the majority (65%) of teachers who do not have a computer of their
own use ICT only occasionally, more than half (54.24%) the number of those who have one
use it almost everyday. The following histogram shows in a graphical representation this
discrepancy.
160
70
60
50
No PC (80)
40
PC (59)
30
Total (139)
20
10
0
Once in a Occasionally Frequently Almost
while everyday
Figure 4.2: Frequency of computer use among experienced teachers
A rough examination of the figures and frequencies shows that there is an influential
relationship between PC ownership and frequency of use of computers. Additionally, place of
access and the types of practices performed by a computer user will definitely help to have a
clear idea about the level of computer literacy of the experienced teachers who claim to be
computer literate. The figures in Table 4.5 indicate the number of responses concerning the
place of access to the computer. Because respondents could choose more than one option, it
should be noted that the numbers do not add up to 139 (the number of experienced computer-
literate teachers) vertically. On the other hand, the numbers should add up to 139 horizontally
when added to the number of the unanswered items (6), as the right column shows the number
of the remaining respondents who do no use the computer in the places indicated.
Use Non use

Home 50 (37.60%) 83 (62.40%)
School or university 29 (21.80%) 104 (78.20%)
Computer club 4 (3%) 129 (97%)
Cyber-space 65 (48.87%) 68 (51.13%)

Unanswered 6 (4.32%)
Six respondents out of 139 (4.32%) computer-literate teachers did not answer the
question on place of access. Therefore, the percentages shown in the graph below add up to
161
more than 100% because they are worked out of 133 users, without excluding those who have
checked more than one response.
48.87%
65
37.6%
50
21.8%
29
3%
Home School or Com puter club Cyber space

university
Figure 4.3: the rates of computer use in four different places
The first remark that can be made is that the teachers who own a computer (n=59) do
not necessarily use it at home, heedless of the number of respondents who deliberately
skipped the question (n=6). For instance, out of the 50 teachers who use a computer at home,
13 (26%) use it also at the workplace (school or university), 2 (4%) in a computer club, and
25 (50%) in a cyber-space. More details about alternative places of access to computers are
given in the following table.
Home Work Club Cyber

Home 50 13 2 25
(37.6%) (26%) (4%) (50%)
Work 13 29 2 23
(44.83%) (21.8%) (6.89%) (79.31%)
Club 2 2 4 4
(50%) (50%) (3%) (100%)
Cyber 25 23 4 65
(38.46%) (35.38%) (6.15%) (48.87%)
While access to computer labs at schools is free, using a computer in a cyber-space is

paying. The ostensible reason for PC owners to pay for using a computer outside their homes
162
is that they need to have access to the Internet. This is confirmed by the figures in Table 4.7
and Table 4.8.
Experienced computer-literate teachers (139)

PC owners (59 / 42.45%) No PC (80 / 57.55%)
Internet No Internet Internet No Internet
8 (13.56%) 51 (86.44%) 2 (2.5%) 78 (97.5%)
Table 4.7: The number of teachers having access to the Internet from their homes (in 2003)
The fact that only 10 out of 139 experienced computer-literate teachers (7.19%) and 8
out of 51 PC owners (15.68%) have access to the Internet from their homes justifies the need
for going to a cyber-space. In fact, right after office packages, which are the most frequently
used by this group of teachers, comes Internet use (E-mailing and Web browsing) in second
and third rankings respectively. Other rates of the uses of the computer are tabulated in the
following table and graph.
C. Application n/139 Percentage

1 Office packages (word processing, presentations, spreadsheets etc.) 105 75.54 %
2 Graphics packages (drawing, image retouching etc.) 11 7.91 %
3 Games 26 18.70 %
4 Programming 8 5.75 %
5 Web-browsing and other web-based services 71 51.08 %
6 E-mailing and other e-mail-based services 82 59 %
7 Video-conferencing 10 7.19 %
8 Multimedia packages (CD-ROMs, DVDs etc.) 58 41.73 %
9 Other(s) 2 1.44 %
Table 4.8: Uses of the computer among experienced teachers
The above table is translated to the following graph which provides a visual
representation of the ranking of the various computer applications used by the experienced
computer-literate teachers who participated in the survey.
75.54%
59%
51.08%
41.73%
18.70%
7.91% 7.19%
5.75% 1.44%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Figure 4.4: The rates of the uses of the computer among experienced teachers
The above figures and percentages suggest that teachers rarely venture to use hard
computing (computer programming). Although they indicate that office packages, E-mail, the
163
Web, and multimedia packages are the most frequently used in a computer, it is not clear as
yet how (individually or otherwise) these teachers are using them and the purposes (personal
or educational) for which they are using what they claim to be capable of using. This is
uncovered and discussed in Section III.1.1.3 below. With respect to the frequency of Internet
use, Table 4.9 summarizes the situation and represents it in graphic bars.
1 3 hours/week 63 45.32 %
4 10 hours/week 60 43.17 %
10 + hours/week 10 7.19 %
No answer 6 4.32 %
Total 139 100 %
Table 4.9: Frequency of Internet use among experienced teachers
The figures presented in this section are basically meant to gauge computer familiarity
among experienced teachers in order to prepare the ground for discussing the effects thereof
upon the potential infusion of ICT in their teaching practices (cf. III.1.1.3). There are many
check-questions in the TQ that are meant to help in assessing the reliability of the answers.
For example, the rates of Internet use (E-mailing and Web browsing) registered in Table 4.8
above (TQ. item 15) and the frequency of Internet use are checked against the mean numbers
in Table 4.29 (TQ. item 34) on various Internet skills.
IV.1.1.2. Attitudes of Experienced Teachers towards ICT and CALL
This section measures the attitudes of 155 experienced teachers towards ICT and
CALL. The measurement instruments used are the semantic differential, a direct multiple
choice question, and a five-point self-rated Likert scale which assessed interest and
confidence in various ICT-related domains, especially as far as it relates to language teaching
and learning. Although a quantitative attitudes assessment may not provide a constant
unequivocal representation of positions over a long period of time, the results are meant to
give an instant picture of the state of affairs. The measurement of attitudes covers the
respondents feelings towards the computer as a newly introduced tool in education, their
dispositions to the various applications of ICT in language teaching and learning, and the way
CALL impacts their perception of the teaching profession and the day-to-day practices.
The semantic differential concerned the respondents feelings about the computer as
such. There are eight scales on this semantic differential, each of which has five slots, which
are coded with a number from 1 to 5, representing the particular position the respondent
marked between the adjective pairs. Four scale items have the negative adjectives in the left-
hand position, while the other four have the positive adjectives in the left-hand position. The
164
reason behind this alternation is to avoid making the assumption that all adjectives are
classified following the same pattern and, thus, randomly checking the slots without paying
attention. Table 4.10 below summarizes the responses of the experienced teachers who filled
in the semantic differential.
1 2 3 4 5 Unanswered
3 2 15 78 38 19
1 Bad (1.94%) (1.29%) (9.68%) (50.32%) (24.52%)
Good (12.26%)
10 58 32 25 9 21
2 Easy (6.45%) (37.42%) (20.65%) (16.13%) (5.81%)
Difficult (13.55%)
46 69 17 3 2 18
3 Intelligent (29.68%) (44.52%) (10.97%) (1.94%) (1.29%)
Stupid (11.61%)
2 4 15 78 36 20
4 Mundane (1.29%) (2.58%) (9.68%) (50.32%) (23.23%)
Fascinating (12.90%)
43 75 13 3 2 19
5 Informative (27.74%) (48.39%) (8.39%) (1.94%) (1.29%)
Uninformative (12.26%)
4 2 16 74 40 19
6 Useless (2.58%) (1.29%) (10.32%) (47.74%) (25.81%)
Useful (12.26%)
5 0 15 72 44 19
7 Worthless (3.23%) (0.00%) (9.68%) (46.45%) (28.39%)
Valuable (12.26%)
51 70 11 4 1 18
8 Interesting (32.90%) (45.16%) (7.10%) (2.58%) (0.65%)
Boring (11.61%)
The figures in the cells represent the sum of checks made at those slots. It should be
noted, however, that the number of responses do not always add up to 155, as some
respondents did not answer all items. This is why the number of unanswered items varies
from pair to pair. After reversing the positive items (the colored rows: 2, 3, 5 & 8) to
synchronize the code values, a graph representing the experienced teachers position
regarding the computer is generated. This reversal is essential so that the alternating
positioning of items does not invalidate summed scores. For ease in interpretation, responses
toward positive adjectives show high values, and responses toward negative adjectives show
low values.
165
Bad / Good
Difficult / Easy
Stupid / Intelligent
Mundane / Fascinating
Uninformative / Informative
Useless / Useful
Worthless / Valuable
Boring / Interesting
Figure 4.5: Experienced teachers attitudes to the computer (detailed stands)
In order to generalize the results, combining the negative (1 & 2) and the positive (4 &
5) values and generating an average score (the mean) for each item/pair should give a general
picture about the experienced teachers attitudes toward the computer as such (a commodity /
a tool / a machine) not as an educational aid.
Adjective pairs Negative Neutral Positive Mean

5 15 116
1 Bad / Good 4.07
(3.68%) (11.03%) (85.29%)
34 32 68
2 Difficult / Easy 3.26
(25.37%) (23.88%) (50.75%)
5 17 115
3 Stupid / Intelligent 4.12
(3.65%) (12.41%) (83.94%)
6 15 114
4 Mundane / Fascinating 4.05
(4.44%) (11.11%) (84.44%)
5 13 118
5 Uninformative / Informative 4.13
(3.68%) (9.56%) (86.76%)
6 16 114
6 Useless / Useful 4.06
(4.41%) (11.76%) (83.82%)
5 15 116
7 Worthless / Valuable 4.10
(3.68%) (11.03%) (85.29%)
5 11 121
8 Boring / Interesting 4.21
(3.65%) (8.03%) (88.32%)
Table 4.11: The mean score of the semantic deferential items (experienced teachers)
All the mean scores registered indicate a positive position (above 3: the average).
Moreover, seven out of the eight scales scored above 4, thus approximating the highest value.
An exception is the second item, which registered a mean score below 4 and just above 3 on
the difficulty/easiness scale. This item has to do with the degree of computer mastery,
which apparently varies from teacher to teacher. Figure 4.6, which summarizes the
166
experienced teachers attitudes toward the computer, is generated after combining the positive
(4 & 5) and negative values (1 & 2).
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Bad / Difficult / Stupid / Mundane / Uninformative / Useless / Worthless / Boring /
Good Easy Intelligent Fascinating Informative Useful Valuable Interesting
Negative Neutral Positive
Figure 4.6: Experienced teachers attitudes to the computer (positive and negative stands)
Contrary to the data in Figure 4.5, which refer to detailed stands of respondents,
including the number of those who did not answer the items, the data in Figure 4.6 indicate
the attitudes of teachers who filled in the semantic differential, on three distinct positions:
negative, neutral and positive. A quick look at the latter graph reveals how positive the
positions are by and large. What is even worth noting is that all the neutral position bars are
higher than the negative ones, except for the difficulty/easiness item, in which the negative
bar is slightly above the level of the neutral bar. In fact, this item is somewhat ambiguous in
the sense that respondents may have different positions in different situations.
What is worthy of attention here is the difference in attitude that might exist between
computer-literate and computer-illiterate teachers, on the one hand, and between computer-
literate teachers who own a PC and those who do not, on the other. Focus on the mean scores
registered by each sub-category of experienced teachers (Table 4.12) and the three distinct
attitude positions (i.e. Negative, Neutral, and Positive) (Figures 4.7 and 4.8) would be enough
to show that difference.
167
Computer-literate
Adjective pairs Computer-illiterate Total
PC No PC Sub-total
1 Bad / Good 4.16 4.06 4.11 3.77 4.07
2 Difficult / Easy 3.12 3.27 3.21 3.78 3.26
3 Stupid / Intelligent 4.12 4.17 4.07 3.92 4.12
4 Mundane / Fascinating 4.02 4.06 4.02 4.38 4.05
5 Uninformative / Informative 4.16 4.09 4.07 4.15 4.13
6 Useless / Useful 4.14 4.09 4.11 3.62 4.06
7 Worthless / Valuable 4.22 4.07 4.14 3.77 4.10
8 Boring / Interesting 4.32 4.14 4.11 4.31 4.21
Table 4.12: The mean scores registered by computer-literate and computer-illiterate teachers
100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Bad /
Good
Difficult /
Easy
Stupid /
Intelligent
Mundane /
Fascinating
Uninformative /
Informative
Useless /
Useful
Worthless /
Valuable
Boring /
Interesting
Computer-illiterate teachers Computer-literate teachers

Figure 4.7: Comparing computer-literate and computer-illiterate teachers attitudes
168
The overall outcome of this comparison shows that the positions of computer-literate
teachers regarding the computer are not that distant from those of their computer-illiterate
peers. The most significant point that can be made in this comparison is that no negative
position has been registered by the computer-illiterate teachers for three items, namely
Mundane/Fascinating, Uninformative/Informative and Boring/Interesting. It should
also be noted, in passing, that the negative and neutral bars leveled out in two items (viz.
Bad/Good and Difficult/Easy). The computer-literate subgroup can also be looked into by
further distinguishing the attitudes of those who own a PC and those who do not.
100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Bad /
Good
Difficult /
Easy
Stupid /
Intelligent
Mundane /
Fascinating
Uninformative /
Informative
Useless /
Useful
Worthless /
Valuable
Boring /
Interesting
No PC PC owners
Negative Neutral
Figure 4.8: Comparing the attitudes of teachers who own a PC and those who do not.
First of all, it should be noted that this comparison is based on an unbalanced scale
since the number of teachers constituting the subgroups in question is not equal (59 own a PC
versus 80 with no PC). For most items in the semantic differential, the positions are close for
169
both subgroups. However, three items constitute an exception. For the Bad/Good pair,
experienced teachers with a PC did not register any negative position (both values 1 & 2),
which is a quite significant indicator. An alternation between the negative and neutral
positions is recorded for the Difficult/Easy and Uninformative/Informative pairs. For the
former pair, on the one hand, PC owners scored lower on the negative than on the neutral
position, while teachers without a PC scored higher on the negative than on the neutral
position. For the latter pair, on the other hand, PC owners scored higher on the negative than
on the neutral position, whereas teachers without a PC scored lower on the negative than on
the neutral position. This alternation might be justified by the frequency of use of the
computer. The data in Table 4.4 and Figure 4.2 indicate how owning a PC is related to high
levels of frequency in using one. Teachers with a PC use it more often than those without,
thus impacting on the level of difficulty/easiness attitude. However, on the
Uninformative/Informative pair, it is not clear why more PC-owners rated the computer as
uninformative, while teachers who do not own a computer preferred to take a neutral
position.
The next question addressed to the respondents elicits directly their attitudes regarding
the use of ICT in language teaching and learning.
How do you perceive the idea of using ICT in language teaching and learning?
- Thats excellent 132 84.18 %
- Thats not bad 16 10.79 %
- Its all the same 4 2.88 %
- Its no use 3 2.16 %
Table 4.13: Experienced teachers attitudes to CALL
For the overwhelming majority of experienced teachers (132 out of 155; i.e. 35.16%),
the answer to this straightforward question is unequivocal, namely that the idea of using ICT
in language teaching and learning is excellent. The data in Figure 4.9 indicate the stand of
experienced teachers on the four different positions provided.
170
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Thats excellent Thats not bad Its all the same Its no use
Figure 4.9: Experienced teachers attitude to CALL
Obviously, this might be seen as a general attitude to CALL, as a new trend in

education. Further details of their attitudes regarding this particular idea and the various
aspects and impacts of CALL are elicited via a five-point Likert scale, composed of well-
validated items adapted from several attitudinal surveys (cf. III.4.1 above). The coding used in
the five-point scale is 1=Strongly Disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Neutral, 4=Agree, and
5=Strongly Agree. The Likert scale contains twenty-six items, the results of which are
presented in Table 4.14. The colored rows refer to items which are worded negatively and,
thus, their values must be reversed before adding them to the others.
SD: Strongly Disagree, D: Disagree, U: Undecided, A: Agree, SA: Strongly Agree : Unanswered
N Statement SD D U A SA
8 0 5 73 63 6
1. I enjoy doing things on a computer.
(5.16%) (0%) (3.23%) (47.10%) (40.65%) (3.87%)
I know that computers give me opportunities to 0 1 12 43 94 5
2.
learn many new things. (0%) (0.65%) (7.74%) (27.74%) (60.65%) (3.23%)
I believe that it is very important for me to learn 1 0 4 33 111 6
3.
how to use a computer. (0.65%) (0%) (2.58%) (21.29%) (71.61%) (3.87%)
I believe that the more often I use computers, the 0 4 19 58 67 7
4.
more students will enjoy school. (0%) (2.58%) (12.26%) (37.42%) (43.23%) (4.52%)
50 79 10 2 1 13
5. I am tired of using a computer.
(32.26%) (50.97%) (6.45%) (1.29%) (0.65%) (8.39%)
34 46 12 36 13 14
6. I feel comfortable working with a computer.
(21.94%) (29.68%) (7.74%) (23.23%) (8.39%) (9.03%)
I would work harder if I could use computers 0 13 26 71 31 14
7.
more often. (0%) (8.39%) (16.77%) (45.81%) (20%) (9.03%)
171
I think that it takes a long time to finish when I 37 75 16 12 1 14
8.
use a computer. (23.87%) (48.39%) (10.32%) (7.74%) (0.65%) (9.03%)
58 64 15 5 0 13
9. Working with a computer makes me nervous.
(37.42%) (41.29%) (9.68%) (3.23%) (0%) (8.39%)
0 7 9 81 44 14
10.Computers do not scare me at all.
(0%) (4.52%) (5.81%) (52.26%) (28.39%) (9.03%)
I can learn more from books than from a 13 20 72 18 17 15
11.
computer. (8.39%) (12.90%) (46.45%) (11.61%) (10.97%) (9.68%)
52 70 12 4 2 15
12.Using a computer is very frustrating.
(33.55%) (45.16%) (7.74%) (2.58%) (1.29%) (9.68%)
1 2 13 70 55 14
13.Computers are indispensable in life.
(0.65%) (1.29%) (8.39%) (45.16%) (35.48%) (9.03%)
I invent new methods when one way does not 0 4 20 59 56 16
14.
work. (0%) (2.58%) (12.90%) (38.06%) (36.13%) (10.32%)
Computers are a tool much like a book or 4 8 10 70 49 14
15.
chalkboard. (2.58%) (5.16%) (6.45%) (45.16%) (31.61%) (9.03%)
1 4 22 60 55 13
16.Computers will relieve teachers of routine duties.
(0.65%) (2.58%) (14.19%) (38.71%) (35.48%) (8.39%)
13 30 45 41 10 16
17.I feel qualified to teach computer literacy.
(8.39%) (19.35%) (29.03%) (26.45%) (6.45%) (10.32%)
Teacher training should include instructional 0 1 12 61 66 15
18.
applications of computers. (0%) (0.65%) (7.74%) (39.35%) (42.58%) (9.68%)
47 61 19 17 5 6
19.The computer is time-consuming.
(30.32%) (39.35%) (12.26%) (10.97%) (3.23%) (3.87%)
33 63 10 37 5 7
20.The computer is addictive and enslaving.
(21.29%) (40.65%) (6.45%) (23.87%) (3.23%) (4.52%)
Computers improve the overall quality of 0 4 16 87 42 6
21.
education. (0%) (2.58%) (10.32%) (56.13%) (27.10%) (3.87%)
0 2 20 90 37 6
22.Computers solve more problems than they cause.
(0%) (1.29%) (12.90%) (58.06%) (23.87%) (3.87%)
Word processing is less time-consuming than 8 4 14 83 39 7
23.
other ways of writing. (5.16%) (2.58%) (9.03%) (53.55%) (25.16%) (4.52%)
The use of ICT in education will threaten the 46 73 9 11 10 6
24.
future of my position as a teacher. (29.68%) (47.10%) (5.81%) (7.10%) (6.45%) (3.87%)
I will feel ashamed if my students already know 49 68 10 10 12 6
25.
what I am still learning. (31.61%) (43.87%) (6.45%) (6.45%) (7.74%) (3.87%)
Courses should use e-mail to disseminate class 5 10 19 78 36 7
26.
information and assignments. (3.23%) (6.45%) (12.26%) (50.32%) (23.23%) (4.52%)
Table 4.14: Results of 26-item Likert measuring experienced teachers attitudes to CALL
The positions registered on these twenty-six items are collapsed into six major indices,
which have been taken into account when designing the instrument. These are Enjoyment,
Anxiety, Utility, Familiarity, Training, and Impact on teaching. The items are distributed
among these indices as specified in Table 4.15. The asterisked numbers refer to items with
negative wording.
172
Index Item numbers
Enjoyment 1, 5*, 6, 13
Anxiety 9*, 10, 12*, 20*, 24*, 25*
Utility 2, 7, 14, 15, 19*, 22, 26
Familiarity 8*, 11, 23
Training in ICT 3, 17, 18
Impact on teaching 4, 16, 21
Distinguishing the responses of computer-literate and computer-illiterate teachers

reveals important points regarding the reliability of the registered positions. In fact, some
items were meant to be check-questions to verify that respondents have been consistent in
their responses. Items like 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 17 are originally directed to computer users
only. For this reason, in many cases, eleven out of sixteen teachers did not respond to many
items on the Likert-scale. So, even though some computer-illiterate teachers responded to
items having to do with computer use, their responses would not invalidate the overall
positions registered by this subgroup. The results shown in Table 4.16 are calculated after
having reversed the values of the negatively worded items and collapsing negative and
positive values into two distinct positions.
Computer-literate (n=139) Computer-illiterate (n=16)

N Neg. Neut. Pos. Neg. Neut. Pos.
0 4 133 2 8 1 3 4
1.
(0%) (2.88%) (95.68%) (1.44%) (50%) (6.25%) (18.75%) (25%)
1 5 131 2 0 7 6 3
2.
(0.72%) (3.60%) (94.24%) (1.44%) (0%) (43.75%) (37.50%) (18.75%)
0 2 134 3 1 2 10 3
3.
(0%) (1.44%) (96.40%) (2.16%) (6.25%) (12.50%) (62.50%) (18.75%)
4 10 121 4 0 9 4 3
4.
(2.88%) (7.19%) (87.05%) (2.88%) (0%) (56.25%) (25%) (18.75%)
3 8 126 2 0 2 3 11
5.
(2.16%) (5.76%) (90.65%) (1.44%) (0%) (12.50%) (18.75%) (68.75%)
80 9 47 3 0 3 2 11
6.
(57.55%) (6.47%) (33.81%) (2.16%) (0%) (18.75%) (12.50%) (68.75%)
13 25 98 3 0 1 4 11
7.
(9.35%) (17.99%) (70.50%) (2.16%) (0%) (6.25%) (25%) (68.75%)
12 14 110 3 1 2 2 11
8.
(8.63%) (10.07%) (79.14%) (2.16%) (6.25%) (12.50%) (12.50%) (68.75%)
4 12 121 2 1 3 1 11
9.
(2.88%) (8.63%) (87.05%) (1.44%) (6.25%) (18.75%) (6.25%) (68.75%)
6 8 122 3 1 1 3 11
10.
(4.32%) (5.76%) (87.77%) (2.16%) (6.25%) (6.25%) (18.75%) (68.75%)
32 70 33 4 1 2 2 11
11.
(23.02%) (50.36%) (23.74%) (2.88%) (6.25%) (12.50%) (12.50%) (68.75%)
5 10 120 4 1 2 2 11
12.
(3.60%) (7.19%) (86.33%) (2.88%) (6.25%) (12.50%) (12.50%) (68.75%)
3 12 121 3 0 1 4 11
13.
(2.16%) (8.63%) (87.05%) (2.16%) (0%) (6.25%) (25%) (68.75%)
3 18 113 5 1 2 2 11
14.
(2.16%) (12.95%) (81.29%) (3.60%) (6.25%) (12.50%) (12.50%) (68.75%)
173
11 10 115 3 1 0 4 11
15.
(7.91%) (7.19%) (82.73%) (2.16%) (6.25%) (0%) (25%) (68.75%)
5 22 110 2 0 0 5 11
16.
(3.60%) (15.83%) (79.14%) (1.44%) (0%) (0%) (31.25%) (68.75%)
41 42 51 5 2 3 0 11
17.
(29.50%) (30.22%) (36.69%) (3.60%) (12.50%) (18.75%) (0%) (68.75%)
1 12 122 4 0 0 5 11
18.
(0.72%) (8.63%) (87.77%) (2.88%) (0%) (0%) (31.25%) (68.75%)
20 18 98 3 5 1 10 3
19.
(14.39%) (12.95%) (70.50%) (2.16%) (12.50%) (6.25%) (62.50%) (18.75%)
31 9 95 4 11 1 1 3
20.
(22.30%) (6.47%) (68.35%) (2.88%) (68.75%) (6.25%) (6.25%) (18.75%)
4 14 118 3 0 2 11 3
21.
(2.88%) (10.07%) (84.89%) (2.16%) (0%) (12.50%) (68.75%) (18.75%)
1 20 115 3 1 0 12 3
22.
(0.72%) (14.39%) (82.73%) (2.16%) (6.25%) (0%) (75%) (18.75%)
4 12 119 4 8 2 3 3
23.
(2.88%) (8.63%) (85.61%) (2.88%) (50%) (12.50%) (18.75%) (18.75%)
12 6 118 3 9 3 1 3
24.
(8.63%) (4.32%) (84.89%) (2.16%) (56.25%) (18.75%) (6.25%) (18.75%)
14 10 112 3 8 0 5 3
25.
(10.07%) (7.19%) (80.58%) (2.16%) (50%) (0%) (31.25%) (18.75%)
6 17 112 4 9 2 2 3
26.
(4.32%) (12.23%) (80.58%) (2.88%) (56.25%) (12.50%) (12.50%) (18.75%)
Table 4.16: Comparing teachers attitudes on the Likert on the basis of computer-literacy
As stated earlier, a comparison between two unbalanced subgroups (139=89.68%

versus 16=10.32%) might not be reliable. Nonetheless, the percentages will clear out the
picture, as can be seen in the following graph.
174
100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
Computer-literate Computer-illiterate
Figure 4.10: The impact of computer-literacy on teacher attitudes
175
The most conspicuous difference between the two subgroups is that the items having
to do with computer use (namely, items 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 17) are, on the one hand,
indicative of the level of computer mastery among the computer-literate teachers and, on the
other hand, the extent to which computer-illiterate teachers are willing to learn ICT. While
twenty-three red bars (representing the positive positions) out of the twenty-six items
constituting the Likert scale exceeded the 70% level for the computer-literate category, fifteen
of them did not even reach 50% for the computer-illiterate subgroup. This unbalanced rating
might either be due to the low number of respondents in the category of computer-illiterate
teachers or to the number of check-questions used in the Likert scale itself. As expected, all
the green bars (representing the negative positions) registered low percentages, expect one
(item 6: I feel comfortable working with a computer.), in which, surprisingly, 60% of
computer-literate teachers marked a negative response. At this stage, it is not clear why this is
so.
In order to draw a picture of the attitudes of experienced teachers, it is essential to

pinpoint their positions on the basis of the six indices presented in Table 4.15 above.
Reference to the distinction between the two subgroups is made when necessary. To start
with, it is important to elaborate on the rationale behind each index by providing a clear
definition of the index and the purpose for which it has been included in the attitude
measurement instrument.
a) Enjoyment
This index included four items (1, 5*, 6, 13). By enjoyment is meant the pleasure
derived by the individual from using a computer for a particular purpose. This index is very
important because it is related to motivation, which, it is believed, largely affects attitudes.
Generally speaking, positive attitudes are attributed to high levels of motivation, while
negative attitudes are attributed to low levels of motivation or lack thereof.
Item N Statement N of responses Mean

1 I enjoy doing things on a computer. 149 (96.13%) 4.22
5* I am tired of using a computer. 142 (91.61%) 4.23
6 I feel comfortable working with a computer. 141 (90.97%) 2.49
13 Computers are indispensable in life. 141 (90.97%) 4.02
Index Average Mean Score 3.74
Table 4.17: Computer enjoyment among experienced teachers
176
Four items were specifically used to request information about the experienced
teachers enjoyment of ICT. With the exception of item 6, which is, in fact, a check-question
to item 5, the other three statements indicate high levels of computer enjoyment. The major
conclusion that can be drawn from comparing the means that have been computed for each
item is that, as anticipated, enjoyment showed an increase in positive attitude in the computer-
literate subgroup versus the computer-illiterate subgroup. Detailed responses to item 1 for the
two subgroups (cf. Table 4.16 and Figure 4.10) reveal that computer-literate teachers did not
mark any negative response (0%) while the computer-illiterate teachers marked more than
60%. The majority of the latter subgroup (11 out of 16) avoided answering item 5 and none of
those who actually answered (5) chose a positive response (0%). As for the generic item
Computers are indispensable in life, a rate of 80% positive responses has been registered by
the computer-illiterate subgroup and even more (87%) by their computer-literate peers (cf.
Figure 4.10). Despite the backwash effect of item 6 on the index as a whole, an IAMS (Index
Average Mean Score) of 3.74 is fairly positive. Figure 4.11 presents the rates registered by
experienced teachers on the four items constituting the computer enjoyment index.
100
90
80
70
Negative
60
Neutral
50
Positive
40
30
20
10
0
1 5 6 26
Figure 4.11: Computer enjoyment among experienced teachers
b) Anxiety
By anxiety is meant the lack of confidence in the various roles of computers and the
kind of discomfort or apprehension that they can cause. Levels of anxiety, believed to impact
motivation, should justify the rates of enjoyment registered by both subgroups. Note that five
items out of six have negative wording.
177
N of
Item N Statement Mean
responses
9* Working with a computer makes me nervous. 150 (96.77%) 4.22
10 Computers do not scare me at all. 141 (90.97%) 3.93
12* Using a computer is very frustrating. 148 (95.48%) 4.17
20* The computer is addictive and enslaving. 148 (95.48%) 3.55
The use of ICT in education will threaten the
24* 149 (96.13%) 3.89
future of my position as a teacher.
I will feel ashamed if my students already
25* 149 (96.13%) 3.88
know what I am still learning.
Table 4.18: Computer anxiety among experienced teachers
First, it should be noted that items 9, 10, and 12, unlike the other three, are closely
related and are meant to be check-questions. On the whole, experienced teachers have low
levels of anxiety regarding ICT in education, hence the positive IAMS registered for the
index. However, comparing the responses of the two subgroups indicates that there is some
kind of discrepancy between the position of computer-literate and that of computer-illiterate
teachers. While the overwhelming majority (84.61%) of the latter subgroup believed the
computer was addictive and enslaving, 70% of the former subgroup, however, did not
believe it was so. This might be the reason why the mean scored for this item was the lowest
of the six items constituting this index.
As for their reactions to a possible threat that ICT might pose for the future of teaching
as a profession (item 24), the two subgroups had divergent responses. Significantly, 86.76%
of computer-literate teachers believed that ICT posed no threat to their status. On the other
hand, about 70% of computer-illiterate teachers actually thought that ICT would undermine
the future of their teaching profession. This might be a reasonable justification for the sense of
inertia characterizing this subgroup with regard to accepting the computer as a new
component in the teaching and learning process. Item 25 is more relevant to computer-
illiterate teachers, as it deals with both the anxiety caused by being outstripped by students in
computer mastery and the willingness, or lack thereof, to receive training in ICT to catch up.
While 95.72% of computer-literate respondents did not mind being outdone by their own
students, 61.53% of the opposite group did not accept the fact that their students knew
something that they were still learning and only 38.46% expressed their indifference to such a
situation. Figure 4.12 presents the rates registered by experienced teachers on the six items
constituting the computer anxiety index.
178
100
90
80
70
60
Negative
50
Neutral
40
Positive
30
20
10
9 10 12 20 24 25
Figure 4.12: Computer anxiety among experienced teachers
c) Utility
This index is mainly related to computer awareness (cf. difference between computer
awareness and computer literacy in IV.1.1.1. above). Computer utility refers to all sorts of
tasks that ICT can perform for a particular purpose. Surely, unless those tasks are known to
the (potential) users themselves, there is no sense in talking about utility. They need to know
what the computer can do and what it cannot do. This index is very relevant to both
subgroups.

I know that computers give me opportunities
2 150 (96.77%) 4.53
to learn many new things.
I would work harder if I could use computers
7 149 (96.13%) 3.64
more often.
I invent new methods when one way does not
14 147 (94.84%) 3.97
work.
Computers are a tool much like a book or
15 149 (96.13%) 3.85
chalkboard.
19* The computer is time-consuming. 149 (96.13%) 3.86
Computers solve more problems than they
22 149 (96.13%) 4.08
cause.
Courses should use e-mail to disseminate
26 148 (95.48%) 3.87
class information and assignments.
Table 4.19: Computer utility as expressed by experienced teachers
179
All items in this index drew positive responses from computer-literate teachers. The
same thing is true for the computer-illiterate teachers, except for item 26, which draws on a
persons computer awareness and level of electronic literacy. The mean scored for item 2 is
an acknowledgment of the importance of the computer as a tool through which learning new
skills is possible. The reactions to item 7 show that the computer can be a source of impetus to
double ones efforts in teaching. The responses registered for item 14, a generic statement,
corroborated the choices made for item 7, as the capability of inventing new methods can also
be enacted via ICT.
Item 15 is a cynical statement that reflects the view of a considerable portion (84.39%)
of experienced teachers. This serves a sense of self-assertiveness among teachers who would
contend that the computer has come into the educational arena to serve their ends in the first
place, thus considering it no more than a tool or aid in pursuing those ends. Perhaps one of the
major reasons for which computers have been invented is to make life easier for users, by
relieving them of some routine duties and thus saving time. Obviously, if anybody finds the
computer time-consuming, this might, most probably, be due to the low level of computer
literacy. In fact, around 20% of experienced teachers (a bit more among computer-illiterate
respondents) said that the computer was time-consuming. However, the view of the majority
(67.67%) is that the computer not only saves time but also solves many problems (item 22).
The only exception to this convergence in view between the two subgroups is item 26,
which, as stated earlier, has to do with the extent to which one is aware of what e-mail can do
to help with course delivery rather than just general computer awareness. Thus, the majority
(82.96%) of the computer-literate expressed a positive position with regards to this particular
item, whereas the majority of the computer-illiterate (69.23%) had a negative view. Be that as
it may, the overall tendency is that experienced teachers reckon that the utility of the
computer is proven through the tasks it can perform and the drudgery it can take care of,
hence the positive IAMS of 3.97. The graph below shows how positive the positions are for
all items.
180
100
90
80
70
Negative
60
Neutral
50
Positive
40
30
20
10
0
2 7 14 15 19 22 26
Figure 4.13: Computer utility as expressed by experienced teachers
d) Familiarity
Although distinct, this index is not so distant from enjoyment, as there is some sort of
interdependence between the two. If enjoyment is mainly related to motivation, familiarity
has basically to do with the comfort and confidence with which one uses the computer.
Therefore, lack of familiarity with the computer can be equated with low level of computer
mastery.

I think that it takes a long time to finish when
8* 141 (90.97%) 3.95
I use a computer.
I can learn more from books than from a
11 141 (90.97%) 4.15
computer.
Word processing is less time-consuming than
23 148 (95.48%) 3.95
other ways of writing.
Table 4.20: Computer familiarity among experienced teachers
Although the IAMS 4.02 indicates a fair level of familiarity for the whole group,
details of each group bring out considerable differences between the two subgroups. Item 8 is
a restatement of item 19, the only difference being that the former is addressed more to the
computer-literate, while the latter is general. Thus, eleven out of sixteen computer-illiterate
teachers abstained from answering this item and two of the remaining five took a neutral
position. As for the computer-literate subgroup, they overwhelmingly took a positive position
(80.88%). Item 11 is a restatement of item 15 with a similar cynical overtone. Again, only
five computer-illiterate teachers answered this item, which means that a generalization of the
181
results might not be viable. About half (51.85%) the number of their computer-literate
peers, on the other hand, took a neutral position, and the other half is distributed between the
positive (24.44%) and the negative (23.7%) stands. These mixed stands indicate some kind of
ambivalence about the supremacy of the computer or that of the book. This item is meant to
elicit attitudes toward the computer as a major competitor of the book. The mean score for
this particular item is, in fact, the highest (4.15). Eventually, item 23, which is a check-
question to items 8 and 19, is mainly addressed to the computer-literate. Collectively,
however, the majority (82.43%) of experienced teachers believe that word-processing is time-
saving. Their positions on these three items are represented in the graph that follows.
100
90
80
70
60 Negative
50
Neutral
40
Positive
30
20
10
0
8
Figure 4.14: Computer familiarity among experienced teachers
e) Training
This index has to do with the teachers willingness to engage in the process of learning
to use the computer for educational purposes. As ICT is already outstripping its critics and
major progress has been achieved in the performance of the technology, becoming an active
practitioner in CALL has become a key function of the teacher in twenty-first century
education.

I believe that it is very important for me to
3 149 (96.13%) 4.69
learn how to use a computer.
17 I feel qualified to teach computer literacy. 139 (89.68%) 3.03
Teacher training should include instructional
18 140 (90.32%) 4.37
applications of computers.
Table 4.21: Attitudes to training in ICT for experienced teachers
182
The IAMS of 4.03 is promising for the future of teaching with computers. Item 3 is so
significant for both subgroups because not only does it address the uninitiated teachers, but
also those who know how to use a computer but who are aware that they need to constantly
update their knowledge. Thus, since the results for both subgroups were not so different, the
overall result reflects the positive stand of experienced teachers. 38.06% of computer-literate
teachers felt qualified to teacher computer literacy and, as expected, the majority of computer-
illiterate teachers (eleven out of sixteen) did not answer this item. With reference to item 18,
both subgroups believed that training should be tailored to the needs of a CALL practitioner.
100
90
80
70
60 Negative
50 Neutral
40 Positive
30
20
10
0
3 17 18
Figure 4.15: Attitudes to training in ICT for experienced teachers
f) Impact on teaching
This index is about the way teachers perceive the consequences ensuing from the use
of computers in the teaching and learning operation. It is believed that the computer is a
catalyst for change in the educational arena. Some changes can be said to be predictable (e.g.
item 16) and some others unpredictable (e.g. items 4 and 21). The three statements can
overlap with those used in the utility index.

I believe that the more often I use computers,
4 148 (95.48%) 4.27
the more students will enjoy school.
Computers will relieve teachers of routine
16 142 (91.61%) 4.15
duties.
Computers improve the overall quality of
21 149 (96.13%) 4.12
education.
Table 4.22: Experienced teachers perception of the impact of ICT on teaching
183
While item 4 is more intended for the computer-literate teachers who are already
involved in some form of CALL, items 16 and 21 are addressed to both subgroups. The
results registered for item 4 reflect some kind of engagement of the computer-literate teachers
in the computerization process undertaken by the educational authorities. This is further
investigated in the next section (IV.1.1.3). As for item 16, which is somehow related to item
22, it largely drew positive responses from both subgroups. This should be a reassurance to
the computer-illiterate teachers who thought that ICT would pose a threat to the future of their
teaching profession (item 24). 92.3% of these computer-phobics, as opposed to 84.55% of
the computer-literate respondents, think that computers have a role to play in the
improvement of the quality of education as a whole (item 21).
Contradictory as it might seem, the position of the computer-illiterate demonstrates a

sense of self-assertiveness and, at the same time, the concern of a portion of the teaching
population about the potential repercussions of CALL. On the whole, the IAMS registered for
the index impact on teaching (4.18) shows that there is a tendency among experienced
teachers to subscribe to the changes characterizing todays education. The graph below shows
the high rates of positive answers chosen by both subgroups.
100
90
80
70
60
Negative
50
Neutral
40
Positive
30
20
10
0
4 16 21
Figure 4.16: experienced teachers perception of the impact of ICT on teaching
The six indices discussed here are interrelated in such a way that one might be the
sequel to the other or one might depend on the other. For instance, computer enjoyment may
lead to familiarity, whereas lack of enjoyment may lead to anxiety. The major variable used in
the examination of these indices was teaching experience and computer literacy. It might as
well be interesting to explore the correlation that might exist between some of these indices
184
and other variables like age, gender, and geographical location. Using the statistics program
ViSta, it is possible to summarize these potential dependencies.
The subgroups emanating from the division of experienced teachers in terms of age
and geographical location are unbalanced in number. Of the 155 experienced teachers who
took part in the survey, 118 (76.13%) belong to the younger group (under thirty-five years),
19 (12.26%) are middle-aged (between thirty-six and forty-five), 10 (6.45%) are advanced in
age (over forty-six), and 8 (5.16%) preferred not to reveal their age. The same thing applies
for division in terms of geographical location, which resulted in three uneven subgroups (115
(74.19%) urban, 20 (12.90%) semi-urban, and 3 (1.94%) rural). Although nine respondents
abstained from revealing their gender, the two subgroups ensuing from those remaining
participants are more or less balanced (72 male vs. 74 female). As it would be unfair and
unreliable to generalize the results drawn from small-sized groups and compare them with the
largest and instead of turning the mean participation numbers into percentages, the stands of
each subgroup in the six indices are presented in the following table.
Age Gender Location

Yg (118) Md (19) Ad (10) M (72) F (74) U (115) SU (20) R (3)
20.50 1.25 0.25 9.50 13 20.25 1.75 0
Enjoyment 6.75 2 1.25 5.50 4.50 7.50 1.75 0
81.50 14.75 8.50 53.50 49.25 77 15.50 3
11.33 3 1.83 7.83 9.33 11.33 2.67 0
Anxiety 7 2.33 0.67 6.17 4.50 6.33 3.50 0.33
92.83 13.50 7.33 55.67 56.17 91 13.67 1.83
16.57 2.43 2 10.29 11 15.86 3.29 0.29
Utility 11.57 3.71 1.71 9 7.57 12.57 3.43 0.14
81.71 12.43 6 49.43 50 78 12.86 2
14.67 3 1 6.67 11.33 12 3.33 0.67
Familiarity 24.33 5.33 2.33 18.33 13.67 25 4.67 0.67
69 10 6.67 42.67 42.33 67.67 11 1.33
11.33 2 1 6.67 7 10.67 1.67 0.67
Training 15 2.67 1 10 9.67 14.33 3 0
81.67 13.67 7.67 50.67 51 79.33 14.67 1.33
2.33 1 1 2.33 2 3 0.33 0.33
Impact on teaching 13 3 1.67 10 7.67 14 3 0
95.67 14.33 7 57 59.33 90 16.33 2.33
Yg: young; Md: middle-aged; Ad: advanced in age;
M: male; F: female;
U: urban; SU: semi-urban; R: rural;
negative; neutral; positive.
185
First of all, the mean participation numbers on the basis of the three variables indicate
that the positive stands are predominant although not in a proportionate way with all negative
stands across indices and subgroups. As the subgroups based on age and location are not
balanced, a comparison of the results ensuing from the male and female subgroups is in order.
The graph below turns the mean participation numbers of the variable of gender for the six
indices in Table 4.23 above into percentages.
100% 75% 50% 25% 0% 0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
Enjoyment
Anxiety
Utility
Familiarity
Training
Impact on teaching
Female Negative Neutral Positive Male

As the figures in the graph indicate, the distinction of experienced teachers on the
basis of gender reveals slight differences in the positions/stands adopted by the female and
male subgroups. These differences concern basically two indices, namely enjoyment and
familiarity. The answers to the four items constituting the enjoyment index (see Table 4.17)
and engendering a positive IAMS were more favorable to male experienced teachers than
female ones. This indicates, at least non-parametrically, that males enjoy (working on)
computers more than females. Other slight differences were registered in the negative and
neutral positions expressed by experienced teachers on the familiarity index, with males
adopting more neutral positions and females more negative ones. Although this needs to be
further verified using other data, the variable of gender might have some kind of influence on
the reluctance to adopt ICT by female teachers in their day-to-day pedagogical practices.
186
Training teachers to use computers was one of the key indices used in measuring the
experienced teachers attitudes to ICT and CALL. The attitudes of the computer-literate
teachers are meant to help in sensing their readiness to engage in continuous in-service
training while those of their computer-illiterate peers are meant to show the extent to which
the latter are willing to take up computing for the sake of their own profession. More details
on teacher training are elicited by Section 4 of the questionnaire (cf. Appendix 9). This is the
concern of the following section.
IV.1.1.3. Training in ICT and Adoption of CALL
This section is concerned with teacher training in what is related to using computers in
the teaching and learning operation. A filter-question has been used to guide respondents
through this section of the questionnaire, as there are items that are addressed to all
respondents and others exclusively to computer-literate teachers. In these questions, ICT is
not seen as a compartmentalized subject, but as a means of delivering and expanding English
language courses in a variety of ways. The items directed to the computer-illiterate teachers
are very few (31, 32 and 33). Teacher training is a term that is often used interchangeably
with staff development, professional development, or in-service training, to indicate the
structured or unstructured process by which teachers already in the classroom expand their
knowledge, skills, abilities, or experience to further their effectiveness. The training in ICT
referred to here includes both formal courses such as degree programs, special modules,
seminars, workshops, etc. and informal courses such as self-managed training, trial-error,
peer-observation etc.
The first item in this section divides the 139 respondents into two subgroups:
experienced teachers who have received formal training in ICT for language teaching, and
those who have not.
68%
32%
received training received no training

Figure 4.18: Experienced teachers and training in ICT for LT
187
The actual number of respondents who have taken a formal course on using ICT for
language teaching is 45, which makes 32% of the computer-literate teachers. This number can
be considered fair as the government funded teacher training program is not generalized yet.
Being aware that upgrading teacher training is a key to integrating technology into the
classroom and to increasing student learning, educational authorities have started joint
partnership programs with some international organizations. However, one may fear that the
focus of these training programs continues to be on educating teachers about technology.
Activities in these types of projects vary in intensity and strategy from one-time training that
acquaints teachers with a single application (e.g., how to use word processing) to ongoing
support that helps teachers understand how using computers can enhance teaching styles and
techniques (e.g., how to use E-mail to facilitate a hands-on, project approach to collaborative
learning). To check out if the training dispensed to these 45 teachers has met its objectives, a
question about this was asked: To what extent did your training program prepare you for
teaching with ICT?. The answers were as follows:
Number of
Answer choices Percentage
respondents (45)
Very prepared 2 4.44 %
Somewhat prepared 13 28.89 %
Not sure 4 8.89 %
Somewhat unprepared 23 51.11 %
Very unprepared 3 6.67 %
About half the number of teachers who have benefited from a training program in ICT
think that they are not prepared enough to use computers in their teaching. Of the 45
respondents only two were confident in using ICT. What these figures show is very
significant. Initially, these programs might seem to be encouraging professional development
and preparation with ICT. However, exposing teachers to advanced technologies in a training
situation creates a challenge for them, as they must figure out how to make the newly
acquired experiences and knowledge usable in the classroom, especially when the technology
in question is neither practical for students nor accessible to many state-owned schools in
Morocco. Therefore, it should not be surprising to find out that only two of the teachers who
participated in training programs in ICT were fully satisfied with the results of the training
they took. Adding this number to that of those were thought were somewhat prepared
would make about a third of the subgroup. This third is the sole redeeming feature of the
whole training effort.
188
One may argue that success or failure of any training program might, depend, among
other factors, on the amount of time devoted to it. With this factor in view, teachers were
asked about the time they have spent on learning about ICT-based teaching. Their answers
were as follows:
Number of
respondents (45)
Extremely excessive 0 0% |
Excessive 1 2.22 %
Perfect 6 13.33 %
Insufficient 36 80 %
Extremely insufficient 2 4.44 %
Table 4.25: The amounts of time spent on ICT for LT training
The factor of time is very important here because if teachers are aware of the
importance of ICT as a resource to enhance student achievement and interest in learning, they
should be more likely to invest time and energy to learn how to use it in their teaching.
Surprisingly, however, the overwhelming majority (84.44%) of the teachers who participated
in a training program thought that the time allocated to ICT-based teaching was not enough.
Only six respondents considered the time they devoted to training on how to use computers in
teaching to be perfect. Be that as it may, it is not clear how much time that is and what level
of computer literacy they have. What is sure, however, is that all of them own a PC of their
own (Q11) and use it frequently or almost everyday (Q13).
When asked if they could keep up with the rapid pace of development of ICT (Q29),
the teachers had divergent views, yet significant:
Teachers benefiting from training (45) Teachers not receiving any training (94)
Always Sometimes Never Always Sometimes Never
8 (17.77%) 32 (71.11%) 3 (6.66%) 2 (4.44%) 3 (3.20%) 15 (15.95%) 20 (21.27%) 56 (59.57%)
Table 4.26: Teachers ability to follow developments in ICT
In order to draw the most benefit for language learners from the present ICT resources,
teachers need to keep abreast of the latest developments in ICT. As ICT can be confusing to
some teachers and consolidating to others, it is important that any initial training program lays
the foundation for other continuous training, for two obvious reasons: one being to clarify any
unclear procedures the other to keep up with the rapid pace of development in ICT. To
compare the responses of the two subgroups, the following graph translates the figures above
into a visual and gives a sense of the discrepancy in views.
189
Teachers benefiting from training (45) Teachers not receiving any training (94)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Always Sometimes Never
Figure 4.19: Teachers capability of keeping up with developments in ICT
The most important point to deduce from this comparison is that the more training
teachers have in ICT, the more confident they feel keeping up with the rapid development in
ICT. Orientation, training, and retraining to build up teachers confidence and expertise
should be catered for every step of the way. Because it is essential to know the ways in which
the programs available for use with ICT fit in with the aims, content, and approaches of the
courses, teachers need to engage in continuous training to keep readjusting their ICT-based
teaching portfolio. That the incorporation of the latest technological adjuncts leads to more
effective language learning needs, as yet, to be proven. The fact of belonging to a professional
organization, either specialized in CALL or incorporating a CALL special interest group, can
be a source of great help to teachers wishing to learn about ICT-based teaching. The
following table shows the number of teachers subscribing to different professional
organizations.
Teachers belonging to professional organizations No professional organization

TESOL EUROCALL MATE
137 (88.39%)
9 (5.80%) 2 (1.29%) 7 (4.52%)
Table 4.27: Teacher subscriptions in professional CALL organizations
As the number of teachers not subscribing to any professional organization constitutes

the majority of respondents, it is important to raise the question of what their sources of
knowledge about CALL would be. The following table summarizes the responses of 155
experienced teachers.
190
Sources of knowledge about CALL n/155 Percentage
1 Journals 8 5.16 %
2 Professional conferences 11 7.10 %
3 Listservs 38 24.52 %
4 University courses 10 6.45 %
5 Public libraries 10 6.45 %
6 University libraries 7 4.52 %
7 Colleagues 39 25.16 %
8 Web sites 96 61.94 %
9 Other 2 1.29 %
Table 4.28: Experienced teachers sources of knowledge about CALL
While this may be an efficient source of information for some teachers, it is not always
the training that they would immediately use in the classroom. Rather, they need practical
skills that would, for example, help them find useful teaching resources on the Internet, assign
tasks to students, track their performances, etc. To find out which of those skills experienced
computer-literate teachers have, a 10-item Likert scale was designed to elicit their views of
how confident they think they feel using Internet technologies, not necessarily for teaching.
Statements (I feel confident that I could...) SD D U A SA Mean

0 0 1 69 67 2
1 use e-mail. 4.48
(0%) (0%) (0.72%) (49.64%) (48.20%) (1.44%)
send e-mail to several people at 0 3 5 70 59 2
2 4.35
once. (0%) (2.16%) (3.60%) (50.36%) (42.45%) (1.44%)
send e-mail with document 0 0 20 60 56 3
3 4.26
attachment(s). (0%) (0%) (14.39%) (43.17%) (40.29%) (2.16%)
use an Internet search engine (e.g.
0 0 18 54 65 2
4 Google) to find Web pages related 4.34
(0%) (0%) (12.95%) (38.85%) (46.76%) (1.44%)
to my interests.
bookmark Web sites so as to keep 0 0 7 49 79 4
5 4.53
track of updates. (0%) (0%) (5.04%) (35.25%) (56.83%) (2.88%)
create a database of information
0 0 71 48 18 2
6 about important authors in a 3.61
(0%) (0%) (51.08%) (34.53%) (12.95%) (1.44%)
subject.
use the computer to create a
0 1 25 51 60 2
7 slideshow presentation (e.g. 4.24
(0%) (0.72%) (17.99%) (36.69%) (43.17%) (1.44%)
Powerpoint).
create and edit graphics for
0 0 62 59 16 2
8 multimedia presentations or Web 3.66
(0%) (0%) (44.60%) (42.45%) (11.51%) (1.44%)
pages.
create a newsletter with graphics 0 0 43 45 48 3
9 4.04
and text in 3 columns. (0%) (0%) (30.94%) (32.37%) (34.53%) (2.16%)
create my own World Wide Web 0 2 69 29 32 7
10 3.69
home page. (0%) (1.44%) (49.64%) (20.86%) (23.02%) (5.04%)
Table 4.29: Teachers level of confidence using Internet skills
191
First of all, as a check to a previous question on the uses of the computer (see Table
4.8 and Figure 4.4 above), the results of this Likert scale confirm what computer-literate
teachers said concerning the applications they use most on the computer. In fact, the IAMS
registered on the Internet skills Likert (4.12) is fairly good, which indicates that, by and large,
teachers are confident using the Internet for their own purposes. Except for those who opted
for a neutral position, almost no negative answer has been registered. The following graph
collapses the two positive (values 4 & 5) and the two negative positions (values 1 & 2) into
two distinct positions for the convenience of comparison.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Figure 4.20: Computer-literate teachers Internet skills
Eight out of ten items received more than 50% of positive responses, which shows
that, by and large, teachers have a fair amount of knowledge about the way the Internet
functions. The neutral position exceeded the positive position in items 6 and 10, which have
to do with database creation and Web design, respectively. This shows that the phase of
production with ICT has not yet arrived.
The reason for including this Likert in the section on training is that, increasingly, the
Internet can provide teachers access to new ideas, other professionals outside the school
setting, and courses and enrichment activities both formal and informal. ICT-based resources
can greatly enhance opportunities for convenient, flexible, continuing education courses and
workshops, whether required for a particular course or taken for personal growth. The Internet
is one means of filling the gap that might exist between teachers and teacher-training centers.
In fact, the CATT-PILOTE program, funded by USAID, uses the Internet extensively (cf.
192
Section II.5). In addition, as it is believed that the Internet fosters autonomy, professional
development is more likely to be effective when it encourages teachers to participate in their
own renewal rather than supplying them with prepackaged information or training.
The actual use of CALL in teaching is the concern of the final section of the
questionnaire. It seeks to gauge the respondents actual application of ICT in their day-to-day
practices inside or outside the classroom. Therefore, out of the 139 computer-literate teachers,
there arise two subgroups: those who actually adopt CALL (56) and those who do not (74),
excluding those who abstained from answering the item in question. A relevant question
related to how confident teachers are using ICT in teaching generated the following response
rates.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30 48
45
20 34
10 6
0
0
Extremely Somewhat Not Sure Somewhat Extremely
Confident Confident Unconfident Unconfident
Figure 4.21: Teachers level of confidence using ICT in teaching
The figures in the graph above indicate that the majority of computer-literate teachers
are not ready to use ICT as effectively as one would expect. The responses of those who were
not sure if they could use ICT in teaching reflect the lack of confidence in ones capabilities
as a computer-literate teacher. Out of the 133 teachers who responded to the question, only 40
chose a positive answer (extremely confident or somewhat confident), that is 30% of the
eligible respondents. When they were asked how they would position themselves in applying
ICT to enhance teaching and learning, experienced teachers provided the following responses.
193
Computer-literate
Level of expertise
(n= 135/139)
Currently not involved in ICT work of any type 11 (7.91%)
Initiating 56 (40.28%)
Casual practitioner 51 (36.69%)
Frequent practitioner 14 (10.07%)
Expert practitioner 5 (3.59%)
Creative CALL developer 0 (0%)
Table 4.30: Level of expertise in CALL among experienced teachers
As expected, the results for this item are to a large extent commensurate with those
presented in Figure 4.21, which indicates that the majority of computer-literate teachers are
not ready yet to engage in full CALL activity. To turn this state of affairs into a better
situation, an encouraging environment needs to be provided for the teacher in the workplace.
Those who identified themselves as initiating may have little experience in using
computers, but they may be motivated and interested in making a start or already starting.
Now, to get going, many CALL programs have had to rely on the help of few particularly
eager and dedicated teachers in a school. In this case, 19 (13.66%) teachers (frequent
practitioners and expert practitioners) seem to have the required profile to do so.
However, the caveat is that these leading teachers, who are actively exploring ICT
resources, trying to keep up with new developments, and helping their colleagues, may be
victims of burn-out. Normally, the school needs to encourage its expert teachers to help their
colleagues by compensating them and recognizing their efforts. Three items on this particular
point of encouragement and recognition have been included in the teacher questionnaire and
have yielded the following results.
Always Sometimes Never

Is CALL encouraged at your school? 8 41 100
6
(5.37%) (27.51%) (67.11%)
Does your school offer incentives for teachers 3 22 124
6
who use CALL? (2.01%) (14.76%) (83.22%)
Does your school offer incentives for teachers 3 19 124
9
who develop CALL materials? (2.05%) (13.01%) (84.93%)
Table 4.31: CALL in the school environment
The first remark is that the school administration does not get involved enough in
CALL or what teachers are doing to incorporate it successfully in their teaching programs.
Teachers whose schools encourage CALL and offer incentives for those who use it are very
few (5.37% and 2.01% respectively). The number of teachers who said that CALL is
sometimes encouraged in their schools is fair, but what this encouragement consists in is not
194
obvious now. If enthusiastic teachers help spark ICT efforts in teaching, unfortunately,
schools do not show the same level of enthusiasm.
Although a school may fall back on the expertise of a computer technician who is
employed to fix computers when they crash and networks when they fail, expending and
sharing this expertise among others becomes a necessity in order to guarantee the continuation
of this expertise. Moreover, one could imagine situations where some eager, knowledgeable
and exceptional students can be effectively tapped as resources to help teachers with ICT.
Nevertheless, this kind of scenario requires a teacher to be comfortable with letting some of
the expertise reside with the student.
In order to comply with the high demands of such an environment, the ICT
infrastructure and the concomitant facilities of a school need to foster the use of CALL. Thus,
the respondents were asked to give their views about the ICT resources and facilities put at
their disposal for applying CALL. A distinction among teachers on the basis of computer
literacy is to be made for the judgment to be unbiased. Table 4.32 summarizes the responses
of both subgroups.
Computer-literate teachers (139) Computer-illiterate teachers (16)

unsatisfactory satisfactory good excellent unsatisfactory satisfactory good excellent
87 27 20 1 13 1 0 0
Computer facilities
(62.58%) (19.42%) (14.38%) (0.72%) (81.25%) (6.25%) (0%) (0%)
106 16 12 0 14 0 0 0
Network facilities
(76.26%) (11.51%) (8.63%) (0%) (87.50%) (0%) (0%) (0%)
91 37 6 0 14 0 0 0
Software support
(65.46%) (26.62%) (4.32%) (0%) (87.50%) (0%) (0%) (0%)
107 16 8 2 14 0 0 0
Technical support
(76.98%) (11.51%) (5.75%) (1.44%) (87.50%) (0%) (0%) (0%)
Table 4.32: The state of the ICT resources and facilities at the disposal of teachers
The information drawn from the above table is essential to understand the extent to
which the existing infrastructure expands access to, and encourages the use of ICT in the
educational setting. Almost all computer-illiterate teachers had a negative view of the ICT
facilities made at their disposal. The validity of such a view remains to be verified in the light
of other data related to where these teachers teach and whether they work in the same schools
as their computer-literate peers. However, this particular issue is not directly addressed in the
survey questionnaire; such information would better be drawn through an instrument other
than the questionnaire (as in a follow-up interview).
On the other hand, the majority of computer-literate teachers (from 62% to 77%) said
that the ICT resources and facilities were unsatisfactory, but quite a fair number of them (see.
195
Table 4.32) saw that they were satisfactory or good. The same thing can be said about the
relevant software and technical support. The fact of expressing dissatisfaction with the
available ICT resources and facilities suggests a call for strengthening the infrastructure, and
supporting ICT-related technical assistance and professional development. What these data
show is that the majority of schools are ill-equipped to take advantage of the potential
presented by computers and computer-networks. Additionally, this shows that even if some
schools have made some investments in hardware and software over the last years, many
others still lack the basic infrastructure to support the most promising applications of CALL.
Some schools do not always make the most of the equipment they already have, and some do
not always place it in the most accessible locations. A new definition of access would then
include an additional component, which is the ongoing support teachers need to use the
infrastructure effectively.
To check the types of CALL activities and the kinds of materials teachers use, two
questions were given. One is a check to a previous item on the uses of the computer (see
Table 4.8 and Figure 4.4) and the other a verification of the actual number of CALL
practitioners (see Figure 4.21 and Table 4.15). The data ensuing from these two questions are
indicative of the extent to which teachers who claim to use ICT in teaching engage in
adopting CALL.
CALL activities used CALL materials in use

11 26
CD-ROM based programs General purpose software
(7.91%) (18.71%)
12 11
Web-based CALL programs Publisher-produced courseware
(8.63%) (7.91%)
18 26
E-mail based activities Web-based course delivery system
(12.95%) (18.71%)
11 10
Interactive chat Authorware
(7.91%) (7.19%)
2 25
Visio-conferencing Software downloads
(1.44%) (17.99%)
56 8
Other Self-made courseware
(40.29%) (5.76%)
Table 4.33: Types of CALL activities and materials used by teachers
CALL activities and CALL materials are closely related, but a distinction between the
two is important. By CALL activities is meant the types of tasks teachers and students are
engaged in and by CALL materials the software programs used to run or design such
activities. None of those who chose other for CALL activities specified what type of
activities they are using, even if they were asked to do so. The mostly used activity involves
e-mail, with 18 teachers (12.95%) using it with students in some kind of asynchronous
196
activity. It is already evident to ICT users that functions such as e-mail make the ease of
manipulating and transferring data within classes far more likely. This shows that some
teachers at least have found e-mail to be a convenient and time-saving way to connect with
students or resources outside the school (see Table 4.34 below). Next comes the Web
(8.63%), where plenty of ready-to-use activities can be exploited both synchronously and
asynchronously. This might include web-hunts, interactivities, companion websites,
filamentality, interactive Flash animations, etc. Interactive chat and prepackaged CD-ROM
courses come in the third position, with 11 teachers (7.91%) opting for them. The former is a
useful means to get students communicate with teachers and peers on a global scale, while the
latter constitutes a source of relief to teachers who are not well-versed in searching the
Internet or a free-access resource to be put at the disposal of students at school.
The CALL materials in use are varied, with the most commonly used being general
purpose software such as word-processing, spreadsheets, etc. and web-based course delivery
systems such as WebCT, NiceNet, and the like. While the former can be used in lesson
preparation or record-keeping, the latter can be used as a platform for delivering home-made
lessons and exchanging files and other resources. A fair number of teachers (44.64%) tend to
download CALL materials from the Internet, as many Web servers propose free trial versions
(shareware). Teachers who use publisher-produced courseware (19.64%) and those who use
authoring programs (authorware) to design their own CALL materials constitute only about
20%. Fewer even (8 out of 56 / 14.28%) master computer programming that would allow
them to develop their own courseware. This is incongruous with what came out of a previous
item where none of the respondents who were asked to describe their level of expertise in
applying CALL said was a creative developer. However, the data drawn from these items
confirm, by and large, what teachers said earlier about the most common uses of computers,
which are for basic skill practice and general purposes such as word processing and other
Internet-related skills.
Data concerning the use of e-mail in Tables 4.29 and 4.33 for educational purposes
and in Table 4.8 for general and personal purposes are checked against the results of a
question regarding contact between teachers and their students. Table 4.34 presents the
different rates of how teachers keep in touch with students outside the classroom. It should be
noted that the choice of a particular means of communication depends on the variables of age
and level among students.
197
Experienced teachers
Means of contact Percentage
(n= 145/155)
Phone 12 8.28 %
E-mail 27 20.77 %
Snail mail 0 0% |
No contact 106 73.10 %
Table 4.34: Means of contact between teachers and their students
Fortunately, the data collected earlier concerning the use of e-mail, especially for
educational purposes, are valid. A substantial number of computer-literate teachers (20.77%)
reported using e-mail to communicate with their students, assign tasks, make announcements,
or plan meetings. Very few (8.28%), however, use the phone as a means of communication
(expected at higher levels of education) for reasons that are not known. In fact, this particular
use of the phone between teachers and their students is not a common practice in the
Moroccan educational context. The most significant result of this item is obviously the fact
that about three quarters of teachers do not hold any kind of contact with students outside the
classroom. To fill this gap, e-mail could be a potential alternative to many teachers in the
foreseeable future, as e-mail usage gathers pace.
In response to a question about the importance of ICT in teaching, the experienced

teachers were asked to choose from four suggested options. Their responses are tallied in the
table below.
It is important to use ICT in teaching ... n/149 Percentage

to keep up with the latest developments
1 30 20.13%
in pedagogy
to ensure that students receive the best
2 23 15.75%
education
to comply with the demands of the new
3 81 54.36%
ICT-driven generations
to contribute to the rise of a glocal
4 15 10.06%
information society
Table 4.35: The purpose of using ICT in teaching according to experienced teachers
The data that have been presented and discussed so far concern experienced teachers.
On the whole, the views expressed and the stands made by this group are positive. Most of
them come from urban centers and about 90% are computer-literate, quite a substantial
number of whom have computers of their own. The mean scores obtained from their
responses regarding how they perceive the computer as a commodity and the way they
imagine CALL would impact their day-to-day teaching practices. Experienced teachers
attitudes to CALL were divided into six areas on the basis of six relevant indices (enjoyment,
anxiety, utility, familiarity, training in ICT, and impact on teaching).
198
The variables of age, gender, and geographical location were also introduced into the
processing of the data, yielding some slightly significant numbers for age (more than 80%
being below 25) and residential location (about 83% living in urban areas). Then, the teachers
were classified on the basis of whether they received some training on how to use ICT in
teaching. Those who benefited from in-service training gave some details about the program
objectives and the way they keep abreast of developments in CALL. Finally, teachers who
have already started using ICT in teaching rated themselves on the basis of their level of
expertise in applying ICT in teaching and were, then, asked to react to statements on various
CALL activities and materials.
IV.1.2. Teacher Trainees
IV.1.2.1. Computer Equipment, Electronic Literacy and Access to ICT
The number of pre-service teachers who participated in the survey is 79, the majority
of whom lack professional experience (only 4 claimed to have experience of a year or two).
Computer literacy is an important variable, as it can influence responses to many items in the
survey, especially those eliciting attitudes to ICT and CALL. Moreover, the respondents are
categorized on the basis of whether they use a computer and own one. Thus, after answering
several background questions on age, gender, degrees and residential location, pre-service
teachers were assessed on their level of computer mastery and the frequency of using ICT.
The rate of computer literacy registered among this sample is schematized as follows:
Computer literate 69 87.34 %
Computer illiterate 10 12.66 %
Table 4.36: Computer literacy rates among pre-service teachers
Like experienced teachers, the majority of pre-service teachers claim to be computer

literate. In fact, the ratios are nearly proportionate for both groups (compare with Table 4.2).
Contrary to expectations (III.1.3), the rate of computer literacy among teacher trainees does
not approximate 100% given their young age. Generally, there is a tendency to associate
teachers using computers with young generations. However, it is not clear whether they learn
ICT skills before or during their career. This point is further discussed in Section IV.1.4 on
hypotheses testing. The data that are most relevant to these rates have to do with computer-
ownership, frequency of use, place of access, and applications used. For convenience, the
results of all these four are presented together in Figure 4.22. It should be reminded that the
199
data concern only computer-literate respondents (69 teacher trainees for lower-secondary and
upper-secondary school).
Tables Graphs
Computer Ownership
PC 27 39.13 %
No PC 42 60.87 %
60
50
Frequency of Use
40
No PC (42)
30 PC (27)
No PC (42) 4.76% (2) 50% (21) 40.47% (17) 4.76% (2) Total (69)
PC (27) 3.70% (1) 18.52% (5) 29.63% (8) 48.15% (13) 20
Total (69) 4.35% (3) 37.68% (26) 36.23% (25) 21.73% (15) 10
0
Once in a Occasionally Frequently Almost
while everyday
47.62%
30
31.75%
Place of Access
Use Non use

Home 20 (31.75%) 49 (23%) 20
Computer club 4 (6.35%) 65 (30.52%) 14.29%
Cyber-space 30 (47.62%) 39 (18.31%) 9 6.35%
4
Home School or Computer club Cyber-space

university
C. Application n/69 Percentage 39.13% 39.13%

1 Office packages 27 39.13%
Applications Used
31.88%
2 Graphics packages 7 10.14% 30.43%
3 Games 12 17.39%
4 Programming 6 8.70% 17.39%
5 Web-browsing and other web-based services 22 31.88%
6 E-mailing and other e-mail-based services 27 39.13% 10.14% 8.70%
7 Video-conferencing 3 4.35% 4.35%
8 Multimedia packages 21 30.43% 0%
9 Other(s) 0 0%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Figure 4.22: Computer ownership and use among computer-literate teacher trainees
Although the number of pre-service teachers who have a PC of their own seems to be
small on a global scale if we consider the world population (www.InternetWorldStats.com), it
can be considered fair by local standards, given the students lack of a source of income and
the general low level of computer ownership registered in Morocco (see II.1.2 on the UNDP
report on Morocco). Worthy of note, however, is that the rate of computer ownership among
pre-service teachers (39.13%) approximates that registered for experienced teachers
200
(42.45%). This might be the effect of the age factor rather than the income factor. As
mentioned earlier, it is generally expected of young teachers, most of whom may have
recently finished their pre-service training, to have the computer literacy that is needed for
basic computer operations. Such literacy is likely to be gained as a result of, among other
things, owning a personal computer (this is further discussed in hypotheses testing in Section
IV.1.4 below).
As is the case for experienced teachers, there is an influential relationship between PC

ownership and frequency of use of computers. As expected, pre-service teachers who own a
PC use the computer more often than those who do not own one. The place of access to
computers further clarifies this point, as unequipped trainees use ICT fairly frequently. But
while the latter use computers in cyber-cafs, those who have their own computers prefer to
use them in the comfort of their homes. If a majority (47.62%) goes to cyber-cafs to use the
computer, this is basically due, among other factors, to the fact that teacher trainees come
from residential areas other than where the teacher training institutes are located. In addition,
a fair number of them (14.29%) use the computer at the institute, but this can be for Internet
surfing at specific access hours. Computer clubs affiliated to certain youth houses are the
preferred place for only 6.35% of trainees, which might be attributed to lack of proximity.
Since trainees could use computers in more than one place, it should be noted that the
numbers do not add up to 69 (the number of computer-literate teacher trainees) vertically. On
the other hand, the numbers should add up to 69 horizontally, as the right column shows the
number of the remaining respondents who do not use the computer in the places indicated. An
important indication of the validity of the data obtained through the questionnaire can be seen
in the number of trainees using their computers at home. While there are 27 who said they
owned a PC and only 20 who said they use it at home, 7 out of the 31 trainees who did not
answer the item on place of access do have a computer. In addition, trainees can use
computers in more than one place. For example, out of the 20 teachers who use a computer at
home, 5 also use it at the workplace (school or university), 2 in a computer club, and 12 in a
cyber-space. More details about alternative places of access to computers are given in the
following table.
201
20 5 2 12
Home
(31.75%) (7.94%) (3.17%) (19.05%)
5 9 2 9
Work
(7.94%) (14.29%) (3.17%) (14.29%)
2 2 4 4
Club
(3.17%) (3.17%) (6.35%) (6.35%)
12 9 4 30
Cyber
(19.05%) (14.29%) (6.35%) (47.62%)
As for the types of applications used by the computer-literate trainees, they are by and
large similar in ranking to those used by experienced teachers. Office packages, E-mail, the
Web, and multimedia packages are respectively the most frequently used in a computer.
Word-processing, E-mailing and Web-browsing come on top of the list for obvious reasons
having to do with lesson preparation and research. Multimedia packages are probably
consulted to have an idea about the way CALL is approached on CR-ROM. As E-mailing and
Web-browsing require Internet connection, an item on home access to the Internet was given
to the 27 computer-literate respondents who participated in this category, the results of which
are tabulated below.
Computer-literate teacher trainees (69)

PC owners (27 / 39.13%) No PC (42 / 60.87%)
4 (14.82%) 23 (85.18%) 0 (0%) 42 (100%)
Table 4.38: The number of teacher trainees having access to the Internet from their homes
These figures justify the need for using a computer in a cyber-caf for those who
cannot have access to the Internet at the training institute during opening hours. Of 69 teacher
trainees, the 4 (14.82%) who said they had Internet connection at home happen to have a
computer of their own as well. As far as the frequency of Internet use among the group is
concerned, Table 4.38 below summarizes the time lapses spent online.
1 3 hours/week 27 39.13 %
4 10 hours/week 30 43.48 %
10 + hours/week 9 13.04 %
No answer 3 4.35 %
Total 69 100 %
Table 4.39: Frequency of Internet use among teacher trainees
The data presented in the above tables as well as those presented in Figure 4.22 are
essential in drawing a clear picture of the level of computer mastery among teacher trainees
202
who claim to be computer literate. It is expected that these data should shape their attitudes
toward ICT and CALL.
IV.1.2.2. Attitudes of Teacher Trainees towards ICT and CALL
The objective of this section is to measure the attitudes of 79 teacher trainees towards
ICT and CALL. First, they were asked to react to eight adjective pairs on a semantic
differential to assess their perception of the computer as such. Then, prior to eliciting their
attitudes toward CALL using a five-point Likert scale, the trainees were asked to respond to a
direct multiple-choice question.
The semantic differential contains eight five-point scales. The latter consist in five
slots, which are coded with a number from 1 to 5, representing the particular position the
respondent marked between the adjective pairs. To easily interpret the results, responses
toward positive adjectives are represented by high values, and responses toward negative
adjectives by low values. It should be noted that some negative adjectives are placed on the
right-hand side of the scale on purpose in order to prevent respondents from marking the slots
randomly. Table 4.39 below summarizes the responses of the teacher trainees who filled in
the semantic differential.
2 8 4 30 24 11
1 Bad Good
(2.53%) (10.13%) (5.06%) (37.97%) (30.38%) (13.92%)
5 33 12 12 5 12
2 Easy Difficult
(6.33%) (41.77%) (15.19%) (15.19%) (6.33%) (15.19%)
18 34 9 6 1 11
3 Intelligent Stupid
(22.78%) (43.04%) (11.39%) (7.59%) (1.27%) (13.92%)
0 4 11 34 18 12
4 Mundane Fascinating
(0.00%) (5.06%) (13.92%) (43.04%) (22.78%) (15.19%)
25 29 9 3 2 11
5 Informative Uninformative
(31.65%) (36.71%) (11.39%) (3.80%) (2.53%) (13.92%)
0 4 9 30 24 12
6 Useless Useful
(0.00%) (5.06%) (11.39%) (37.97%) (30.38%) (15.19%)
3 6 4 35 20 11
7 Worthless Valuable
(3.80%) (7.59%) (5.06%) (44.30%) (25.32%) (13.92%)
27 29 5 4 3 11
8 Interesting Boring
(34.18%) (36.71%) (6.33%) (5.06%) (3.80%) (13.92%)
As some respondents did not answer all items, the marked answers do not add up to
79, the number of unanswered items varying from pair to pair. To better interpret these
results, negative values (1 & 2) and positive ones (4 & 5) are combined into one value each,
after reversing the order of the results for the pairs in which the negative adjective occurs on
203
the right-hand side (colored rows: 2, 3, 5 & 8). Moreover, this reversal is essential in
generating an average score (the mean) for each item/pair in order to get an idea about the
way teacher trainees perceive of the computer.

10 4 54 3.97
1 Bad / Good
(14.71%) (5.88%) (79.41%)
17 12 38 3.32
2 Difficult / Easy
(25.37%) (17.91%) (56.72%)
7 9 52 3.91
3 Stupid / Intelligent
(10.29%) (13.24%) (76.47%)
4 11 52 3.98
4 Mundane / Fascinating
(5.97%) (16.42%) (77.61%)
5 9 54 4.06
5 Uninformative / Informative
(7.35%) (13.24%) (79.41%)
4 9 54 4.11
6 Useless / Useful
(5.97%) (13.43%) (80.60%)
9 4 55 3.93
7 Worthless / Valuable
(13.24%) (5.88%) (80.88%)
7 5 56 4.08
8 Boring / Interesting
(10.29%) (7.35%) (82.35%)
Table 4.41: The mean score of the semantic deferential items (teacher trainees)
The registered mean scores indicate a positive position (above 3: the average) on all
items. However, unlike experienced teachers who scored above 4 on seven out of eight items,
teacher trainees scored below 4 on five items. Figure 4.23 turns the data in the table above
into a graph to allow for a comparison of the various positions registered by the respondents
on all eight items.
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 4.23: Teacher trainees attitudes to the computer as such
A quick look at the graph reveals that the positive bars stand out in relation to the
other two bars. This indicates that, by and large, the positions registered by teacher trainees
are positive. Worth noting is that the neutral bars exceed the negative ones in four items while
the reverse is true in the other four. Having said this, it is important to note the difference in
204
attitude that might exist between computer-literate and computer-illiterate trainees, on the one
hand, and between those who own a PC and those who do not, on the other. The comparison
is based on the mean scores registered by each sub-category.
Computer-literate
Adjective pairs Computer-illiterate Total
PC No PC Sub-total
1 Bad / Good 4 3.87 3.91 4.33 3.97
2 Difficult / Easy 3.14 3.44 3.33 3.23 3.32
3 Stupid / Intelligent 3.81 3.87 3.85 4.34 3.91
4 Mundane / Fascinating 4.05 3.84 3.92 4.45 3.98
5 Uninformative / Informative 4.32 3.95 4.09 3.89 4.06
6 Useless / Useful 4.24 3.98 4.07 4.34 4.11
7 Worthless / Valuable 4.09 3.73 3.87 4.34 3.93
8 Boring / Interesting 4.23 3.92 4.04 4.34 4.08
Table 4.42: The mean scores registered by computer-literate and computer-illiterate trainees
The comparison of the mean scores on the basis of computer ownership and computer
literacy shows a number of differences. Computer-literate teacher trainees who own a PC
scored higher than those who do not own one on six items. The two items on which the
former scored lower are Difficult/Easy and Stupid/Fascinating. This can be significant,
especially that trainees who have computers of their own use them less frequently than their
counterparts (see Figure 4.22). A tentative conclusion that might be drawn here is that the
more one uses a computer the less difficult and the more fascinating it becomes. Surprisingly,
an unexpected equation comes out of the comparison of the mean scores on the basis of
computer literacy. On six items the computer-illiterate trainees scored higher that their
computer-literate peers. The only two items on which the latter subgroup scored higher are
Difficult/Easy and Uninformative/Informative. Putting aside the mean scores, the
following graph compares the responses made by each of the two subgroups on three distinct
positions (positive, neutral and negative).
205
100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Bad /
Good
Difficult /
Easy
Stupid /
Intelligent
Mundane /
Fascinating
Uninformative /
Informative
Useless /
Useful
Worthless /
Valuable
Boring /
Interesting
Computer-illiterate teachers Computer-literate teachers

Figure 4.24: Comparing computer-literate and computer-illiterate teacher trainees attitudes
This comparison shows that the overall positions of computer-literate trainees

regarding the computer as such are less positive than those of their computer-illiterate peers. It
should be noted, however, that the rates represented on the graph above are generated from an
uneven ratio (69 computer literate versus 10 computer illiterate). Therefore, any
generalization that can be made may not be reliable. Be that as it may, even though the ratio
of experienced computer-literate teachers to computer-literate ones is also uneven (139 versus
16), the data obtained from the generalization show approximate results (see Figure 4.7).
The 79 pre-service teachers who participated in this survey were asked the following
question: How do you perceive the idea of using ICT in language teaching and learning? The
questionnaire was administered in the middle of the academic year, that is, after they had
206
attended a few theoretical courses invoking the pedagogical use of computers. The item is a
multiple-choice question, which generated the following response rates.
- Its no use 2 2.56 %
Table 4.43: Teacher trainees attitudes to CALL
The majority of experienced teachers thought that CALL is an excellent idea while
about 14% chose to express their approval of CALL by going for the answer containing
negation (Thats not bad). The data in Figure 4.25 show the response rates of teacher trainees
on the four different positions provided.
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Thats excellent Thats not bad Its all the same Its no use
Figure 4.25: Teacher trainees attitude to CALL
General as it might seem, the positive attitude of the majority of trainees (74 out of 79)
is an indication of the receptivity of the idea of using ICT in language teaching and learning.
This general attitude is detailed on several indices included in a 26-item Likert scale. The
positions are coded from 1 to 5 to represent two negative views (1 & 2) a neutral one (3) and
two positive ones (4 & 5). The results for the 26 items are presented in Table 4.44. The
colored rows refer to negatively worded items whose values must be reversed before adding
them up to those of the other items.
207
8 1 2 30 34 4
1. I enjoy doing things on a computer. (10.13%) (1.27%) (2.53%) (37.97%) (43.04%) (5.06%)
I know that computers give me opportunities 0 0 8 16 52 3
2. (0%) (0%) (10.13%) (20.25%) (65.82%) (3.80%)
I believe that it is very important for me to 0 1 3 17 54 4
3. (0%) (1.27%) (3.80%) (21.52%) (68.35%) (5.06%)
I believe that the more often I use
0 1 15 36 22 5
4. computers, the more students will enjoy (0%) (1.27%) (18.99%) (45.57%) (27.85%) (6.33%)
school.
24 33 10 0 2 10
5. I am tired of using a computer. (30.38%) (41.77%) (12.66%) (0%) (2.53%) (12.66%)
10 25 2 22 10 10
6. I feel comfortable working with a computer. (12.66%) (31.65%) (2.53%) (27.85%) (12.66%) (12.66%)
I would work harder if I could use 1 6 12 40 9 11
7. (1.27%) (7.59%) (15.19%) (50.63%) (11.39%) (13.92%)
computers more often.
I think that it takes a long time to finish 13 34 13 7 0 12
8. (16.46%) (43.04%) (16.46%) (8.86%) (0%) (15.19%)
when I use a computer.
Working with a computer makes me 25 29 10 4 1 10
9. (31.65%) (36.71%) (12.66%) (5.06%) (1.27%) (12.66%)
nervous.
0 7 10 32 19 11
10. Computers do not scare me at all. (0%) (8.86%) (12.66%) (40.51%) (24.05%) (13.92%)
11. (5.06%) (16.46%) (50.63%) (11.39%) (3.80%) (12.66%)
computer.
30 28 9 1 0 11
12. Using a computer is very frustrating. (37.97%) (35.44%) (11.39%) (1.27%) (0%) (13.92%)
3 3 10 31 22 10
13. Computers are indispensable in life. (3.80%) (3.80%) (12.66%) (39.24%) (27.85%) (12.66%)
I invent new methods when one way does 0 3 11 33 22 10
14. (0%) (3.80%) (13.92%) (41.77%) (27.85%) (12.66%)
not work.
15. (2.53%) (15.19%) (15.19%) (29.11%) (25.32%) (12.66%)
chalkboard.
Computers will relieve teachers of routine 0 6 10 30 23 10
16. (0%) (7.59%) (12.66%) (37.97%) (29.11%) (12.66%)
duties.
7 23 20 16 2 11
17. I feel qualified to teach computer literacy. (8.86%) (29.11%) (25.32%) (20.25%) (2.53%) (13.92%)
Teacher training should include instructional 1 0 3 21 44 10
18. (1.27%) (0%) (3.80%) (26.58%) (55.70%) (12.66%)
21 34 11 8 2 3
19. The computer is time-consuming. (26.58%) (43.04%) (13.92%) (10.13%) (2.53%) (3.80%)
11 30 11 18 7 2
20. The computer is addictive and enslaving. (13.92%) (37.97%) (13.92%) (22.78%) (8.86%) (2.53%)
21. (1.27%) (12.66%) (8.86%) (53.16%) (20.25%) (3.80%)
education.
Computers solve more problems than they 1 2 11 46 17 2
22. (1.27%) (2.53%) (13.92%) (58.23%) (21.52%) (2.53%)
cause.
208
Word processing is less time-consuming 5 3 14 33 20 4
23. (6.33%) (3.80%) (17.72%) (41.77%) (25.32%) (5.06%)
than other ways of writing.
The use of ICT in education will threaten 28 31 8 5 4 3
24. (35.44%) (39.24%) (10.13%) (6.33%) (5.06%) (3.80%)
the future of my position as a teacher.
I will feel ashamed if my students already 16 37 6 10 8 2
25. (20.25%) (46.84%) (7.59%) (12.66%) (10.13%) (2.53%)
Courses should use e-mail to disseminate 6 15 7 38 10 3
26. (7.59%) (18.99%) (8.86%) (48.10%) (12.66%) (3.80%)
class information and assignments.
Table 4.44: Results of 26-item Likert measuring teacher trainees attitudes to CALL
As already stated in the previous section, the 26 items of this Likert are part of six
major indices, the details of which are provided in Table 4.15 above and reproduced here in
Table 4.45. The asterisked numbers refer to items with negative wording, which appear as
colored rows in Table 4.44.
Index Item numbers

Enjoyment 1, 5*, 6, 13
Anxiety 9*, 10, 12*, 20*, 24*, 25*
Utility 2, 7, 14, 15, 19*, 22, 26
Familiarity 8*, 11, 23
Training in ICT 3, 17, 18
Impact on teaching 4, 16, 21
Table 4.45: Indices and the items representing each
The same thing that was said about check-questions in the section dealing with the
attitudes of experienced teachers applies here. Moreover, some items are intended only for
computer-literate respondents, which justifies the number of unanswered items shown in
Table 4.44. Because computer literacy is a crucial variable in the study, the data in this table
are redistributed after having reversed the values of the negatively worded items and
collapsing negative and positive values into two distinct positions.
Computer-literate (n=69) Computer-illiterate (n=10)

N Neg. Neut. Pos. Neg. Neut. Pos.
1 2 64 2 0 0 8 2
1. (1.45%) (2.90%) (92.75%) (2.90%) (0%) (0%) (80%) (20%)
0 2 66 1 0 6 2 2
2. (0%) (2.90%) (95.65%) (1.45%) (0%) (60%) (20%) (20%)
1 1 64 3 0 2 7 1
3. (1.45%) (1.45%) (92.75%) (4.35%) (0%) (20%) (70%) (10%)
1 8 57 3 0 7 1 2
4. (1.45%) (11.59%) (82.61%) (4.35%) (0%) (70%) (10%) (20%)
2 9 56 2 0 1 1 8
5. (2.90%) (13.04%) (81.16%) (2.90%) (0%) (10%) (10%) (80%)
35 2 31 1 0 0 1 9
6. (50.72%) (2.90%) (44.93%) (1.45%) (0%) (0%) (10%) (90%)
209
7 12 48 2 0 0 1 9
7. (10.14%) (17.39%) (69.57%) (2.90%) (0%) (0%) (10%) (90%)
7 12 47 3 0 1 0 9
8. (10.14%) (17.39%) (68.12%) (4.35%) (0%) (10%) (0%) (90%)
5 10 53 1 0 0 1 9
9. (7.25%) (14.49%) (76.81%) (1.45%) (0%) (0%) (10%) (90%)
7 10 50 2 0 0 1 9
10. (10.14%) (14.49%) (72.46%) (2.90%) (0%) (0%) (10%) (90%)
17 40 11 1 0 0 1 9
11. (24.64%) (57.97%) (15.94%) (1.45%) (0%) (0%) (10%) (90%)
1 9 57 2 0 0 1 9
12. (1.45%) (13.04%) (82.61%) (2.90%) (0%) (0%) (10%) (90%)
5 10 53 1 1 0 0 9
13. (7.25%) (14.49%) (76.81%) (1.45%) (10%) (0%) (0%) (90%)
3 11 54 1 0 0 1 9
14. (4.35%) (15.94%) (78.26%) (1.45%) (0%) (0%) (10%) (90%)
14 12 42 1 0 0 1 9
15. (20.29%) (17.39%) (60.87%) (1.45%) (0%) (0%) (10%) (90%)
6 10 52 1 0 0 1 9
16. (8.70%) (14.49%) (75.36%) (1.45%) (0%) (0%) (10%) (90%)
29 20 18 2 1 0 0 9
17. (42.03%) (28.99%) (26.09%) (2.90%) (10%) (0%) (0%) (90%)
1 3 64 1 0 0 1 9
18. (1.45%) (4.35%) (92.75%) (1.45%) (0%) (0%) (10%) (90%)
10 10 47 2 0 1 8 1
19. (14.49%) (14.49%) (68.12%) (2.90%) (0%) (10%) (80%) (10%)
18 9 41 1 7 2 0 1
20. (26.09%) (13.04%) (59.42%) (1.45%) (70%) (20%) (0%) (10%)
11 4 52 2 0 3 6 1
21. (15.94%) (5.80%) (75.36%) (2.90%) (0%) (30%) (60%) (10%)
1 10 57 1 2 1 6 1
22. (1.45%) (14.49%) (82.61%) (1.45%) (20%) (10%) (60%) (10%)
5 8 53 3 3 6 0 1
23. (7.25%) (11.59%) (76.81%) (4.35%) (30%) (60%) (0%) (10%)
2 7 58 2 7 1 1 1
24. (2.90%) (10.14%) (84.06%) (2.90%) (70%) (10%) (10%) (10%)
12 4 52 1 6 2 1 1
25. (17.39%) (5.80%) (75.36%) (1.45%) (60%) (20%) (10%) (10%)
13 7 47 2 8 0 1 1
26. (18.84%) (10.14%) (68.12%) (2.90%) (80%) (0%) (10%) (10%)
Table 4.46: Comparing trainees attitudes on the Likert on the basis of computer-literacy
The first observation to make is that there is no balance in the number of respondents
in the two subgroups (69 versus 10), which renders the comparison biased to some extent. By
converting the above frequencies into percentages and presenting them on graph for a visual
comparison, some conclusions on the overall attitudes can be drawn.
210
100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
Computer-literate trainees Computer-illiterate trainees

Figure 4.26: The impact of computer-literacy on the attitudes of trainees
211
By and large, the attitudes expressed by teacher trainees are positive. In particular, the
computer-literate subgroup expressed positive views on 23 out of 26 items, while the
computer-illiterate counterpart expressed positive views only on 17 items. The items on which
computer-literate trainees expressed negative views are: 6 (Enjoyment), 11 (Familiarity) and
17 (Training others in ICT). On the other hand, there are seven items on which computer-
illiterate trainees expressed negative views, namely 13 (Enjoyment), 17 (Training others in
ICT), 20, 24, 25 (Anxiety), 23 (Familiarity), and 26 (Utility). The item on which both
subgroups had a negative view is 17, which has to do with the ability of trainees to transmit
what they have learned in ICT to others. It should be noted that items 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 17
are, in principle, directed to computer users only. Therefore, the only response marked for
item 17 by a computer-illiterate trainee turned the negative scale up to 100%.
As the same thing said about the individual items in terms of content in the previous
section holds true, details of indices are discussed directly without defining the object of each
index. For a definition of what is meant by these indices, the reader is referred to the previous
section dealing with experienced teachers. Reference to the distinction between the two
subgroups is made when necessary.
a) Enjoyment
N of
responses
1 I enjoy doing things on a computer. 75 (94.93%) 4.08
5* I am tired of using a computer. 69 (87.34%) 4.12
6 I feel comfortable working with a computer. 69 (87.34%) 2.96
13 Computers are indispensable in life. 69 (87.34%) 3.96
Table 4.47: Computer enjoyment among teacher trainees
Except for item 6, on which teacher trainees, like experienced teachers, scored slightly
below average, the other three items attracted positive responses on the whole. This shows
that teacher trainees manifest a fairly good level of computer enjoyment, as the IAMS (Index
Average Mean Score) indicates, in spite of the backwash effect of item 6. Figure 4.27 presents
the rates registered by teacher trainees on the four items constituting the computer enjoyment
index.
212
100
90
80
70
60 Negative
50
Neutral
40
Positive
30
20
10
0
1 5 6 13
Figure 4.27: Computer enjoyment among teacher trainees
b) Anxiety
N of
responses
The use of ICT in education will threaten the
24* 77 (97.47%) 4.04
future of my position as a teacher.
I will feel ashamed if my students already
25* 77 (97.47%) 3.56
Table 4.48: Computer anxiety among teacher trainees
The IAMS scored by teacher trainees on the anxiety index shows their low level of
anxiety about the ICT infusion in education. As expected, and given the positive IAMS on the
computer enjoyment index, items 9, 10 and 12 attracted the majority of positive responses
(78.26%, 75% and 85.29%, respectively). In fact, these three items are meant to be check-
questions to the four items in the enjoyment index. Although the mean score for item 20 is
just above average (53.25% of responses were positive), not only are teacher trainees aware
that the computer will never be in control of the teacher, but they are also determined not to
let the computer encroach upon their dearest functions. In fact, the positive mean scores
registered for items 24 and 25 show that teacher trainees are not by and large disturbed by the
presence of the computer in the educational scene, nor are they embarrassed if their own
students surpass them in computer literacy. Figure 4.28 translates the mean scores registered
213
by teacher trainees on the six items constituting the computer anxiety index into the
percentage rates.
100
90
80
70
60 Negative
50
Neutral
40
Positive
30
20
10
0
9 10 12 20 24 25
Figure 4.28: Computer anxiety among teacher trainees
c) Utility
N of
responses
I know that computers give me opportunities 76
2 4.58
to learn many new things. (96.20%)
I would work harder if I could use computers 68
7 3.74
more often. (86.08%)
I invent new methods when one way does not 69
14 4.07
work. (87.34%)
Computers are a tool much like a book or 69
15 3.68
chalkboard. (87.34%)
76
19* The computer is time-consuming. 3.84
(96.20%)
Computers solve more problems than they 77
22 4.04
cause. (97.47%)
Courses should use e-mail to disseminate 76
26 3.41
class information and assignments. (96.20%)
Table 4.49: Computer utility as expressed by teacher trainees
The utility of ICT being uncontested, teacher trainees scored an IAMS of 3.91 on the
utility index. The highest mean score was registered for item 2, which is an acknowledgment
of the importance of the computer as a tool for learning and eventually for teaching. The
number of responses to item 7 is low because it does not address computer-illiterate trainees,
but the resulting mean score is fairly positive, which attests to the computers ability to entice
trainees into working harder than ever. Trainees think they are able to invent new methods,
214
new materials, and new activities when they use computers since the latter can constitute a
great resource in teaching (item 14).
The fact that the majority of trainees (62.32%) agree that the computer is a tool much
like the book and the chalkboard (item 15) should be a source of reassurance to the laggards
who are skeptic of the rationale behind introducing ICT in education. Item 19, which touches
upon the issue of time, attracted a considerable number (72.37%) of positive responses, hence
the mean of 3.84. If the computer seems to be time-consuming to some trainees, this might be
due to their level of computer literacy. What is more, if the majority (81.82%) believe that the
computer solves more problems than it causes (item 22), then this should somehow be related
to saving time.
As far as using E-mail in course delivery is concerned, teacher trainees scored the
lowest mean (3.41). Actually, this score plummeted as a result of the massive (80%)
computer-illiterate trainees disapproval of the idea of using E-mail in class work and
assignments (cf. Table 4.41 for a comparison between the responses of the two subgroups).
Having said this, the overall trend is that trainees are aware of the utility of ICT in language
teaching and learning, hence the high rates on all items constituting the utility index, shown
on the graph below.
100
90
80
70
60 Negative
50 Neutral
40 Positive
30
20
10
0
2 7 14 15 19 22 26
Figure 4.29: Computer utility as expressed by teacher trainees
215
d) Familiarity
N of
responses
8* 67 (84.81%) 3.79
I use a computer.
11 69 (87.34%) 2.91
computer.
23 75 (94.94%) 4.11
Table 4.50: Computer familiarity among teacher trainees
This index is closely related to that of enjoyment and utility. For example, item 8 is a
check-question to item 19, the difference being that the former addresses the computer-literate
trainee, while the latter addresses all trainees. In fact, the mean score registered for item 8 is
the highest in the index. Unlike experienced teachers, pre-service teachers tend to learn more
from the computer than from the book (item 11), hence the below-average mean score of
2.91. This divergence in view might be attributed to the variable of age, as already
demonstrated in Table 4.38 above. Not so surprisingly, all the computer-illiterate trainees
agreed with the statement made in item 11, as opposed to only 25% of their computer-literate
peers. Finally, item 23, which is mainly addressed to the computer-literate, is a check-
question to items 8 and 19, all of which revolve around the issue of time. 70.67% of them
agreed that word-processing is less time-consuming than other ways of writing. If this shows
that the computer does save time, it also shows that trainees have a good level of computer
mastery. In fact, an IAMS of 3.60 indicates a fair level of familiarity among the group as a
whole. The positions registered on these three items are represented in the following graph.
100
90
80
70
60 Negative
50
Neutral
40
Positive
30
20
10
0
8 11 23
Figure 4.30: Computer familiarity among teacher trainees
216
e) Training
N of
responses
3 75 (94.94%) 4.65
17 I feel qualified to teach computer literacy. 68 (86.08%) 2.75
Teacher training should include instructional
18 69 (87.34%) 4.55
Table 4.51: Attitudes to training in ICT for teacher trainees
Because this index involves both being trained to use ICT and training others to use it,
the IAMS turned out to be positive. In fact, items 3 and 18, both of which have to do with
teacher training in ICT, attracted the majority of positive responses (94.67% and 94.20%
respectively), which resulted in high mean scores. This indicates that pre-service teachers are
well aware of the great importance of knowing how to use a computer both for their own
benefit and for the benefit of their own students. They, however, scored the lowest mean on
item 17, which is skipped by all computer-illiterate trainees, hence the lowest number of
responses. The low mean score on the latter item indicates that a majority (86.08%) of
trainees do not feel ready yet to teach computer literacy. In fact, 44.12% of them considered
themselves unqualified to teach ICT skills, while 29.41% have not made a decision regarding
this particular point.
100
90
80
70
60 Negative
50
Neutral
40
Positive
30
20
10
0
3 17 18
Figure 4.31: Attitudes to training in ICT for teacher trainees
217
f) Impact on teaching
N of
responses
I believe that the more often I use computers,
4 74 (93.67%) 4.07
the more students will enjoy school.
Computers will relieve teachers of routine
16 69 (87.34%) 4.01
duties.
21 76 (96.20%) 3.82
education.
Table 4.52: Teacher trainees perception of the impact of ICT on teaching
The mean scores registered for the three items constituting this index are positive
enough to say that teacher trainees believe that ICT has a positive impact on the teaching and
learning operation. Although item 4 is originally intended for computer-literate respondents,
the number of responses (74) shows that some computer-illiterate trainees (5) also answered
this item. Moreover, 78.38% of trainees thought there was a link between using ICT in
teaching and school enjoyment, thus the mean 4.07. As a sequel to this computer usage,
76.81% thought that teachers would be relieved of the routine duties of the day-to-day
teaching practices (item 16). The lowest score in this index was registered for item 21, with
responses made by both subgroups. However, the rate of positive responses among the
computer literate was 77.62%, whereas that registered among the computer illiterate was
66.66%. On the whole, the IAMS (3.97) is indicative of the teacher trainees willingness to
accept the transformations brought about by the infusion of ICT in education. The graph
below shows the rates of answers chosen by trainees for the three items.
100
90
80
70
60 Negative
50 Neutral
40
Positive
30
20
10
0
4 16 21
Figure 4.32: Teacher trainees perception of the impact of ICT on teaching
218
The interdependence of the above six indices constitutes the overall attitude of
respondents, whatever category they may belong to, toward ICT and CALL. Moreover, the
variables that also come into play in the shaping of the positions of respondents are age,
gender, and residential location. The following table presents details about the subgroups
constituting the category of teacher trainees. It should be noted that because the selection of
the survey participants was done at random, the number of subgroup members is not even all
throughout. Of the 79 teacher trainees who participated in this survey, 31 (39.24%) belong to
the younger group (under thirty-five years), 41 (51.9%) are middle-aged (between thirty-six
and forty-five), 4 (5.06%) are advanced in age (over forty-six), while 3 (3.8%) preferred not
to reveal their age. The division in terms of gender resulted in unbalanced subgroups, with
more females (46 / 58.23%) than males (31 / 39.24%) and 2 (2.53%) respondents who did not
disclose their gender. The same thing applies for division in terms of geographical location,
which resulted in three uneven subgroups (49 / 62.03% urban, 4 / 5.06% semi-urban, and 1 /
1.27% rural), and a subgroup of 25 (31.65%) trainees who preferred not to be identified with
any residential area. As there are few respondents who abstained from answering items
related to these three variables, it should be noted that the figures in Table 4.53 below do not
add up to 79 for any subgroup.
Age Gender Location

Yg (31) Md (41) Ad (4) M (31) F (46) U (49) SU (4) R (1)
4 7.75 0.50 4.75 6.50 9.50 1.50 0
Enjoyment 4.50 1.50 0 2.75 3.25 2.75 0 0.75
21.50 25.75 3.50 19.75 30.25 29.75 1.75 0.25
5.50 4 0.67 2 8.83 4.67 1.17 0.17
Anxiety 5.67 2.50 0.50 4 4.83 3.67 0.50 0.33
18.83 30 2.83 21.83 29 35.67 1.83 0.50
5.29 2.57 0 3.43 4.71 3.71 0.43 0.14
Utility 5.86 4 0.29 3.57 6.57 4.29 0.86 0.14
19 30.29 3.71 21 31.57 36.29 2.29 0.71
7.33 3 0.33 4 6.67 4 1.33 0.33
Familiarity 9.67 10.33 1.33 8.33 13.33 13.33 0.67 0.33
12.33 22 2.33 14.67 21.33 25.67 1.33 0.33
5 4.67 1 3.67 6.67 4.67 1.67 0.33
Training 4.33 4 0 3.33 5.33 5.67 0.33 0
20.33 26.67 3 19.67 30 32.33 1.33 0.67
3 2.67 0.33 2.33 3.67 3 0.33 0
Impact on teaching 3.33 6 0.67 3.67 7 5 1 0
23.67 28 3 22 32.33 36.33 2 1
Yg: young; Md: middle-aged; Ad: advanced in age;
M: male; F: female;
U: urban; SU: semi-urban; R: rural;
negative; neutral; positive.
219
A quick look at the figures in the table reveals that the positive answers hold sway
over the negative and neutral ones. In order to generalize these results and turn them into
reliable percentage rates, the subgroups that are small in number are not taken into account.
Thus, the two following graphs compare the results of trainees on the six attitude indices in
terms of age (young vs. middle-aged) and gender, respectively.
100% 75% 50% 25% 0% 0% 50% 100%
Enjoyment
Anxiety
Utility
Familiarity
Training
Impact on teaching
Middle-aged Negative Neutral Positive Young

Figure 4.33: Age-based comparison of the rates of stands across the six indices
The differences that can be singled out here are related to the response rates registered
for the negative and neutral positions on the computer anxiety index. The middle-aged
trainees expressed more negative views on the six items constituting this index than their
younger peers. As for the positive responses, they are approximately identical in four indices
and slightly different in two. The anxity index shows that the middle-aged pre-service
teachers enjoyed the computer more than their younger peers, who, in turn, are less concerned
about the infusion of ICT in education, as the anxiety index shows. The following graph
compares the response rates of teacher trainees on the basis of the gender variable.
220
100% 75% 50% 25% 0% 0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
Enjoyment
Anxiety
Utility
Familiarity
Training
Impact on teaching

The two subgroups have, on the whole, identical response rates, except for a slight
difference on the anxiety index. Males are relatively less concerned about the computer
encroaching upon their classical functions than are their female counterparts. However, the
IAMS registered by the group as a whole on this particular index (3.85) shows that trainees
are enthusiastic enough to adopt ICT in their future teaching practices. As stated earlier in the
previous section, further data are needed to verify the extent to which the variable of gender
might have some impact on the adoption of ICT by female (would-be) teachers.
The training index being one of the key indices used in measuring the experienced
teachers attitudes to ICT and CALL, it covers both reception and dispensation. To further
investigate the situations and dispositions in which pre-service teachers receive training in
ICT and CALL, Section 4 of the questionnaire (cf. Appendix 9) has been designed to elicit
their views regarding the effort being made by the educators and training institutions to
prepare the future generations of teachers to live up to the spirit of the NCET and the reform
agenda.
IV.1.2.3. Pre-service Training in ICT and CALL
This section focuses on the ICT training pre-service teachers receive within their
teacher training institution and elsewhere. The fact that there are some trainees who are
computer illiterate shows that ICT training is not integrated systematically as part of the
221
training program. In fact, since the objective of this section is to bring to the fore the training
efforts deployed by trainers and trainees as far as ICT for language teaching is concerned, the
items directed to the computer-illiterate trainees are very few (cf. TQ in Appendix 9, items 31,
32 and 33). As mentioned earlier, ICT is considered as a means of delivering and expanding
English language courses rather than a self-contained technical subject. It should also be
noted that the phrase teacher training in this context is often used interchangeably with
pre-service training, to indicate the structured process by which trainees are trained to
integrate the field of teaching by equipping them with techniques to effectively deliver
courses.
Excluding the trainees who are computer illiterate, and out of the 69 remaining, there
are those who have received some kind of formal training in ICT for language teaching, and
those who have not. The following pie-chart represents the proportion of each subgroup.
71%
29%
received training received no training
Figure 4.35: Pre-service teachers and training in ICT for LT
It seems from these rates that training teachers to use ICT is not yet officially adopted,
or at least not yet generalized, in teacher training institutes in Morocco. In fact, the trainees
who participated in the survey filled out the questionnaire halfway through their training
program. The actual number of respondents who have taken a formal course on using ICT
for language teaching is 20, that is, 29% of the computer-literate pre-service teachers. As the
implementation of the NCET and the 2008 plan is supposed to be in an advanced stage, for it
is at the threshold of the sixth year of the Reform Decade, the rate of 29% is rather low
compared with that registered by experienced teachers (32%). The following table presents
the pre-service teachers answers to a question on the extent to which the training program
they have received prepared them for teaching with ICT.
222
Number of
respondents (20)
Very prepared 0 0% |
Somewhat prepared 8 40 %
Not sure 1 5%
Somewhat unprepared 10 50 %
Very unprepared 1 5%
What these figures indicate is that more than half the number (55%) of those who have
benefited from training in ICT consider themselves unprepared for teaching with ICT. Two
relevant questions that arise here are: Do the training programs match the initial knowledge
base of the trainees? and Are the pre-service teachers aware that such training is part of the
recommendations of the NCET and the 2008 Plan and that a share of the responsibility to
bring it to effect lies upon their shoulders? These two questions, among others, were
addressed to a few teacher trainers as part of the follow-up interviews. However, although the
number of the trainees who claimed to be somewhat prepared seems to be fair when
compared with the slow pace of computerization in schools, the so-called Reform Decade
(2000 2010) is far from living up to the nation-wide requirements of a growing teacher
population. It is no surprise then that none of the pre-service teachers felt really prepared to
adopt CALL immediately after attending the training program.
To check whether the amount of time spent on ICT-centered training has a bearing on
the success of the program, especially as far as ICT is concerned, pre-service teachers were
asked about the time they spent on learning how to integrate ICT in their prospective day-to-
day practices in the classroom. Their answers were as follows:
Number of
respondents (20)
Extremely excessive 0 0% |
Excessive 0 0% |
Perfect 2 10 %
Insufficient 18 90 %
Extremely insufficient 0 0% |
Table 4.55: About the amounts of time spent on ICT for LT training
As further probes are pursued, the rates get lower. Of the 20 beneficiaries in the ICT-
centered training programs, only two considered the time allotted to such training as perfect
enough, while the overwhelming majority (90%) found it to be insufficient. The discrepancy
between the rates in Table 4.54 and those in Table 4.55 points to the fact that the factor of
time is very important in the success of the programs in question. However, this might be very
223
subjective as what might be enough in the eyes of a skilled ICT practitioner might not
necessarily be so for a beginning computer manipulator. An ostensible reason for this is that
although all of these trainees are computer literate, their level of computer literacy must vary
considerably.
In a question closely related to the level of computer literacy, the trainees (both those
who received training in ICT and those who did not) were asked if they could keep up with
the pace at which ICT evolves. Their answers were as follows:
Trainees benefiting from training (20) Trainees not receiving any training (49)
Always Sometimes Never Always Sometimes Never
1 16 2 1 0 0 0 49
Table 4.56: Trainees ability to follow developments in ICT
Although the item was not skipped by any filter question (items 23 through 27 of the
TQ, see Appendix 9), none of the trainees who did not receive formal training in ICT
answered it. As for those who benefited from such training, most of them (80%) considered
themselves capable, at times, of keeping abreast with the latest breakthroughs in ICT, while
one in ten trainees (10%) thought that the pace at which ICT develops is so rapid that it is
difficult to keep with the pace of ICT development. Consequently, one may conclude that the
more ICT-centered training teachers receive, the more confident they feel keeping up with the
rapid development in ICT. To ensure that their knowledge about computer technologies is up
to date, trainees need to get involved in on-going training, seminars, and workshops. By and
large, membership of a teachers association or an organization specialized in CALL may be
the best bet for most pre-service teachers in order to ensure follow up. However, as they have
not yet entered the professional world, 95% of the trainees who participated in this survey do
not belong to any such organizations. The remaining 10% claim membership in TESOL (3
trainees) or MATE (1 trainee). Since the majority of them are not members of any
professional organization, it is important to know what sources of information they rely on to
deepen their knowledge about CALL. The following table summarizes the responses of 79
pre-service teachers.
224
Sources of knowledge about CALL n/79 Percentage
1 Journals 6 7.59 %
2 Professional conferences 0 0% |
3 Listservs 15 18.99 %
4 University courses 6 7.59 %
5 Public libraries 1 1.27 %
6 University libraries 5 6.33 %
7 Colleagues 17 21.52 %
8 Web sites 48 60.76 %
9 Other 2 2.53 %
Table 4.57: Pre-service teachers sources of knowledge about CALL
The rates shown in the table above indicate that the primary source of information for
teacher trainees is the Internet (Web sites and Listservs) followed by peer learning
(colleagues). Additionally, while the Internet is a great repository of information on CALL,
for a considerable portion of trainees, especially the computer illiterate and those who do not
have free access to the Internet, it is the right or the best source of knowledge about CALL.
Be that as it may, teachers need hands-on experience in CALL and practical techniques that
would prompt them to effectively search for what they need on the Web. To find out what
Internet skills the computer-literate trainees have, a 10-item Likert scale was designed to elicit
their views on how confident they feel using Internet technologies, not necessarily for
teaching.
0 0 1 32 34 2
1 use e-mail. (0%) (0%) (1.45%) (46.38%) (49.28%) (2.90%)
4.49
3 4 5 35 19 3
2 send e-mail to several people at once. (4.35%) (5.80%) (7.25%) (50.72%) (27.54%) (4.35%)
3.95
3 (0%) (0%) (18.84%) (39.13%) (33.33%) (8.70%)
4.16
attachment(s).
use an Internet search engine (e.g.
1 0 2 28 36 2
4 Google) to find Web pages related to (1.45%) (0%) (2.90%) (40.58%) (52.17%) (2.90%)
4.46
my interests.
bookmark Web sites so as to keep track 1 0 15 26 25 2
5 (1.45%) (0%) (21.74%) (37.68%) (36.23%) (2.90%)
4.10
of updates.
create a database of information about 1 3 33 23 7 2
6 (1.45%) (4.35%) (47.83%) (33.33%) (10.14%) (2.90%)
3.48
important authors in a subject.
use the computer to create a slideshow 2 1 15 18 31 2
7 (2.90%) (1.45%) (21.74%) (26.09%) (44.93%) (2.90%)
4.12
presentation (e.g. PowerPoint).
create and edit graphics for multimedia 1 0 33 24 8 3
8 (1.45%) (0%) (47.83%) (34.78%) (11.59%) (4.35%)
3.58
presentations or Web pages.
create a newsletter with graphics and 1 3 22 16 24 3
9 (1.45%) (4.35%) (31.88%) (23.19%) (34.78%) (4.35%)
3.89
text in 3 columns.
create my own World Wide Web home 1 0 31 20 12 5
10 (1.45%) (0%) (44.93%) (28.99%) (17.39%) (7.25%)
3.66
page.
Table 4.58: Teacher trainees level of confidence using Internet skills
225
This Likert scale constitutes an appropriate check to a previous question on the uses of
the computer (see Figure 4.22, Applications Used), where 71.01% of computer-literate
trainees said they used the Internet. In fact, 3.99 is an IAMS that confirms such a positive rate.
This can be taken to mean that, by and large, teacher trainees are confident using the Internet
for their own purposes as well as for prospective professional life. The two positive (values 4
& 5) and the two negative positions (values 1 & 2) are collapsed into two distinct positions for
the convenience of comparison. The following graph turns the figures in Table 4.58 into bars
to allow a visual comparison of the results.
100
90
80
70
60
Negative
50
Neutral
40
Positive
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Figure 4.36: Computer-literate teacher trainees Internet skills

The first five items attracted 50% or more of positive responses, which indicates that
the trainees Internet skills as far as exploitation is concerned are average or fair enough.
However, as far as creation is concerned (the last five items), their skills are below average. In
particular, items 6 and 8 attracted more neutral position answers than positive ones. The low
scores on the five items having to do with production and creation can be attributed to the
level of computer literacy among trainees, who are still at the exploitation stage and not yet
able to penetrate the production stage.
As the Internet skills are likely to prepare the would-be teachers with the tools needed
for lifelong learning in an advanced technology and information-based society, especially that
these tools foster autonomy. The frequent use of the Internet by trainees and trainers is likely
to extend contact among them after the training program and prepare the ground for in-service
training. Therefore, in addition to its being a rich source of useful materials (worksheets,
226
lesson plans, song lyrics, word games, etc.), the Internet can play a key role in the
professional development of teachers.
Most of the items in the fifth section of the questionnaire are addressed to experienced
teachers. Of the fifteen items constituting this section, only three (46, 47, and 48; cf. TQ in
Appendix 9) are relevant to the trainees. Of these three items only the first one (46) is close-
ended. This item elicits the trainees opinions about the purpose of using ICT in teaching. The
trainees were asked to choose from four suggested answers, reproduced in the table below.
It is important to use ICT in teaching ... n/79 Percentage

to keep up with the latest developments
1 25 31.65 %
in pedagogy
to ensure that students receive the best
2 9 11.39 %
education
to comply with the demands of the new
3 38 48.10 %
ICT-driven generations
to contribute to the rise of a glocal
4 7 8.86 %
information society
Table 4.59: The purpose of using ICT in teaching according to teacher trainees
Although the four suggested answers could be chosen all as valid, the question was
geared toward making the respondents choose the primary purpose for which they think it is
important to use ICT in teaching. About half the number of trainees (48.10%) believed that
the primary reason for adopting computer-based teaching was to comply with the demands
of the new ICT-driven generations. This rate is so significant for pre-service teachers who
seem to be aware of some exigencies of 21st-century education. From the standpoint of the
educator, this is a wise choice, as it is likely to lessen the general digital gap between teachers
and students as a whole. In fact, the major purpose for a considerable number of trainees
(31.65%) goes also in line with the view of the majority, as they considered that it is
important to use ICT in teaching so as to keep up with the latest developments in pedagogy.
Obviously, among the requirements of modern pedagogy is teaching students according to the
way they learn, not any way teachers can afford.
The remaining two choices were less favored by trainees. Thus, 11.39% of them saw
the matter from the perspective of quality and thought that the purpose of integrating ICT in
teaching was to ensure that students receive the best education. At the macro level, this can
be a major concern more for educational authorities than for teachers, although their
contribution in this regard is crucial. The least rate in this item was registered for the glocal
purpose by a minority (8.86%) of trainees, who may not be well aware of the ins and outs of
227
such a purpose. This might be a good reason to include global issues and their implications for
the local school in the official training program.
As this section on teacher trainees comes to a close, it is important to recapitulate the

major views and attitudes of this group before examining the way they resemble or differ
from experienced teachers. The majority (87%) of trainees, about 60% of whom do not own a
personal computer, are computer literate. The choices made by these respondents on several
items are positive on the whole. In particular, their views regarding the computer as such and
CALL as a new trend in education were rather promising given the positive positions they
have adopted, which will, for sure, be reflected in their future teaching practices. The
variables of age and gender were taken into account in the processing of the results to see if
they had any bearing on the attitudes. As a matter of fact, some differences were registered on
some indices between the younger trainees and their middle-aged peers on the one hand, and
between the males and the females on the other. The trainees were then asked about the ICT-
based courses, if any, that they attended at their teacher training institutes. Those who had
such courses answered questions about the way they are trained to use ICT in teaching and the
way they keep abreast of developments in the field of educational technology.
One may expect teacher trainees to be more receptive to ICT, given their relatively
young age, or even skilled at manipulating computers before the beginning of the training
program. Because they are aware of the ICT integration plans funded by the government and
the enforcement of the new reform through the NCET, pre-service teachers had strong
expectations that ICT would be part and parcel of their training. However, as a teacher trainer
said in a follow-up interview: no explicit link is made in the minds of educators at the ENS,
Rabat between the National Charter and the training dispensed.
A relevant question to raise here is: Do teacher training institutes in Morocco have
qualified trainers with strong commitment to ICT and the right infrastructure to train pre-
service teachers to integrate ICT in the national curricula? The objective of these institutes is
threefold: to prepare pre-service teachers to use CALL, to develop an electronically literate
community of teachers, and to assist them in the integration of ICT to enhance education and
professional productivity.
IV.2.3. Comparing and contrasting teachers and trainees attitudes
The data on the basis of which the results obtained for experienced teachers and pre-
service teachers are compared and contrasted concern mainly their attitudes towards the
228
computer as such and towards CALL as a new trend in education. Because the type and focus
of training dispensed for each group is different from the other (pre-service training vs. in-
service training), comparing their answers on the basis of training may not be totally accurate.
Moreover, since the attitudes of both teachers and trainees are on the whole positive, the
comparison of their positions regarding the computer and CALL is based on how positive the
attitudes of each group are on the eight scales in the semantic differential describing the
computer and the IAMSs registered for the six indices in the Likert scale eliciting their
attitudes toward computer-based teaching.
Experienced teachers Teacher trainees
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Useless / Useful
Bad / Good
Difficult / Easy
Figure 4.37: Comparing teachers and trainees attitudes to the computer as such
One major observation to make with respect to the mean scores registered on the items
constituting attitudes towards the computer as a commodity is that with the exception of the
second adjective pair (Difficult/Easy), the mean scores attained on the seven remaining
subscales approximate 4, which is a rather positive value on a 5-point scale. In fact, although
the score that was registered on the Difficult/Easy subscale is below 4, it is by all means
positive too, as it is above the average score (2.5). Such state of affairs can be taken to mean
that teachers are not computer-phobic, but somewhat skeptical about the potential of the
computer. This position can be said to be due to a lack of confidence on the part of the teacher
as a human element in teaching in the computer as a mechanical and electronic element. This
attitude has an impact on the IAMS of computer enjoyment as the following graph indicates.
229
Experienced teachers Teacher trainees
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Enjoyment Anxiety Utility Training Familiarity Impact
Figure 4.38: Comparing teachers and students attitudes to CALL
As shown in detail earlier (IV.1.2.2), attitudes to CALL are divided into six areas on
the basis of six relevant indices (enjoyment, anxiety, utility, familiarity, training in ICT, and
impact on teaching). Except for the training index and the impact index, the mean scores
registered for experienced teachers and teacher trainees on the other indices are approximately
similar. As said earlier, the perspective of training differs for each group because of the
variable of experience (pre-service vs. in-service training). The same variable has an
unpredictable effect on teacher trainees who lack professional experience that would allow
them to take a realistic position on the impacts that CALL would have on teaching. Be that as
it may, the mean scores registered for both experienced and inexperienced teachers are above
3.5, which means that no major differences would be obtained if both groups were lumped
together as teachers. This combination of results is very important, especially in the
comparison between teachers and students attitudes.
IV.3. Hypotheses Analysis
In what follows, the hypotheses put forward in Chapter Three (Section III.1.3.),
especially those that relate to teachers and trainees, are analyzed in the light of the data
elicited from both groups. There are six hypotheses that are relevant to this category of
respondents. The findings and interpretations of data analysis are presented and discussed in
the order of the hypotheses.
The first hypothesis to be considered is Given the impressiveness associated with

computers in general and the ubiquity of CALL applications in education in the developed
world, the majority of teachers in Morocco would have positive attitudes towards ICT-based
230
education, and would perceive ICT as being effective for teaching. The data regarding this
hypothesis are culled from the following three indices: enjoyment, utility and impact on
teaching. The collective mean scores registered on these indices are 3.76, 3.94, and 4.08,
respectively (cf. Figure 4.38, scores combined). The latter index is significantly higher than
the first (0.14) and the second (0.32), yet both can be considered positive, given their
surpassing the average score. The three mean scores, taken as a whole, seem to confirm the
hypothesis that the importance of the computer fosters positive attitudes towards ICT-based
teaching.
The second hypothesis was: teachers who own personal computers are likely to use
ICT more frequently than those who do not. As expected, there is an influential relationship
between PC ownership and frequency of computer use, as the figures in following table
indicate.
PC (n 86) No PC (n 122)
Once in a while 2 2.33% 11 9.02%
Occasionally 19 22.09% 69 56.56%
Frequently 20 23.26% 39 31.97%
Almost everyday 45 52.33% 3 2.46%
Table 4.60: Relationship between computer ownership and frequency of computer use
While 75.59% of those who own a computer use it quite often, more than half the
number (56.56%) of the unequipped teachers use the computer only occasionally, as more use
(especially in cyber cafs) would cost more money. Therefore, based on the data presented in
Table 4.60, the hypothesis may be considered as a valid one.
The third relevant hypothesis to test here is: The younger the teachers, the more
computer-literate they would be. As the data in following table show, the computer-literate
teachers aged below 35 constitute the majority of respondents (69.65%). Therefore, the first
point to be made is that the overall literacy rates to be worked out on the basis of the number
of each age-group members can only be relatively reliable.
Computer Computer Inter-group Overall

literate illiterate literacy rate literacy rate
Young (-35) 140 9 93.95% 69.65%
Middle-aged (36 ~ 45) 48 12 80% 23.88%
Advanced in age (+46) 13 1 92.95% 6.47%
Table 4.61: The correlation between age and computer literacy
Although the age groups are not equal in number, the inter-group literacy rates are not
insignificant. The generalizations show that the highest literacy rate is registered for the
youngest group. Accordingly, the hypothesis that young teachers are more computer-literate
231
than their elder peers is validated to some extent. A closely related hypothesis is that the less
computer-literate teachers are, the more afraid they would be of computers encroaching upon
their professional roles and the more threatened they would feel in their future as human
teachers. This is represented in the correlation between computer literacy and computer
anxiety in the table below.
Computer literacy rate Anxiety AIMS

Computer literate 208 88.89% 3.80
Computer illiterate 26 11.11% 3.40
Table 4.62: Correlation between computer literacy and computer anxiety among teachers
Although the overwhelming majority (around 90%) of teachers are computer literate,
the AIMS registered by both groups on the anxiety index are not that different. Be that as it
may, because the computer literate outdo their counterparts by 0.20 on the anxiety AIMS,
which means that the latter tend to be more skeptic of the role of the computer in teaching, the
hypothesis under examination can be said to hold to a certain extent.
The hypothesis that teachers who have received pre-service training in ICT are more
engaged in CALL activity than those who have only attended conferences or seminars on
CALL is partially tested. This is so because the cross-sectional nature of the research study
as a whole does not allow for further examination, notably as far as teacher trainees are
concerned. However, with regard to experienced teachers, the hypothesis is corroborated as
the figures in the following table indicate.
Creative
No Casual Frequent Expert
Experienced teachers n Initiating CALL
CALL practitioner practitioner practitioner
developer
Received formal 2 23
45 9 (20%) 8 (17.77%) 1 (2.22%) 0 (0%)
training in ICT (4.44%) (51.11%)
Attended conferences/ 2 4
6 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
seminars (3.33%) (66.66%)
No formal training in 9 33
94 42 (44.68%) 6 (6.38%) 2 (2.13%) 0 (0%)
ICT (2.13%) (35.11%)
Table 4.63: Teacher training and adoption of CALL
The validation of the hypothesis can be ascribed mainly to the number of computer-
literate teachers who have received formal training in ICT which outstrips that of those who
have attended conferences or seminars on CALL (45 vs. 6). However, it is the teachers who
have not received any formal training in ICT that constitute the majority (67.62%) of those
who have adopted CALL more. One conclusion that can be drawn from this state of affairs is
that there is no direct link between receiving formal training in ICT and adopting CALL in
ones teaching.
232
Since receiving training in ICT does not necessarily lead to the adoption of CALL, the
final hypothesis to be tested is quite relevant: teachers who have access to computers,
software, and technical support in their place of work are likely to use ICT in their profession
better than those who receive general training in ICT. The two points to consider with
regard to this hypothesis (i.e. access to ICT in the workplace and the quality of CALL use) are
assessed via two items occurring in the fifth section (respectively, items 39 and 40; cf.
Appendix 9). The following table summarizes the teachers responses on these two items.
Access to ICT Confidence using ICT

Computer facilities 48 34.53% Confident 40 28.77%
Network facilities 28 20.24% Not sure 48 34.53%
Software support 43 30.93% Unconfident 45 32.37%
Technical support 26 18.71%
Table 4.64: Access to ICT and adoption of CALL
While the rates of access to ICT are far below average (between 18% and 34%), the
rate of no confidence (including hesitation) in using ICT in teaching among teachers is about
66.90%. Therefore, when comparing these results with the figures in Table 4.63, especially
those relating to teachers who have received formal training in ICT, it seems that the
hypothesis in question holds only to a small extent, as the rate of CALL adoption among ICT-
trained teachers reaches 91.11%.
IV.4. Conclusion
The main thrust of this chapter has been to assess the attitudes of practicing teachers
and pre-service teachers towards ICT and ICT-based education. First, each group of
respondents was dealt with separately, by looking at how each group perceived the computer
and CALL, and then the two groups were compared and contrasted on the basis of six indices
used in assessing their attitudes towards issues related to the integration of ICT in education.
The main variable used here, and which has proved to be relevant, is computer literacy, the
minor variables being age, gender, and residential area. On the whole, as the results
tabulated in the foregoing indicate, teachers tend to exhibit positive attitudes toward ICT and
its use in teaching in varying degrees. However, as expected, because data have been gathered
on a cross-sectional (one-shot) basis, the results could only be valid to a certain extent.
Having assessed teachers attitudes to, and their perception of ICT integration in their pre-
service/in-service training, and, eventually, their day-to-day teaching, it is also essential to
look into the attitudes and perceptions of students who are supposed to be at the center of all
teaching.
233
Chapter Five:
Students Attitudes towards ICT and CALL:
Data Analysis
234
V.0. Introduction
This chapter analyzes and discusses the results of the research study through a
descriptive scrutiny of the data collected through the student questionnaire, the follow-up
interview and the case study as in Chapter III. These results are meant to assess the attitudes
of language students towards the pedagogical use of ICT in the Moroccan system of
education, thus accounting for the way in which it impacts the quality and standards of
language teaching and learning. The results of the study should help in spotting the
deficiencies of the classical chalk-and-board method. It should be noted, however, that the
analyzed data were collected in December 2004, which means that much of the situation may
have changed since then.
The chapter falls into two major sections, each of which is devoted to the data elicited
from a sub-category of respondents (academic EFL learners and corporate EFL trainees). As
background to the discussion, a detailed description of the sample is provided prior to
analyzing the collected data. The first section focuses on the students use of, and attitudes
towards ICT in language teaching and learning. The second section is a case study, which
examines the use of an e-learning platform by a focus group of professional learners of
English. The primary source of data for the first section is the questionnaire, the follow-up
interview being an ancillary source. However, the primary source of data for the case study is
the iRM, the record-keeping system of the e-learning platform, the questionnaire here being
an ancillary source whose main aim is enriching the discussion of the data drawn from the
record-keeping system and the research results. It should be noted that not all participants in
the case study answered the questionnaire and that the most important criterion of selecting
interviewees among the academic EFL learners was actual involvement in CALL of some
sort.
The case study adds a worthwhile dimension to the investigation, as it provides concrete
data, no matter how limited, on the actual use of ICT in a private language teaching setting in
Morocco. Therefore, there is some distinction between a large-scale survey on the one hand,
with a large body of data emanating from a large sample of students across Morocco, and a
case study, on the other hand, based on the practices of a focus group of professional learners
of English. While both types of data here are mainly quantitative, the former are expected to
yield, although bulky, somewhat hasty and not well-thought-out responses, whereas the latter
would yield, although limited, richer, in-depth responses.
235
V.1. Academic EFL Students Use of, and Attitudes towards ICT in Language Learning
As mentioned in Chapter III (Section III.3), the response rate among EFL learners was
higher (71.47%) than that among teachers (42.70%). In more concrete terms, out of the 880
targeted students, 629 actually participated in the survey (605 academic EFL learners and 24
professional EFL learners). More detail on the participating students is provided in the
following table (where means no answer).
-18 18~22 23~27 28+

Age
481 / 79.50% 109 / 18.02% 13 / 2.15% 0 2 / 0.33%
Male Female
Gender
328 / 54.22% 264 / 43.63% 13 / 2.15%
Secondary Higher education
Educational level and 499 / 82.48% 106 / 17.52%
setting Private Public Private Public
45 / 9. 02% 454 / 90.98% 43 / 40.57% 63 / 59.43%
Hours of English 0~2 3~5 6~8 9+
study (per week) 0 / 0% 18 / 2.98% 482 / 79.67% 105 / 17.36%
Number of years of -3 3~7 8+
English study 490 / 80.99% 110 / 18.18% 5 / 0. 82%
Geographical location
578 / 95.54% 11 / 1.82% 3 / 0.50% 13 / 2.15%
Table 5.1: EFL student profile
As was the case for teachers, the questionnaire items that were avoided by some
students have to do with age, gender, and place of residence. It should be noted then that
where related percentages do not add up to 100% in the discussion below, they are those of
the unanswered items that were left out. For example, of the 605 students who answered the
questionnaire, 54.22% (328) were male and 43.63% (264) were female. The number of those
who abstained from answering the question on gender is so insignificant (2.15%). Other
instances where questions were left unanswered have to do with age (0.33%) and place of
residence (2.15%).
As for the educational setting, it should be noted that it was initially meant to be
balanced in terms of level (secondary vs. higher education) and institution status (private vs.
public). However, the response rates yielded somewhat unbalanced numbers (82.48%
secondary vs. 17.52% higher education and 14.55% private vs. 85.45% public). This kind of
discrepancy could be of important value given the fact that there are more public schools than
private ones in Morocco. Concerning the number of hours that these students study English, it
varies according to whether the student is enrolled in a private or public school, to whether
s/he is a science stream student or a literature stream student, or to whether s/he is taking
236
English as a language of instruction or as a complementary language in the curriculum. In
addition to this, the number of years that these students had been learning English varies. As
the variable of place of residence is important in ensuring the representativeness of the
sample of the sample, an item on geographical location was included in the survey
questionnaire. While 13 students (2.15%) withheld their answers to this item, 97.35% lived in
urban or semi-urban centers and only 0.50% lived in rural areas. These figures indicate that
the sample is representative of the population since the targeted levels of education included
secondary and higher education.
The following figure is a representation of Table 5.1 that is meant to show the
variables of age, gender, educational setting, and place of residence in graphical form
(histograms and pie-charts).
Gender 54.22% Male Female 43.63%
Educational Setting Private 14.55% Public 85.45 %
Educational Level 82.48% Secondar 17.52% Higher Education
Age 0% Hours of English

3%
2.15% study per week
18% 17% 0~2

3~5
-18
6~8
18~22
9+
23~27
80% 28+
80%
Number of years 0.50% Geographical

1% of English study 2.15% location
1.82%
18%
3~7 Semi-urban
8+ Rural
Urban
-3
81% 95.54%
Figure 5.1: Student profile in graphical form
237
The percentages indicated in the graphs above show that the overwhelming majority of
the targeted respondents (80% and more) are secondary school students aged below eighteen,
who study between six and eight hours of English a week in public schools located in urban
areas. These figures are of considerable value, especially when comparing the performance of
students regarding the use of ICT in education with that of teachers. Such comparison is likely
to provide some input to test some of the hypotheses spelled out in Chapter III. Prior to
dealing with these hypotheses, it is important to consider the level of computer literacy among
the students and the existence of computer equipment at their disposal (both at school and
elsewhere).
V.1.1. Computer Equipment, Electronic Literacy and Access to ICT
The purpose of this section is to assess the computer literacy of the EFL students
participating in the survey, find out what computer equipment they have and/or use, how
often they use it, and the use they usually make of it. The SQ contains eleven items that elicit
information in this regard. The primary question asked to the participants was: Do you use
computers?. This was an essential question as it would distinguish between computer-literate
and computer-illiterate students. The rate of computer literacy registered among the target
sample (605 academic EFL students) can be schematized as follows:
Computer literate 602 99.51%
Computer illiterate 3 0.49%
Table 5.2: Computer literacy rates among academic EFL students
The figures in the above table show that the landslide majority of the targeted EFL
students in Morocco claim to be computer literate. However, while this could be taken for
granted by some observers, it should be noted that computer literacy does not necessarily
mean computer mastery. What is more, the fact of being able to use a computer (in the
sense of operating it) does not mean being able to make it do exactly what one wants it to do
(in the sense of exploiting it effectively). Therefore, further data have been elicited from the
respondents to assess their real level of computer literacy. For a detailed discussion of, and
distinction among the terms computer literacy, computer awareness, and electronic
literacy, see Section IV.1.1.1. above. The number of computer-illiterate students being so
insignificant, no generalizations are to be made from that number. So, in what remains of this
section, the figures concerning academic EFL students are lumped together. Before looking
238
into the other aspects of computer literacy among the computer-literate students, it is also
important to see how many of them own a personal computer (PC).
PC 561 93.19%
No PC 41 6.81%
Table 5.3: Computer ownership among experienced computer-literate students
If the figures indicate that the majority of respondents have a PC, it should be noted
that by a personal computer is often meant a family desk-top computer used by all members
of the same family. The figures in Table 5.3 could well be representative of the targeted
population (students of English). So, ownership here refers basically to having a computer at
ones disposal at home, and not necessarily owning one. Likewise, assuming that not having a
computer at ones disposal does not necessarily mean not being able to use one, it is essential
to know about the frequency of computer use among EFL students as a whole. Since the last
report made by the UNDP (United Nations Development Program) about the penetration rate
of PCs among the Moroccan population in 2001 (1.40), the situation must have changed
considerably, especially with the continual drop in computer prices. The PC ownership rate
registered among students (93.19%) when added to that registered among teachers (42.45%)
makes a fair PC penetration rate among the educated population in Morocco. This is
corroborated by the figures provided by Misoc (Moroccan Internet Society:
http://www.misoc.ma) in a report in which the computer acquisition rate is said to have
reached 100.000 workstation per annum up to May 2004. These figures need to be checked in
the light of other variables such as level of income and place of residence (geographical
location).
The ownership variable is also of paramount value, especially as far as the frequency
of computer use among the computer-literate EFL students is concerned, as it is likely to
affect their interaction with the computer.
Once in a while Occasionally Frequently Almost everyday Unanswered

PC (561) 2.50% (14) 11.76% (66) 26.56% (149) 59.18% (332) 0% (0)
No PC (41) 0% (0) 0% (0) 2.44% (1) 0% (0) 97.56% (40)
Table 5.4: Frequency of computer use among EFL students
All respondents with no computer of their own, except one, did not answer the
questionnaire item on the frequency of use. If this was not due to confusion on the part of
respondents, then the figures in the table above indicate that there is an apparent percentage
239
gap between those who own a PC and those who do not. What can be clearly deduced from
the table is that the percentages increase as the frequency of use goes up among PC owners, as
graphically shown in the following histogram.
350
59.18%
300
250
200
150 26.56%
100
11.76%
50
2.50%
0
Figure 5.2: Frequency of computer use among EFL students
Although not directly shown in the collected data, it seems that the socioeconomic
status of respondents plays a crucial role in computer acquisition not only in Morocco but
anywhere else. Therefore, it might not be wrong to advance that there is an influential
relationship between PC ownership and frequency of use of computers. In fact, a rough
examination of the figures and frequencies registered for practicing teachers and pre-service
teachers shows that such an influential relationship is valid to a large extent (cf. Chapter IV).
The reason behind the elicitation of data regarding the frequency of computer use among
Moroccan EFL students is that it is likely to affect the level of computer literacy itself. To a
direct question asked in the SQ: How would you rate your ICT skills?, the students
responded as follows.
n/602 Percentage
Extremely poor 1 0.17%
Below average 21 3.48%
Average 70 11.63%
Fairly good 456 75.75%
Extremely good 10 1.66%
Unanswered 44 7.31%
Table 5.5: Level of ICT skills as expressed by EFL students
While the responses of the majority (77.41%) of respondents indicate that the targeted
EFL students have good ICT skills (above average), the figures in the previous two tables (5.3
240
and 5.4) can be said to support this claim. This state of affairs can be further analyzed in the
light of additional data on place of access and types of practices, as they will definitely
help to have a clear idea about the level of computer literacy of the EFL students who claim to
be computer literate. The figures in Table 5.6 indicate the number of responses concerning the
place of access to the computer.
Use Non use

Home 561 (93.19%) 41 (6.81%)
Computer club 67 (11.13%) 535 (88.87%)
Cyber-space 304 (50.49%) 298 (49.51%)
It should be noted that the numbers do not add up to 602 (the number of computer-
literate students) vertically because the respondents could choose more than one option.
However, the numbers should add up to 602 horizontally, as the figures in the right column
indicate the number of the remaining respondents who do not use the computer in the places
indicated. Accordingly, the percentages shown in the graph below add up to more than 100%
because they are worked out of 602 users, without excluding those who have checked more
than one response.
93.19%
50.49%
11.13%
5.98%
561 67 304
36
Home School or Computer club Cyber space

university
It should be made clear that students who said they owned a PC (n=561) do not
necessarily use it at home every time they need to. Out of the 561 teachers who use a
241
computer at home, 5.64% use it also at the workplace (school or university), 10.13% in a
computer club, and 44.51% in a cyber-space. More statistical details about alternative places
of access to computers are given in the following table.

Home 561 (93.19%) 34 (5.64%) 61 (10.13%) 268 (44.51%)
Work 34 (5.64%) 36 (5.98%) 3 (0.49%) 15 (2.49%)
Club 61(10.13%) 3 (0.49%) 67 (11.13%) 41 (6.81%)
Cyber 268 (44.51%) 15 (2.49%) 41 (6.81%) 304 (50.49%)
An important remark to be made here is that quite a large number of students (47.77%
of those who own a PC) go to cyber-cafs, in spite of the fact that they have one at their
disposal at home. The reason for this might be the cost of connecting to the Internet from
home, which remains relatively high despite major price cut-downs with the introduction of
the ADSL. Additionally, getting connected in a cyber place affords some kind of freedom
compared to home where parental control may restrict the students access to different sites.
In addition, access to the Internet at schools is restricted, if not prohibited. To check out the
number of students who actually have access of the Internet at home, a direct question was
included in the questionnaire; the results yielded are tabulated as follows.
PC owners (561) No PC (41)

25 (4.46%) 536 (95.54%) 0 (0%) 41 (100%)
Table 5.8: The number of students having access to the Internet from their homes
Although the number of ADSL subscribers has grown, according to Maroc Telecom,
by 300% (cf. Chapter Two), the number of the respondents with home Internet connection is
rather low (7.19% among computer-literate teachers vs. 4.15% among computer-literate
students). The fact that only 25 out of 561 PC owners (4.45%) have access to the Internet
from their homes justifies the need for going to a cyber-space. In fact, the third most
frequently used computer application is the Internet (E-mailing and Web browsing). As is the
case for teachers, its use comes after office packages in rank. The following table summarizes
the rates of the uses of the computer among EFL students.
242
C. Application n/602 Percentage
1 Office packages (word processing, presentations, spreadsheets etc.) 580 96.35 %
2 Graphics packages (drawing, image retouching etc.) 92 15.28 %
3 Games 593 98.51 %
4 Programming 82 13.62 %
5 Web-browsing and other web-based services 579 96.17 %
6 E-mailing and other e-mail-based services 572 95.02 %
7 Video-conferencing 230 38.21 %
8 Multimedia packages (CD-ROMs, DVDs etc.) 358 59.47 %
9 Other(s) 62 10.30 %
Table 5.9: Uses of the computer among EFL students
The above figures show that the computer applications that are most frequently used
by this category of respondents are games. Then, in the second position comes office
packages. Internet use (E-mailing and Web browsing), comes in third rank due to the lack of
home connection. The figures tabulated above are translated into a graph which provides a
visual representation of the ranking of the various computer applications used by computer-
literate EFL students who participated in the survey.
96.35% 98.51% 96.17%
95.02%
59.47%
38.21%
15.28% 13.62% 10.30%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Figure 5.4: The rates of computer uses among EFL students
These figures indicate that students are not only ahead of teachers in terms of
computer use but also better at using certain applications. However, like teachers, students
rarely venture to use computer programming, which comes in the last position. Having noted
that games, office packages, E-mail, and the Web are the most frequently used applications on
a computer, it is not clear as yet how they are used and the purposes for which they are used.
This is further discussed in Section V.1.3 below. With respect to the frequency of Internet use,
the following table/graph summarizes the situation.
1 3 hours/week 52 8.64 %
4 10 hours/week 360 59.80 %
10 + hours/week 167 27.74 %
No answer 23 3.82 %
Total 602 100 %
Table 5.10: Frequency of Internet use among EFL students
243
Once again, the rates of Internet use registered by students outstrip those registered by
teachers. These rates, as well as those registered in Table 5.8 above regarding E-mailing and
Web browsing are checked against the mean numbers in Table 5.35 (SQ.37) on various
Internet skills. In fact, many of the figures presented in this section are verified by means of
cross-checking, hence the number of check-questions used in the survey. These check-
questions are basically meant to assess the reliability of the answers. On the whole, the main
thrust of the foregoing discussion has been to assess computer familiarity among EFL
students in order to lay the foundation for discussing its potential effects on ICT integration in
the teaching and learning operation.
V.1.2. Attitudes of EFL Students towards ICT and CALL
The purpose of this section is to measure the attitudes of 602 EFL students towards
computers and their use in education (ICT and CALL). As in the TQ, three measurement
instruments have been used, namely, a semantic differential, a direct multiple choice question,
and a five-point self-rated Likert scale, which assessed interest and confidence in various
ICT-related domains, especially in the way it relates to language education. These attitudes
cover the respondents perceptions of the computer as a newly introduced tool in education,
their feelings about, and dispositions to the various applications of ICT in language teaching
and learning, and the way CALL shapes the learning operation. It should be noted that the
results obtained through these measurements are meant to provide a cross-sectional account of
the state of affairs because a quantitative attitudes assessment such as this one may not
provide an unequivocal longitudinal representation of positions.
It should be recalled that the purpose of the semantic differential is to gauge the
respondents feelings about the computer as a tool. This semantic differential contains eight
scales, each of which has five attitude positions, coded with a number from 1 to 5. These
numbers represent the positions the respondents marked between the adjective pairs. The
semantic differential has been designed in such a way that half the number of scale items have
negative adjectives in the left-hand position and the other half in the right-hand position. The
purpose was to make the respondents mark their answers attentively, without assuming that
adjectives are classified according to a given pattern. The students responses to the semantic
differential are summarized in the table below.
244
1 Bad 13 12 39 196 291 Good 54
2 Easy 160 311 62 22 19 Difficult 31
3 Intelligent 239 168 89 42 36 Stupid 31
4 Mundane 29 34 65 179 267 Fascinating 31
5 Informative 261 181 73 26 32 Uninformative 32
6 Useless 42 32 66 93 340 Useful 32
7 Worthless 17 9 35 298 214 Valuable 32
8 Interesting 145 370 32 12 15 Boring 31
First and foremost, it should be noted that the values of the items starting with the
positive adjective (the colored rows: 2, 3, 5 & 8) need to be reversed so as not to invalidate
the calculation of the scores. For convenience and ease in interpretation, the high values (4
and 5) are attributed to positive adjectives, while the low values (1 and 2) are attributed to
negative adjectives. The figures in Table 5.11 above represent the sum of checks made at any
of the five slots of the semantic differential. It remains to be noted, however, that not all
respondents answered all items, which resulted in inconsistent numbers of responses.
Therefore, as the latter do not add up to 602 across the board, the number of unanswered
items varies from pair to pair. The following graph represents in percentages the EFL
students positions regarding the computer as such (a commodity / a tool / a machine) not as
an educational aid.
Bad / Good
Difficult / Easy
Useless / Useful
Figure 5.5: EFL students attitudes to the computer (detailed stands)
245
The color-coding of the bars above indicates that the views held by students are by and
large positive. However, in order to generalize the results and give a general picture about the
EFL students attitudes toward the computer as such, combining the negative (1 & 2) and the
positive (4 & 5) values and generating an average score (the mean) for each item/pair is in
order.

1 Bad / Good 25 39 487 4.34
2 Difficult / Easy 471 62 41 3.99
3 Stupid / Intelligent 407 89 78 3.93
4 Mundane / Fascinating 63 65 446 4.08
5 Uninformative / Informative 442 73 58 4.07
6 Useless / Useful 74 66 433 4.15
7 Worthless / Valuable 26 35 512 4.19
8 Boring / Interesting 515 32 27 4.08
Table 5.12: The mean score of the semantic differential items (EFLstudents)
All the registered mean scores indicate a predominantly positive position (above 3: the
average). Moreover, six out of the eight scales scored above 4. The two items in which the
mean score is below 4 concern the difficult/easy scale (the degree of computer mastery) and
the stupid/intelligent scale (awareness of the potential of artificial intelligence). Figure 5.6
summarizes the students attitudes toward the computer and is generated after collapsing the
positive (4 & 5) and negative values (1 & 2).
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 5.6: EFL students attitudes to the computer (positive vs. negative stands)
246
The graph, which shows the attitudes of students who filled in the semantic differential
on three distinct positions (negative, neutral and positive), reveals how positive the positions
are. What is worth noting is that all the neutral position bars are higher than the negative ones,
except for the useless/useful item, in which the negative bar went up slightly above the
level of the neutral bar. What is worthy of attention here is the difference in attitude that
might exist between students who own a PC and those who do not. This is shown by focusing
on the mean scores registered by each sub-category.
Adjective pairs PC No PC Total

1 Bad / Good 4.21 4.31 4.34
2 Difficult / Easy 4.11 3.36 3.99
3 Stupid / Intelligent 4.02 3.29 3.93
4 Mundane / Fascinating 4.01 3.89 4.08
5 Uninformative / Informative 4.03 4.16 4.07
6 Useless / Useful 4.15 4.09 4.15
7 Worthless / Valuable 4.18 4.03 4.19
8 Boring / Interesting 4.02 3.97 4.08
Table 5.13: The mean scores registered by students depending on PC ownership
The distinction between the attitudes of students who own a personal computer and
those who do not reveals that the positions of the two subgroups regarding the computer are
not that distant from each other. A significant point that can be retained in this comparison is
that all the mean scores registered by students who own a personal computer are beyond 4,
whereas the scores registered by those who do not own a PC include four scores below 4.
However, it should be noted that this comparison is based on an unbalanced scale since the
number of students constituting the subgroups in question is uneven (561 own a PC versus 41
with no PC). On the whole, the positions expressed by students regarding the computer as
such are predominantly positive.
One of the questionnaire items that elicit the respondents attitudes towards the use of
ICT as a language learning tool is presented in the form of a direct question to which the EFL
students responded as follows.
- Its no use 0 0%
(No answer) 22 3.63 %
Table 5.14: EFL students attitudes to CALL
247
To the overwhelming majority (about 84%) of the EFL students covered by the
survey, the idea of using ICT in language teaching and learning is an excellent thing. The next
positive option chosen by a fair number (about 13%) of respondents is expressed using a
negative element (thats not bad), which means that over 96% of respondents perceive
CALL positively. What is worthy of notice is that only one response out of 605 is negative,
the remaining rate (about 4%) referring to the number of respondents who did not provide any
answer. Figure 5.7 shows the stand of EFL students on the four different positions provided in
graphic format.
100 %
50 %
12.73%
3.63%
0.17% 0%
0%
Its all the same Unanswered
Figure 5.7: EFL students attitude to CALL
Although the data elicited using this direct item reveal a rather positive attitude toward
the integration if ICT in the language teaching and learning operation, further details are
needed to pin down the EFL students perception of the actual functions of CALL as a new
trend in language education. With this end in view, various aspects and impacts of CALL are
elicited via a 5-point Likert scale, consisting of 23 well-validated items adapted from several
attitudinal surveys (cf. III.4.1 above). Some items are meant to be check-questions to verify
that respondents have been consistent in their responses. Table 5.15 below sums up the results
of the Likert, the colored rows referring to items which are worded negatively. The coding
used in this five-point scale is as follows: 1=Strongly Disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Neutral,
4=Agree, and 5=Strongly Agree.
248
28 13 35 147 355 27
1. I enjoy doing things on a computer. (4.63%) (2.15%) (5.79%) (24.30%) (58.68%) (4.46%)
I know that computers give me opportunities to 35 8 29 196 309 28
2. learn many new things. (5.79%) (1.32%) (4.79%) (32.40%) (51.07%) (4.63%)
I believe that it is very important for me to learn 29 15 26 132 374 29
3. how to use a computer. (4.79%) (2.48%) (4.30%) (21.82%) (61.82%) (4.79%)
I believe that the more often teachers use 22 6 28 346 165 38
4. computers, the more I will enjoy school. (3.64%) (0.99%) (4.63%) (57.19%) (27.27%) (6.28%)
170 309 38 17 30 41
5. I am tired of using a computer. (28.10%) (51.07%) (6.28%) (2.81%) (4.96%) (6.78%)
I feel comfortable and confident working with a 7 30 24 437 84 23
6. computer. (1.16%) (4.96%) (3.97%) (72.23%) (13.88%) (3.80%)
I would work harder if I could use computers 9 20 32 374 136 34
7. more often. (1.49%) (3.31%) (5.29%) (61.82%) (22.48%) (5.62%)
I think that it takes a long time to finish when I 46 409 67 30 28 25
8. use a computer. (7.60%) (67.60%) (11.07%) (4.96%) (4.63%) (4.13%)
353 116 58 18 34 26
9. Working with a computer makes me nervous. (58.35%) (19.17%) (9.59%) (2.98%) (5.62%) (4.30%)
34 12 65 214 224 56
10. Computers do not scare me at all. (5.62%) (1.98%) (10.74%) (35.37%) (37.02%) (9.26%)
11. computer. (37.36%) (25.29%) (10.08%) (7.60%) (13.88%) (5.79%)
362 117 46 12 34 34
12. I feel frustrated when I want to use a computer. (59.83%) (19.34%) (7.60%) (1.98%) (5.62%) (5.62%)
48 26 37 95 376 23
13. Computers are indispensable in life. (7.93%) (4.30%) (6.12%) (15.70%) (62.15%) (3.80%)
14. chalkboard. (4.30%) (2.98%) (5.95%) (27.77%) (51.57%) (7.44%)
34 21 32 294 210 14
15. I enjoy computer games very much. (5.62%) (3.47%) (5.29%) (48.60%) (34.71%) (2.31%)
1 28 60 323 167 26
16. I enjoy lessons on the computer. (0.17%) (4.63%) (9.92%) (53.39%) (27.60%) (4.30%)
326 109 76 48 22 24
17. I will do as little work with computers as possible. (53.88%) (18.02%) (12.56%) (7.93%) (3.64%) (3.97%)
226 130 92 55 71 31
18. The computer is addictive and enslaving. (37.36%) (21.49%) (15.21%) (9.09%) (11.74%) (5.12%)
19. education. (3.47%) (3.47%) (3.47%) (12.73%) (72.89%) (3.97%)
312 128 65 27 48 25
20. Computers cause more problems than they solve. (51.57%) (21.16%) (10.74%) (4.46%) (7.93%) (4.13%)
Word processing is less time-consuming than 36 13 41 329 158 28
21. other ways of writing. (5.95%) (2.15%) (6.78%) (54.38%) (26.12%) (4.63%)
I will be able to get a good job if I learn how to 15 13 43 138 370 26
22. use a computer. (2.48%) (2.15%) (7.11%) (22.81%) (61.16%) (4.30%)
68 75 97 76 111 178
23. I sometimes help my teacher with computer work. (11.24%) (12.40%) (16.03%) (12.56%) (18.35%) (29.42%)
Table 5.15: Results of the Likert measuring EFL students attitudes to CALL
These figures refer to the number of responses to each of the five options of every item
in the Likert. It should be noted, however, that the values of the negatively worded items are
reversed before adding them up together so as not to invalidate the overall results. In addition,
because some respondents did not answer some items, it was deemed necessary to include a
separate column for the unanswered items so as to calculate the mean scores only from the
responses that have been entered. The results shown in Table 5.16 are calculated after having
collapsed negative (1 & 2) and positive (4 & 5) values into two distinct positions.
249
Number of
N Negative Neutral Positive Unanswered Mean
responses
1. 41 (6.78%) 35 (5.79%) 503 (83.14%) 578 (95.70%) 27 (4.30%) 4.27
2. 43 (7.11%) 29 (4.79%) 505 (83.47%) 577 (95.37%) 28 (4.63%) 4.28
3. 44 (7.27%) 26 (4.30%) 506 (83.64%) 576 (95.21%) 29 (4.79%) 4.35
4. 28 (4.63%) 28 (4.63%) 511 (84.46%) 567 (93.72%) 38 (6.28%) 4.41
5. 47 (7.77%) 38 (6.28%) 479 (79.17%) 564 (93.22%) 41 (6.78%) 4.10
6. 37 (6.12%) 24 (3.97%) 521 (86.12%) 582 (96.20%) 23 (3.80%) 4.36
7. 29 (4.79%) 32 (5.29%) 510 (84.30%) 571 (94.38%) 34 (5.62%) 4.34
8. 58 (9.59%)) 67 (11.07%) 455 (75.21%) 580 (95.87%) 25 (4.13%) 4.18
9. 52 (8.60%) 58 (9.59%) 469 (77.52%) 579 (95.70%) 26 (4.30%) 3.99
10. 46 (7.60%) 65 (10.74%) 438 (72.40%) 549 (90.74%) 56 (9.26%) 4.20
11. 130 (21.49%) 61 (10.08%) 379 (62.64%) 570 (94.21%) 35 (5.79%) 3.50
12. 44 (7.27%) 46 (7.60%) 481 (79.50%) 571 (94.38%) 34 (5.62%) 4.10
13. 74 (12.23%) 37 (6.12%) 471 (77.85%) 582 (96.20%) 23 (3.80%) 3.99
14. 44 (7.27%) 36 (5.95%) 480 (79.34%) 560 (92.56%) 45 (7.44%) 4.06
15. 55 (9.09%) 32 (5.29%) 504 (83.31%) 591 (97.69%) 14 (2.31%) 4.11
16. 29 (4.79%) 60 (9.92%) 490 (80.99%) 579 (95.70%) 26 (4.30%) 4.20
17. 70 (11.57%) 76 (12.56%) 435 (71.90%) 581 (96.03%) 24 (3.97%) 4.02
18. 126 (20.83%) 92 (15.21%) 356 (58.84%) 574 (94.88%) 31 (5.12%) 3.67
19. 42 (6.94%) 21 (3.47%) 518 (85.62%) 581 (96.03%) 24 (3.97%) 4.25
20. 75 (12.40%) 65 (10.74%) 440 (72.73%) 580 (95.87%) 25 (4.13%) 3.97
21. 49 (8.10%) 41 (6.78%) 487 (80.50%) 577 (95.37%) 28 (4.63%) 4.11
22. 28 (4.63%) 43 (7.11%) 508 (83.97%) 579 (95.70%) 26 (4.30%) 4.36
23. 143 (33.49%) 97 (22.72%) 187 (43.79%) 427 (70.58%) 178 (29.42%) 3.18
Table 5.16: EFL students attitudes on the 23-item Likert
Except for the last item where the positive position was selected by a small majority of
students (about 40%), the other 22 items attracted the maximum number of positive answers,
constituting the overwhelming majority. In addition, since the number of unanswered items is
not important (below 10%), the results can be described as valid. In order to characterize the
positions registered by students on the Likert scale, the twenty-three items are collapsed into
four major indices Enjoyment, Anxiety, Utility, and Familiarity, which have been
taken into account while designing the instrument. Table 5.17 presents the items that fall
under the heading of each index. The asterisked numbers refer to items with negative
wording.
Index Item numbers

Enjoyment 1, 4, 5*, 6, 13, 15, 16
Anxiety 9*, 10, 12*, 18*
Utility 2, 3, 7, 14, 19, 20*, 22
Familiarity 8*, 11*, 17*, 21, 23
In order to draw a detailed picture of EFL students attitudes towards CALL, it is

essential to pinpoint their positions on the basis of these four indices. It should be noted,
250
however, that some items are meant to be check-questions to make sure that students
responses are consistent across the board. Before embarking on the discussion of the results, it
is important to recapitulate the rationale of each index by restating the definition of each
relevant index provided in the previous chapter. Therefore, the purpose for which these
indices have been included in the attitude measurement instrument will be clearly attained.
a) Enjoyment
Enjoyment refers to the pleasure derived by the student when using a computer for a
particular purpose, be it for learning or otherwise. The importance of this index lies in its
intrinsic relation to motivation, which, it is believed, affects attitudes to a large extent.
Positive attitudes are ascribed to high levels of motivation, while negative attitudes are
attributed to low levels of motivation or lack thereof. Seven items (1, 4, 5*, 6, 13, 15, 16) fall
under the heading of this index, the results of which are tabulated as follows.
N of
responses
1 I enjoy doing things on a computer. 578 (95.70 %) 4.27
I believe that the more often teachers use
4 567 (93.72 %) 4.41
computers, the more I will enjoy school.
5* I am tired of using a computer. 564 (93.22 %) 4.10
6 I feel comfortable working with a computer. 582 (96.20 %) 4.36
13 Computers are indispensable in life. 582 (96.20 %) 3.99
15 I enjoy computer games very much. 591 (97.69 %) 4.11
16 I enjoy lessons on the computer. 579 (95.70 %) 4.20
Table 5.18: Computer enjoyment among EFL students
The elicitation of information about EFL students enjoyment of ICT and CALL
reveals that learners are, prima facie, highly motivated to engage in computer-based
education. This is justified by the number of participants (more than 93%) who reacted to the
items forming the enjoyment index and the mean scores registered in each item (around 4 on a
5-point scale). An IAMS (Index Average Mean Score) of 4.21 can only be recognized as
being positive enough to claim that EFL students approve of any change toward adopting ICT
in the learning and teaching operation. Figure 5.8 below presents the rates registered by the
EFL students who have been surveyed on the seven items constituting the computer
enjoyment index.
251
100
90
80
70
60 Negative
50 Neutral
40 Positive
30
20
10
0
1 4 5 6 13 15 16
Figure 5.8: Computer enjoyment among EFL students

b) Anxiety
Anxiety has to do with the lack of confidence in the potential of ICT in modern life
and the sense of discomfort, doubt or apprehension that this lack of confidence might cause.
As this would in one way or another influence the respondents motivation to use ICT, the
levels of anxiety manifested by students should justify the rates of enjoyment registered by
the respondents. Note that three items out of four have negative wording.
N of
responses
Table 5.19: Computer anxiety among EFL students
It should be noted that the first three items are closely related as they are meant to be
check-questions. The positive IAMS registered for this index is a clear indication that the EFL
students who have participated in the survey have low levels of anxiety regarding the use of
ICT in education. Item 10 which has the lowest rate of participation (90.74%) has the highest
mean score (4.20), which might be taken to mean that very few students fear computers. In
fact, their ability to surmount this affective factor suggests that they are well prepared to use
CALL, as it has been manifested in the enjoyment index. Figure 5.9 presents the rates
registered by EFL students on the four items constituting the computer anxiety index.
252
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
9 10 12 18
Figure 5.9: Computer anxiety among EFL students
c) Utility
Computer utility refers to the level of awareness among respondents of the potential of
ICT and all sorts of tasks that computers can perform for a given purpose. This awareness is
largely affected by the level of computer literacy one has (for an explanation of the distinction
between computer awareness and computer literacy, cf. Section IV.1.1.1.). Utility then
can only be relevant with an acceptable level of awareness, which is difficult to assess from
the level of computer literacy alone. As rate computer illiteracy is very low (0.49%) among
the students who have been targeted in this survey, the relevance of this factor is crucial and
central.
N of
responses
I know that computers give me opportunities
2 577 (95.37%) 4.28
3 576 (95.21%) 4.35
I would work harder if I could use computers
7 571 (94.38%) 4.34
more often.
Computers are a tool much like a book or
14 560 (92.56%) 4.06
chalkboard.
19 581 (96.03%) 4.25
education.
Computers cause more problems than they
20* 580 (95.87%) 3.97
solve.
I will be able to get a good job if I learn how
22 579 (95.70%) 4.36
to use a computer.
Table 5.20: Computer utility as expressed by EFL students
253
Both the rates of participation indicated by the number of responses and the mean
scores registered for each item reveal that the respondents are aware of the utility of the
computer in their current and prospective practices. In fact, the mean scored for item 2 is an
acknowledgment on the part of students that the computer is an important tool (item 14)
through which learning new skills is possible. Item 14 is a statement that reflects the view of a
considerable portion (79.34%) of Moroccan EFL students. They, in addition, recognize that
computers can help them solve a number of problems that they cannot otherwise cope with so
efficiently (item 20). Therefore, there is awareness among students that the computer has been
invented essentially to make life easier for users, by relieving them of some routine, time-
consuming duties.
Their awareness of the potential of ICT (item 3) goes beyond the tasks they can fulfill
with the help of a computer to include the long-term benefits of being able to use a computer,
as indicated by the mean scores registered for items 7 (working harder), 19 (education
standards) and 22 (employment prospects). The students positive responses to item 7
(84.30%) show that the computer can be a source of impetus to double their efforts in
learning. A logical sequel to making efforts in learning is achievement that leads to the
enhancement of the standards of education. What is more, the majority (83.97%) of students
who participated in the survey think that being an efficient computer user is likely to increase
their marketability chances upon graduation. The overall tendency is that students recognize
the utility of the computer, hence the positive IAMS of 4.23. The graph below shows how
positive the positions are for all items in this index.
254
100
90
80
70
60
Negative
50
Neutral
40 Positive
30
20
10
0
2 3 7 14 19 20 22
Figure 5.10: Computer utility as expressed by EFL students
d) Familiarity
This index is closely linked to that of enjoyment given their interdependence. The
more one enjoys the computer the more familiar one is likely to be with how it works. While
enjoyment has to do mainly with motivation, familiarity refers basically to the level of
confidence one has when using a computer. Additionally, if utility is influenced by ones level
of computer awareness, familiarity is essentially shaped by ones level of computer
literacy. Therefore, lack of familiarity with the computer can be equated with low levels of
computer mastery. To gauge the familiarity index among the EFL students who participated
in this survey, five items have been used, as shown in the following table.
N of
responses
8* 580 (95.87%) 4.18
I use a computer.
11* 570 (94.21%) 3.50
computer.
I will do as little work with computers as
17* 581 (96.03%) 4.02
possible.
21 577 (95.37%) 4.11
I sometimes help my teacher with computer
23 427 (70.58%) 3.18
work.
Table 5.21: Computer familiarity among EFL students
255
The IAMS 3.80 indicates a fair level of familiarity for students as a whole. The rate of
participation in four out of five items is more than 94%; and the mean scores, although
varying, corroborate the claim that students are generally more likely to be familiar with the
computer. The results for item 8 indicate that the computer helps them perform their tasks in a
short amount of time. Item 8 is a restatement of item 21, which is also about saving time. The
majority of students (80.5%) think that they save time when they type rather than when they
hand-write, which might mean that they have highly advanced typing skills. The corollary of
this is that those who find the computer time-consuming (9.59% in item 8 versus 8.10% in
item 21) are likely to be weak at manipulating the computer.
The results of item 11 show that the majority of students (62.64%) believe that they
can learn more from the computer than from books. Item 11 is a restatement of item 14, which
makes part of the utility index. However, this item was meant to elicit attitudes toward the
computer as a major competitor of the book. The mean registered for this item is just above
average (3.50) because a considerable number of students (21.49%) think that books are their
major source of information (this is not checked in this survey) and another 10.08% remain
undecided whether the primacy should go to the computer or to the book.
Item 23 refers to the students ability to intervene in classroom tasks involving the use
of ICT. Even if the participation rate is relatively low in comparison with the other items in
the Likert, the mean score points to a positive attitude (though just above the average). In fact,
a considerable number of students (29.42%) abstained from answering this item and another
33.49% answered negatively. The avoidance rate (29.42%) and the number of the undecided
(22.72%) have neutralized the mean score, which makes it difficult and risky to generalize the
results. Helping the teacher with class work has always been a want for many students since
primary school. In fact, a small majority (43.79%) of the respondents who answered item 23
claim to have somehow assisted their teacher in using ICT for classroom-related activities.
The following graph represents the EFL students positions on the items constituting the
familiarity index.
256
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
8 11 17 21 23
Figure 5.11: Computer familiarity among EFL students

As noted earlier in this chapter, the attitude measurement indices are interrelated in
such a way that they affect each other. It has been noted that enjoying the computer can lead
one to frequently use it, thus becoming familiar with its manipulation. On the other hand,
when one is not familiar enough with various computer applications, that may lead one to
frustration, hence anxiety. In addition to this interdependence, it is also interesting to explore
the correlation that might exist between each of these indices and the variables like age,
gender, and location (place of residence). ViSta and SPSS, two statistics software programs,
can draw this correlation and provide output that can help in interpreting the potential
dependencies among these indices and the aforementioned variables. The number of
respondents in each subgroup in focus is included in Table 5.1 above, from which the
following data is taken (where means no answer has been provided).
-18 18~22 23~27

Age
481 (79.50%) 109 (18.02%) 13 (2.15%) 2 (0.33%)
Male Female
Gender
328 (54.22%) 264 (43.63%) 13 (2.15%)
Location
578 (95.54%) 11 (1.82%) 3 (0.50%) 13 (2.15%)
Table 5.22: Distribution of EFL students in terms of age, gender and location
The results emanating from the distribution of respondents in terms of gender have
yielded relatively balanced subgroups (54% vs. 44%), although nine respondents abstained
from responding to the item on gender. However, the categorization of students on the basis
of age and location has resulted in largely unbalanced groups. Thus, of the 605 students who
participated in the survey, about 80% are below 18 years of age, while the remaining 20%
257
covers two different age groups. Classification in terms of place of residence has also yielded
three uneven subgroups, with a predominantly urban student sample (about 96%). This
classification can be attributed to the fact that the paper-based version of the questionnaire
was primarily administered in major cities.
The following table displays the mean score of responses to the items in each index on
three distinct positions (negative, undecided, and positive).
Age Gender Location

-18 (481) 18~22 (109) 23~27 (13) M (328) F (264) U (578) SU (11) R (3)
35.43 8.29 0.71 24.71 19.71 43.71 0.71 0
(7.78%) (7.59%) (5.49%) (7.86%) (7.49%) (7.75%) (6.49%) (0%)
Enjoyment
28.43 6.86 1 19.71 16.57 35.29 0.86 0.14

(6.24%) (6.28%) (7.69%) (6.27%) (6.29%) (6.26%) (7.79%) (4.76%)
391.71 94 11.29 270 227 484.71 9.43 2.86
(85.98%) (86.13%) (86.81%) (85.87%) (86.22%) (85.99%) (85.71%) (95.24%)
52.75 12.75 1.50 36 31 65.25 1.25 0.50
(11.82%) (11.70%) (11.54%) (11.82%) (11.75%) (11.77%) (11.36%) (18.18%)
Anxiety
51.25 12.50 1.50 35.25 30 64 1.25 0

(11.48%) (11.47%) (11.54%) (11.58%) (11.37%) (11.54%) (11.36%) (0%)
342.25 83.75 10 233.25 202.75 425.25 8.50 2.25
(76.69%) (76.83%) (76.92%) (76.60%) (76.87%) (76.69%) (77.27%) (81.82%)
34.29 8.29 1 25 18.57 42.86 0.71 0
(7.57%) (7.61%) (7.69%) (7.98%) (7.10%) (7.64%) (6.49%) (0%)
Utility
28.43 6.71 0.86 20.43 15.57 35 0.86 0.14

(6.28%) (6.17%) (6.59%) (6.52%) (5.95%) (6.24%) (7.79%) (4.76%)
390.29 93.86 11.14 267.86 227.43 483 9.43 2.86
(86.16%) (86.22%) (85.71%) (85.50%) (86.95%) (86.12%) (85.71%) (95.24%)
69.40 18.60 2 52 38 87.60 2 0.40
Familiarity
(16.33%) (17.06%) (15.38%) (17.89%) (14.82%) (16.44%) (18.18%) (12.50%)

52.20 14.40 1.80 34 34.40 66.20 1.40 0.80
(12.28%) (13.21%) (13.85%) (11.70%) (13.42%) (12.42%) (12.73%) (25%)
303.40 76 9.20 204.60 184 379 7.60 2
(71.39%) (69.72%) (70.77%) (70.41%) (71.76%) (71.13%) (69.09%) (62.50%)
M: male; F: female; U: urban; SU: semi-urban; R: rural; negative; neutral; positive.
Table 5.23: Students response rates for the four indices in terms of age, gender, and location
As noted earlier, the rates obtained for the variables of age and place of residence
(location) might not be as valid as required. In this case, as it would be unfair to generalize the
results drawn from small-sized groups and compare them with large ones, it is much safer to
compare the stands of each subgroup in the four indices as presented in the mean participation
numbers above. These numbers indicate that the positive stands are predominant all
throughout. As the subgroups based on gender are relatively close in number, a comparison of
the results ensuing from the male and female respondents is in order. The graph below
provides a visual representation of the comparison of the rates registered by the two
subgroups in the four indices.
258
100% 50% 0% 0% 50% 100%
Enjoyment
Anxiety
Utility
Familiarity
Figure 5.12: Gender-based comparison of the students response rates across the four indices
As the data in the graph show, from the slight difference that exists between the two
subgroups, one can conclude that the female respondents are ahead of their male counterparts
by about 1 point on the positive scale of the attitude measurement instrument. Basically, the
advantage concerns three indices, namely enjoyment, utility and familiarity. The scores
registered by the two subgroups are more or less even on the neutral position; however, the
male respondents have registered relatively more negative positions than their female peers.
On the whole, students have expressed positive attitudes towards the use of ICT in language
education. To see how these attitudes are manifested in reality, Section 4 of the SQ (cf.
Appendix 10) elicits information on students actual use of ICT in their learning efforts. The
following section is concerned with this.
V.1.3. Students Use of ICT in Language Education

This section deals with the practice of CALL in the Moroccan educational context as
expressed by the EFL learners who have participated in the survey. Focus is placed on the
facilities accessed by students and the types of CALL used. The questionnaire items that
address this are concerned with the learners use of ICT for educational purposes rather than
for leisure. Initially, the respondents are asked to mention if they have ever used the computer
as a learning aid in order to sort their answers on the basis of access to CALL. To achieve
this, two filter-questions have been used to guide the respondents through the questionnaire
259
items. The results of the first item in this section divide the respondents into two subgroups:
students who have used CALL of some kind and those who have never used the computer as a
learning aid.
14%
86%
No CALL Used Used CALL
Figure 5.13: EFL students use of ICT in their learning efforts
Of the 602 students who have been targeted in the survey, 514 (that is 86%) claim to
have used ICT as a learning aid. However, it is not clear as yet if this is done formally as part
of their official learning program, or just as personal independent initiatives. To get a closer
look, the following question was asked: Is there a CALL (multimedia) lab in your school?.
The answers were as follows:
Yes 283
32%
No 126
47%
Unanswered 196
21%
Total n students 605
Figure 5.14: CALL labs in the Moroccan school
The figures in the graph above indicate that the majority (53%) of students do not have
access to a computer lab either because they are sure it does not exist in their educational
institution (21%) or they do not know if such a lab exists at all (32%). As an interviewee said,
we are not informed if there is a computer lab in our school. Now, it is important to find out
how often the students who study in schools equipped with computer labs (n=283) have
access to CALL material. This is measured by the number of hours per week they use ICT for
educational purposes at their place of formal learning.
260
100
83.39%
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
12.01%
20
1.77% 2.83%
10
0
0 hours 1~2 hours 3~5 hours 6+ hours
Figure 5.15: EFL students frequency of access to CALL multimedia labs
Although quite a considerable number of students (n=283 / 47%) said there is a CALL
multimedia lab in their schools, very few of them (n=47 / 16.61%) actually use it. Therefore,
the majority of these students (83.39%) do not use the lab even if there is one available in
their school. The frequency of access to the lab among those who use it varies from one hour
to more than six hours a week, the average being between three and five hours (12.01%). In
fact, there are two possible ways in which the students can use the CALL multimedia lab: the
self-access mode or the teacher-led mode. The mode of access is likely to depend on the level
of awareness of the educational gain students will get from using the labs and the amount of
control teachers would like to have of the CALL activities. The following table summarizes
the results of a questionnaire item on the modes of access to the computer lab as reported by
the 47 students who said they use it.
Number of students
How do you use the CALL
accessing CALL Percentage
(multimedia) lab?
labs (47 / 283)
Individually (self-access) 42 89.36%
In pairs and groups (student

37 78.72%
self-managed CALL)
With the teacher (teacher-led
25 53.19%
CALL)
Other 18 38.30%
Table 5.24: Students mode of access to CALL multimedia labs
One important conclusion to be drawn from the figures in the table above is that
students engage in more than one mode of access. Nine in ten students who use the lab do so
261
on an individual basis, while about eight in ten do so collectively with peers. In both cases,
students go to the lab with the intention to work at the computers without teacher intervention.
The case in which the teacher leads access to the lab concerns 53.19% of the students. In fact,
some teachers make the effort to plan a class session in the computer lab in order for the
students to sense a serious educational value of the activities, but this might be seen as a
controlled learning session that can restrict the students freedom of action. On the other hand,
some teachers prefer to encourage their students to go to the computer labs on their own and
engage in some self-chosen activities or do some search on the Internet and CD-ROMs to
fulfill a class requirement. The following table presents the alternative access modes in which
students engage.
Individually In groups Teacher-led Other

Individually 26 (55.32%) 6 (12.77%) 3 (6.38%) 3 (6.38%)
In groups 6 (12.77%) 22 (46.81%) 5 (10.64%) 2 (4.26%)
Teacher-led 3 (6.38%) 5 (10.64%) 15 (31.91%) 0 (0%)
Other 3 (6.38%) 2 (4.26%) 0 (0%) 13 (27.66%)
Table 5.25: Students alternative access modes to the computer lab
The figures in bold refer to the number of students who engage in only one mode of
access to the computer lab. However, as noted earlier, students combine two or more modes
of access. The disparity that is worth noting is that the number of students who use the
computer lab in their school is very small. There might be more than one reason why the
students whose institutions are equipped with multimedia labs do not have access to them.
Lack of orientation, lack of technical expertise, and insufficient equipment can be some of
these reasons. One respondent who agreed to sit for a follow-up interview commented on this
issue by saying that we are not allowed to use computers at all; they said the computer lab is
for teachers only, not students. Another student said that the computers are locked up in the
administration because they are waiting for a technician to install them in the lab. A
questionnaire item asked the students whose schools are equipped with a computer lab about
computer-student ratio, the results of which are tabulated below.
Number of students
Computer-student ratio at the CALL
(multimedia) lab.
labs (47 / 283)
1 computer for every student 5 10.64%
1 computer for 2 students 9 19.15%
1 computer for 3 students 13 27.66%
1 computer for more than 3 students 20 42.55%
Table 5.26: Computer-student ratio at the school computer labs
262
These figures in the table above indicate that there are not enough computers to serve
all students. This might be one reason for the low level of access to computer labs. With the
large classes in the Moroccan schools, that would make the situation worse, as a CALL
session if there is one is not likely to last for more than two hours at best. For example, for
a class of 40 students in a lab equipped with 10 computers, the average time that each student
spends working at the computer station does not exceed 15 minutes in a one-hour session and
30 minutes in a two-hour session. It has been emphasized earlier in Chapter Two (II.3.2) that
only in small-size classes can a ratio of one computer for every five students be deemed
adequate. With the results shown in Table 5.26 above, it is difficult to expect computer-based
learning to be launched as successfully as educational authorities and educationalists wish. Of
the 605 students who have been targeted in the survey, only 14 (2.31%) have the privilege
of using a computer on their own or sharing it with a classmate.
As mentioned earlier, lack of adequate ICT resources can be a direct cause to the
incommensurate ratios of students and computers. The data presented in the following table
indicate how students rated the ICT resources and facilities put at their disposal at school.
Unsatisfactory Satisfactory Good Excellent Unanswered

Computing facilities 113 (39.93%) 57 (20.14%) 83 (29.33%) 4 (1.41%) 26 (9.19%)
Networking facilities 142 (50.18%) 25 (8.83%) 87 (30.74%) 3 (1.06%) 26 (9.19%)
Software support 141 (49.82%) 65 (22.97%) 48 (16.96%) 3 (1.06%) 26 (9.19%)
Technical support 145 (51.24%) 61 (21.55%) 47 (16.61%) 4 (1.41%) 26 (9.19%)
Table 5.27: The state of the ICT resources and facilities available at school
According to the judgment of the majority of students, the ICT facilities and resources
put at their disposal are unsatisfactory. That is, either the number of computers is not enough
for the large classes or the grade of computers available does not match with the tasks to be
performed on them. The dissatisfaction concerns also the software programs that run on these
computers and the technical support expected from specialized technicians available on the
premises. Be that as it may, quite a considerable number of students (between 40% and 50%)
think that the computer equipment and facilities are satisfactory, good or excellent. The
extent to which their judgment is accurate needs to be verified. Further details about the
hardware facilities used for CALL practice are tabulated below.
263
Number of Students
Hardware facilities for
school CALL use.
labs (47 / 283)
Fully equipped computer
7 (1.16%)
lab dedicated to CALL
Fully equipped computer
lab used for many 227 (37.52%)
bj computer in class
One
8 (1.32%)
for all learners
One computer in class
9 (1.49%)
for the teacher only
None 64 (10.58%)
Table 5.28: Hardware facilities used for CALL practice at school computer labs
The results obtained for this questionnaire item, which is addressed to all students
regardless of whether they have access to the computer lab or not, indicate that computer labs
where they exist are not devoted to language learning only, but are used for other subject
matters. This situation could have been possible and even rewarding had the ratio of
computers to students not been unfavorable and incommensurate. What blurs the situation is
that the majority (64+290=354 / 58.51%) of the EFL students who have been targeted in this
survey have either avoided this item or chosen none as an answer. The response rates for
the other options are less than 1.5%, which suggests that their impact on the learning outcome
is minimal.
To find out the impact of ICT on the students learning outcome, several items have
been included in the questionnaire. One of these has to do with the number of years students
have been using CALL, the results of which are presented in the following table. These data
concern 514 students (86% of computer-literate students who have been targeted in the
survey) who have claimed to use CALL (cf. Figure 5.13).
Students using
Period of CALL use Percentage
CALL (514 / 602)
One month 148 (28.79%)
Between 1 and 6 months 98 (19.07%)
Between 7 and 18 months 101 (19.65%)
Between 2 and 3 years 83 (16.15%)
More than 3 years 66 (12.84%)
Table 5.29: Students use of CALL over the past years
264
As noted before, these data were collected in December 2004, which means that these
results may not be valid any more. The biggest proportion of the respondents (47.86%) has
not used CALL for more than six months. In addition, these periods do not refer to the time of
official use of CALL in the educational institution but, rather, to general use of ICT for
language learning both in formal and informal settings, which implies that some CALL
activity is done as a personal initiative in an unstructured manner. This raises the question of
how students are enticed into using ICT for language education purposes, especially in
schools where there is the minimal requirement for implementing CALL. Table 5.30 presents
the respondents answers to the questionnaire item: Is CALL encouraged at your school?.
Always 7 (1.16%)
Sometimes 28 (4.63%)
Never 541 (89.42%)
Table 5.30: CALL use in the Moroccan school
While 16.61% of the respondents whose schools are equipped with computer labs
claim to use CALL (cf. Figure 5.15), the number of those who acknowledge the schools
encouragement of CALL is rather low (35 / 5.79%). In fact, the overwhelming majority
(89.42%) of the EFL students involved in this study think that their schools do not encourage
the use of CALL. There might be many reasons for this state of affairs, among which the lack
of the technical and/or human resources necessary for the launch of CALL and the lack of
awareness of the potential of ICT in language education. The role of the ICT-trained teacher
is crucial in this respect as she can be the instigator of the launch of CALL in the school. The
following table explores the possible reasons associated with the teacher and that may be
preventing the adoption of CALL.
Number of
Reasons for not using CALL Percentage
responses
Lack of sufficient resources 72 (11.90%)
Lack of adequate software 42 (6.94%)
programs
Lack of familiarity with ICT 122 (20.17%)
(computer illiteracy)
Dislike / fear of ICT 33 (5.45%)
(computer phobia)
Other 7 (1.16%)
Table 5.31: Possible teacher reasons for not adopting CALL
265
The percentages in the table above add up to more than 100% because some
respondents have chosen more than one reason. This being said, the majority of respondents
(63.31%) preferred not to answer this item. The first most chosen reason among the students
who have replied has to do with the lack of familiarity with the computer, while the second
most chosen reason is related to the shortage in adequate ICT resources. This confirms the
results in Table 5.27, which presents the students judgment of the state of the ICT resources
put at their disposal. As for the level of computer literacy among teachers, this can be checked
against the results of the teacher survey, presented in the previous chapter (IV.1.1.1). As
mentioned before, computer literacy and familiarity are closely linked to the level of
awareness about the potential of ICT in modern life in general and in language teaching and
learning in particular. Since this chapter focuses on students, it is important, as well, to
ascertain what their views are on the rationale behind using ICT in education.
Number of
Reasons for using CALL Percentage
responses
to practice English with other
430 (71.07%)
learners and native speakers
to contribute to the information
419 (69.26%)
society and open up to the world
to improve my computer skills
395 (65.29%)
and Internet search techniques
to comply with the
406 (67.11%)
requirements of the job market
Table 5.32: Reasons for adopting CALL according to students
The majority of students realized that there was more than one reason for using ICT in
language learning. However, the reason that drew the major number of responses is to
practice English with other learners and native speakers. The other three reasons are no less
important than this reason, as the difference does not go beyond 2%. Worth noting is that
24.30% of the students (n=147) chose all the reasons and more chose three (36.52%) or two
(50.74%). Obviously, there might be more than just four reasons, that is why a separate free-
ended item was included in the questionnaire (see Appendix 10), where the students are asked
to express their views with regard to this point. Generally speaking, questionnaire respondents
avoid choosing the other option in closed-ended items because they have to specify what
that is. A university student writes: Computers are very important in our life because we
need this technology for searching something on the Internet or for using a presentation or for
receiving emails. However, its a good reason for communicating with other classrooms or
with friends.
266
The data discussed so far indicate that the EFL students who took part in the survey
have, by and large, positive attitudes towards CALL and that a considerable portion of them
(86%) do use CALL either formally or informally. What needs to be further clarified is the
kind of CALL activity in which these students engage. Concurrently, it is also important to
see if the computer skills that students claim to have are used in the right activities and if their
declared computer literacy levels match the CALL applications used. Two closely related
items were included in the SQ to elicit students responses on the kind of CALL they use; one
has to do with the software programs and the other is related to the activities.
Number and rate of responses CALL Number and rate of responses

CALL courseware
(514/605) activities (514/605)
General purpose 337 CD-ROM 115
software (65.56%) based CALL (22.37%)
Publisher-produced 42 Web-based 33
courseware (8.17%) CALL (6.42%)
programs
Web-based integrated 49 E-mail based 36
learning systems (9.53%) activities (7%)
Software downloaded 49 Interactive 35
from the Internet (9.53%) chat (6.81%)
Teacher-made 9 Visio- 31
courseware (1.75%) conferencing (6.03%)
0 4
Other
(0%)
| Other
(0.78%)
35 265
Unanswered Unanswered
(6.81%) (51.56%)
Table 5.33: CALL materials and activities used by EFL students
CALL materials and CALL activities are closely related, but it is important to
distinguish between the two. By CALL activities is meant the types of tasks students are
engaged in and by CALL materials the software programs used to run such activities. There
are two important conclusions to be drawn from the data in the table above. First, the software
mostly used by EFL students is a general-purpose program that is not designed primarily for
CALL activity, although some kind of CALL activity can be performed on such software.
Second, the majority of the targeted respondents (51.56%) abstained from answering the
questionnaire item on CALL activity, which can imply minimal involvement in CALL or
confusion about CALL terminology. As can be noted from the table above, two response
options in the item on courseware types are reiterated in the item on CALL activity
(publisher-produced courseware vs. CD-ROM based CALL and Web-based integrated
learning systems vs. Web-based CALL). There are two factors that render the interpretation of
267
these data somewhat difficult, if not meaningless: the inconsistency of the responses and the
great number of students who did not answer the item on CALL activity.
Excluding the general-purpose software, the EFL students involved in the present
study used some bona fide courseware that is either purchased or downloaded from the
Internet. In fact, there is a tendency to think of CALL in terms of publisher-produced
courseware programs. However, some well-trained teachers can author (or even design)
courseware programs when necessary to answer specific needs of their learners. The data in
Table 5.33 above indicate that 1.75% of students used courseware authored by their teacher,
but there are more students who use courseware in shareware and freeware form than those
who use teacher-made courseware. In this respect, it is not so important what kind of
courseware is used as what kind of CALL activity is performed with the courseware.
The Internet as a CALL resource and a repository of downloadable CALL materials

constitutes another kind of technology that students can use to learn and practice language.
The following item was included in the SQ: Have you ever used the Internet as a tool for
learning or research? The results presented in the following pie-chart concern 512 students of
those who said they used the computer as a learning aid (cf. Figure 5.13).
23%
77%
No Yes
Figure 5.16: Pedagogical Use of the Internet
Of the EFL students who claim to use the computer as a learning tool, 396 (77%) have
used the Internet as a resource for language learning. This important rate confirms the
previously discussed data presented in Table 5.9, in which more than 90% of students chose,
inter alia, Web-browsing and E-mailing as two frequently used computer applications. This
indicates that some of the EFL students uses of the Internet are actually geared towards
learning ends. In fact, the Internet has largely reshaped learning media in several ways, as it
268
provides new content for other media to carry, offers an extension of classical media, and
offers a new channel by which users can participate in dialogs. The students were thus asked
to choose from five possible response options their favorite Internet services as sources of
learning and research.
Number of
Internet services Percentage
responses
The Web 329 (83.08%)
IRC (Internet relay Chat) 136 (34.34%)
Newsgroups (Listservs,
59 (14.90%)
mailing lists)
MOOs [MUD (Multi-User
11 (2.78%)
Dungeons) Object Oriented]
Other 23 (5.81%)
Table 5.34: Students Internet sources of learning/research
These statistics suggest that the Web is the most favored Internet service among EFL
students because most responses were directed to it. It goes without saying that the majority
of Moroccan EFL students (at least up till December 2004) can also access the other services
by using the Web because very few of them (cf. Table 5.8) have access to the Internet from
their homes. In fact, the Web the added value of being a medium with three notable
educational features: 1) the ability to have multimedia documents, 2) the
hypertext/hypermedia capability, and 3) networked basis, allowing for distance learning. IRC
and MOO are other media than can be of great educational value if used appropriately, as they
allow for direct interaction between learners of English and native speakers from around the
world. In IRC and MOO, users connect to a channel to chat in real time by typing text or
speaking in a microphone in order to communicate with many people at once or send private
messages, and show actions and emotions. The difference between the two services is merely
technical, the former using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol and the latter Telnet. As for
Newsgroups, an E-mail-based service which, ideally, best serves teacher-student dialoging
and provides messaging among members of a very specific topic group, it is minimally used
by EFL students probably because of its asynchronous mode of communication.
Cognizant of the potential of ICT in language education, especially the Internet, the
researcher included a Likert scale in the questionnaire to elicit students confidence in using
Internet technologies.
269

0 72 10 162 290 68
1 use e-mail. (0%) (11.96%) (1.66%) (26.91%) (48.17%) (11.30%)
4.25
0 285 12 90 117 98
2 send e-mail to several people at once.
(0%) (47.34%) (1.99%) (14.95%) (19.44%) (16.28%)
3.08
3 attachment(s). (0%) (32.89%) (1%) (21.93%) (14.62%) (29.57%)
3.26
use an Internet search engine to find 0 18 21 111 289 163
4 Web pages related to my interests. (0%) (2.99%) (3.49%) (18.44%) (48.01%) (27.08%)
4.53
bookmark Web sites so as to keep track 57 212 26 32 39 236
5 of updates. (9.47%) (35.22%) (4.32%) (5.32%) (6.48%) (39.20%)
2.41
create a database of information about 91 159 23 26 18 285
6 important authors in a subject. (15.12%) (26.41%) (3.82%) (4.32%) (2.99%) (47.34%)
2.12
use the computer to create a slideshow 151 245 22 9 13 162
7 presentation (e.g. PowerPoint). (25.08%) (40.70%) (3.65%) (1.50%) (2.16%) (26.91%)
1.84
create and edit graphics for multimedia 178 253 17 8 5 141
8 presentations or Web pages. (29.57%) (42.03%) (2.82%) (1.33%) (0.83%) (23.42%)
1.72
create my own World Wide Web home 375 47 16 6 9 149
9 page. (62.29%) (7.81%) (2.66%) (1%) (1.50%) (24.75%)
1.29
Average Mean Score 2.72

Table 5.35: Students level of confidence using ICT skills
What should be noted first in the figures above is that the number of students who
avoided answering some items in the Likert varies considerably. Therefore, the percentages
are based on different numbers of responses. The students responses to the first four items on
the Likert are, by and large, positive, which explains the resulting mean scores whose values
go beyond average. On the other hand, their responses to the last five items are on the whole
negative, hence the mean scores going below average. As the Internet can harness students
computer skills to motivate them in their efforts to acquire English proficiency skills, it was
deemed necessary to gauge their Internet skills both in what relates to exploitation and
creation. A logical outcome of an effective exploitation of the Internet is the improved level
of language skills and active communication that they are likely to develop. However, as far
as the creative dimension is concerned, only a minority (between 2% and 8%) of the EFL
students who took part in the survey marked positive answers (items 6 through 9). If this were
to be attributed to the fact that the majority of the respondents are literature stream students, it
would be a ventured conclusion that remains to be verified.
270
The average mean score (AMS) registered on the Internet skills Likert (2.72) indicates,
prima facie, that the respondents lack confidence in using the Internet. However, upon
distinction between the exploitative and the creative dimensions, the results can be
reinterpreted in the light of two indices. The first index, which includes items 1 through 5 and
which has to do with exploitation of the Internet services, yields a positive AMS of 3.51. On
the other hand, the AMS registered in the second index, which includes items 6 through 9 and
which has to do with creative Internet skills, is only 1.74. This distinction between two
dimensions reveals that the EFL students who participated in the survey are better at using the
Internet services than at creating any Internet pages or multimedia applications. For the
convenience of comparison, the following graph collapses the two positive (values 4 & 5) and
the two negative responses (values 1 & 2) into two distinct positions.
100
90
80
70
60
Negative
50
Neutral
40
Positive
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Figure 5.17: EFL students Internet skills
Because the Internet can provide access to new ideas of courses and back-up activities
both formal and informal and the opportunity to get in touch with other EFL learners outside
the school setting, it was considered essential to include a Likert that measures the EFL
students Internet skills. The percentages on the basis of which this graph has been designed
are worked out from the number of the respondents who actually responded to the Likert
items, excluding the number of unanswered items. In six items out of the nine ones
constituting the Likert, the negative bar, going beyond 50%, exceeds the other two. However,
the positive position stands out only in items which have to do with using Internet services,
which shows that the phase of production with ICT is yet to be developed.
271
The frequent use of the Web and E-mail, as represented by the figures in Table 5.35,
indicates that EFL students are aware of the utility of these Internet services which facilitate
the manipulation and transfer of data among classmates and teachers. The Web is a rich
resource where plenty of ready-to-use activities can be exploited both synchronously and
asynchronously. There is a wide range of web-hunts followed from search engine threads,
interactive activities, companion websites, Flash animations, etc. Moreover, E-mail is
recognized as a useful means of getting students to communicate with peers on a global scale
and a convenient and time-saving way of transferring information and materials within and
outside the school setting. A questionnaire item on the way students get in touch, if they do,
with their teachers yielded the following results.
Students responses
Means of contact Percentage
(n=491 /605)
Phone 2 (0.33%)
E-mail 31 (5.12%)
Snail mail 2 (0.33%)
No contact 456 (75.37%)
Table 5.36: Means of contact between EFL students and their teachers
The results of this item reveal that there is a lack of contact between EFL students and
their teachers outside the classroom. More than two thirds of the respondents excluding
those who chose not to answer the question said they do not have any contact with their
teachers by any means given in the options. As noted earlier when discussing the results of the
same questionnaire item from the point of view of teachers, the choice of a particular means
of communication depends largely on the age and level of students. After sorting the data
based on these two variables, it was found that the students who used the phone and snail-mail
as a means of communication are graduate students, while those who use E-mail are mainly
undergraduate students who study at the university or in private schools of higher education.
Be that as it may and as reported in the previous chapter, a substantial number

(20.77%) of computer-literate teachers claimed to have used E-mail to get in contact with
their students, assign tasks, make announcements, or plan meetings. Therefore, it seems that
there is a gap that needs to be bridged so that E-mail could be a potential alternative of
272
communication accessible to many teachers and students in terms of cost, convenience and
privacy protection. As for the use of the phone between students and their teachers, it is not,
as noted earlier, a common practice in the Moroccan educational context.
To recapitulate the forgoing discussion, the data elicited through the use of the
questionnaire and the views expressed in the follow-up interviews suggest that the EFL
students attitudes towards the computer as a tool and towards CALL as a new trend in
language education are, on the whole, positive. Most of the students who took part in this
investigation were computer-literate urban dwellers studying English in public secondary
education. Their attitudes were mainly assessed by means of several questionnaire items that
have been categorized into four relevant indices, namely enjoyment, anxiety, utility, and
familiarity. The IAMS obtained from these indices give a positive picture of how students
perceive the computer as a commodity and how CALL transforms their learning efforts and
practices. Furthermore, the variables of age, gender, and place of residence, which were also
introduced into the processing of the data on students attitudes, had some bearing, especially
on what relates to age (about 80% are below 18 years old) and place of residence (about 95%
live in urban areas). Additionally, the students were asked to react to statements on various
CALL activities and courseware as well as the disposition of the hardware facilities available
at their educational institutions, the purpose being to see how commensurate their abilities are
with the computer facilities put at their disposal.
The following section gets closer to the heart of CALL as it deals with some
respondents use of an E-learning program dispensed by the author in a language center in
Casablanca. The investigation into the use of CALL by corporate EFL trainees is conducted in
the form of a case study using a combination of methods.
V.2. CALL for Professionals: a Case Study
This case study examines the use of an E-learning platform by a focus group of 24
professional learners of English in Casablanca, four of whom, it should be noted, have also
filled out the SQ. This case study is expected to provide a deeper insight into the students
attitudes towards the use of CALL in the Moroccan EFL setting, as it provides concrete data
based on the actual practices of a group of corporate trainees using ICT to learn English. The
primary source of data for the case study is the iRM, an in-built record-keeping system of the
E-learning platform. Prior to analyzing the data drawn from the iRM, there are a number of
points concerning the case study and the E-learning platform that need to be clarified to put
the reader in the picture and the study in due perspective.
273
As explained in Chapter Three (III.4.3.), this case study is both qualitative and
quantitative. The qualitative aspect relates to observation of the progress of e-learners through
the follow-up classroom sessions, whereas the quantitative aspect consists of the examination
of the electronic file records (the log data provided by the iRM) which track the performance
of every e-learner registered in the E-learning program. Additionally, the case study is
longitudinal because the observations and the auditing of participants performance span over
a period of three months.
The analysis of the data drawn from the case study starts from the placement of the
randomly selected participants at the adequate level on the E-learning platform, scrutinizes
their performance through the iRM and assesses their achievement through analysis of
Mastery Test results and TOEIC scores where available. Accordingly, this section is divided
into three subparts, the first of which is concerned with the content and structure of the E-
learning program in question and the procedure of introducing CALL in the training program
of corporate trainees who have to study English for professional reasons. The second
subsection deals with the administration of the E-learning platform and the tracking of the e-
learners progress. The final subsection looks into the outcome of using the E-learning
program by assessing the level of achievement in follow-up sessions and test scores.
V.2.1. E-learning Implementation Procedure and Platform Features
V.2.1.1. Implementation Phase
There are six steps in the implementation phase of the proposed E-learning program:
1- Coordination with the companys staff training department
2- Installing E-learning program on the clients Intranet/computer
3- Placement testing
4- Learner needs assessment
5- Assigning e-learners to classes
6- Suggesting study paths
At the outset, some questions were e-mailed to the Staff Training Manager or Human
Resources Manager of the company sponsoring the E-learning participant(s) in order to walk
them and their team through some of the major decisions they needed to make in order to
implement a successful E-learning strategy in the training program of the organization. These
274
questions were meant to help them define the objectives, strategies, resources, functionality
and aspects of the E-learning project, especially the EFL part of it. They were not intended to
cover every possible element of the project, but rather were designed to get the team
discussing and thinking about the core decisions that needed to be made to have a smooth
installation of the E-learning platform onto the company Intranet and a fruitful EFL training.
After that, and before trainees embarked on the E-learning program per se, the researcher,
who was in charge of implementing the program, assessed these decisions and adapted them
to the linguistic needs of every participant in the light of the placement test results in order to
assign her or him to a specific class and propose an appropriate study path, which was, at all
times, open to negotiation.
Being aware that a culture promoting innovative types of professional learning and
collaboration need to be developed if corporate companies are to meet their in-service training
goals, Human Resources Managers are by and large in favor of E-learning as a new form of
training. At this stage, evidence that E-learning improves practice, boosts learning, and
contributes to the professional growth of the participant is exposed to decision-makers who
ultimately select those who should benefit from the training. One advantage of E-learning is
that participants do not have to move to a designated training site, as is the case in
conventional training, because it is not constrained by place. E-learners can study at work, at
home, on the move, or anywhere access to the platform is available and when learning is
desired. There is no set time-schedule to determine when the training is to take place because
E-learning is available to learners seven days a week around the clock. In addition, it is
customizable and supports just-in-time learning, as opposed to one-size-fits-all mode
used in conventional training.
The following table introduces relevant information about the participants who took
part in this case study.
Company / Placement
E-learners Date of joining
profession Level
01M-CS-MOOU-SCH Schindler 12-Jan-03 0.5
02F-PR-NATA-DEN Dentist 09-Apr-03 2.5
03M-CS-ABBE-LYD Lydec 02-May-03 2.0
04M-DR-LABE-ART Manager 02-May-03 3.0
05M-CS-ANDE-DOC DocArchives 29-May-03 1.5
06F-CS-FALA-DOC DocArchives 29-May-03 1.0
07M-CS-NAEL-DOC DocArchives 29-May-03 1.0
08M-DR-ABME-LMS LMS Conseil 12-Sep-03 2.5
09M-DR-JPBO-ATO General Atomix 22-Sep-03 1.5
10F-PR-KERA-SEC Secretary 25-Sep-03 2.0
275
11M-HR-ABKH-BMC BMCE Bank 10-Oct-03 2.5
12M-PR-KADO-EAS Executive assistant 16-Oct-03 2.0
13F-CS-FAMA-LAB Medical Laboratory 25-Nov-03 2.0
14F-CS-HACH-SHE Shell 25-Nov-03 2.5
15M-PR-HOSA-REP Medical Rep. 25-Nov-03 2.5
16F-CS-NARI-SCH Schneider 25-Nov-03 2.0
17M-CS-RERO-PWC PWC 25-Dec-03 2.0
18F-CS-ASOU-LYD Lydec 01-Jan-04 1.0
19F-CS-FABY-LYD Lydec 01-Jan-04 1.5
20M-CS-KAHA-LYD Lydec 01-Jan-04 1.5
21M-CS-KHEZ-LYD Lydec 01-Jan-04 1.5
22M-HR-MAPE-LYD Lydec 01-Jan-04 1.5
23M-CS-MNSB-LYD Lydec 01-Jan-04 0.5
24F-PR-REAT-CAL Call center operator 03-Feb-04 2.0
Table 5.37: Members of the EFL corporate participants focus group

For this case study, 24 participants were randomly selected from different companies
with different starting levels. As agreed beforehand, their names are withheld to protect their
privacy. For identification by the researcher, a coding system has been used whereby the
letters and numbers refer to specific information registered on their file records. Where the
profession is given instead of the name of the company, this means the course was not
sponsored by the participants employer. Although the participants started on different dates,
only three months work is considered for analysis in this case study. The starting dates refer to
the time they first took the placement test, the scores they obtained being interpreted in Table
5.38 below.
Since the installation of the E-learning platform is of technical nature, it is not

discussed in this case study. In lieu of that, it is important to put the reader in the know of how
E-learning proceeds in this case study. So, once the installation is over, the participants are
asked to provide the researcher with an E-mail address and a password of their choice.
Afterwards, the E-learning administrator/the research creates their profile on the iRM. To log
in the E-learning platform the participant is asked to identify herself/himself by entering a
user name and a password in the launch page (Figure 5.18). Participants who move around a
lot in business missions can use the platform without having access to the Internet either after
a given number of hours of work on the program (determined by the E-learning
manager/researcher) or a given number of study sessions.
276
Figure 5.18: The launch screen of the DynEd E-learning platform
Once the E-learning platform identifies the participant, the latter is directed to the
contents page that specifies the courseware installed as agreed upon by the Human Resources
manager and the E-learning manager. The first time a participant accesses the platform she/he
is directed to the placement test that will define her/his starting level and determine, in
collaboration with the researcher, the courseware units she/he will be able to use and the ones
that will be locked till other requirements are fulfilled.
Figure 5.19: List of courseware programs on the E-learning platform
277
It should be noted that the list of courseware that appears in Figure 5.19 is an
exhaustive one. The content of the platform depends on the kind of training contract
concluded with the company requesting E-learning. The core courses that are installed by
default are: New Dynamic English, The Lost Secret, and Dynamic Business English.
Additionally, although automatically locked when taken, the placement test is always
available on the platform. More details on each course are presented in the following
subsection.
Figure 5.20: A sample placement score and initial study path
The placement tests are taken online after the complete installation of the E-learning
platform on the companys Intranet server. The placement tests are launched as any other
DynEd courseware. However, once a trainee has taken the test, it is automatically locked.
This prevents trainees from taking the test more than once. Immediately after taking a test, the
e-learner is given a score and an initial study path, which is open to negotiation. The E-
learning platform automatically locks the learning materials pertaining to other levels.
However, some EFL learners insist on reviewing language items below their actual skill level,
in which case, some learning material can be unlocked. The placement test incorporated in
this platform is computer adaptive; that is, not all participants get the same number of
278
questions and same amount of time to complete the test. Rather, the test adapts to the skill
level of every participant so that the test items get easier or harder depending on response.
The test places students from 0.0 to 3.2+ on a five-point scale (see Table 5.38 below). The
researcher uses the iRM, among other functions, to view the test scores and sort the learners
by their placement levels in order to assign them to appropriate classes. To inform the trainees
of their actual levels and to provide equivalents to other test standards, a benchmarking chart
has been put in place by the researcher.
Placement Levels
Recommended DynEd Courses
Skill Level Label
0.0 Starter 10 ~ 250 NDE 1A
0.5 Elementary 250~350 NDE 1B
1.0 Pre-Intermediate 300~400 NDE 2A; TLS; CSW
1.5 Intermediate 350~450 NDE 2B; TLS; DBE 1,2; CSW
2.0 Upper Intermediate 400~650 450 NDE 3A; 3B; DBE 1,2,3,4; FIB; AL
2.5 Advanced 600~750 500 NDE 4A; DBE 3,4,5,6; FIB; EBN; AL
3.0 Higher-Advanced 700~850 550 NDE 4B; DBE; TM; EBN; AL
3.5 Proficient 800~950 600 DBE; AL
4.0 Near-Native Speaker Advanced EFL content studies
5.0 Educated Native Speaker Outside the level scope of the program
Notes:
NDE: New Dynamic English TLS: The Lost Secret EBN: English by the Numbers TM: Test Mountain
DBE: Dynamic Business English FIB: Functioning in Business AL: Advanced Listening CSW: Clear Speech Works
Table 5.38: Placement levels and recommended courseware
When the level of each participant is determined, the iRM is used to create appropriate
study paths for each class of e-learners by checking the locked units and making sure lessons
that are appropriate for the current level of the participants are accessible. For example, a
class at the 2.0 placement level can be set up in such a way that the e-learners cannot access
the higher-level courses, such as New Dynamic English, 4A and 4B. By and large, while
access to lower-level courses can be allowed for review purposes, higher-level materials are
locked. The objective is to prevent e-learners from uselessly browsing through the material
and to help keep them focused. This is especially important in programs where trainees move
up from one class/level to the next over an extended period of time.
To promote e-learners to a higher level, they need to demonstrate through the study
records, the completion percentage, and mastery test scores (when available) that they are
capable of handling higher-level materials. This can be determined only once the program of
study is underway. In some cases, participants are allowed to retake the placement test when
their performance proves to be adequate in a period of at least 50 to 100 hours of study. When
evaluating level and pace, it was noted that a trainees level varies according to skill area.
279
Generally speaking, the receptive skills (listening and reading) are at a higher level than the
productive skills (speaking and writing). When a trainees receptive skills are found to be
ahead of her productive skills, she is oriented towards spending more time on activities that
develop the productive skills. For example, a participant with good listening comprehension
should spend more time on focus exercises, role-plays, oral presentations, and other classroom
activities that use voice recording and speech recognition. On the other hand, for a trainee
with a low level of listening or reading comprehension, the focus is placed more on
developing comprehension first, which means more drills, more time for review, and more
comprehension exercises before working on the productive skills.
V.2.1.2. DynEd Courseware Features
As mentioned earlier, the ELT content of the DynEd E-learning programs is installed
on the network server of the company wanting to sponsor e-learners. Because all the
courseware programs are networkable, participants can easily access them from any
workstation equipped with a headset on the corporate network. All learner records are
automatically stored on the central network server where they can easily and conveniently be
accessed, analyzed and evaluated by the Staff Training Manager, the Human resources
Manager or the E-learning Manager (the researcher) from any computer on the companys
network (intranet) or from the iRM through TCP/IP (Internet). When a participant logs into
the platform, she either clicks on Start to choose what to study or on Bookmark to return
to the last lesson where she left off. Although everything can be controlled by the E-learning
program manager/the researcher through the iRM, some flexibility is ensured to meet the
expectations and needs of e-learners and the companies they work for.
Another important feature of this E-learning platform is that participants can study off-
line for a number of study sessions (as determined by the platform administrator), after which
they must reconnect. It is, however, advisable that they reconnect at the beginning of every
study session so as to keep their study records as up-to-date as possible.
The language throughout the courseware series is introduced and developed according
to what has been described by DynEd International, the program designer, as a concept-based
syllabus where meaning, grammar and communicative learning are interwoven. This
sequence is said to be in line with how the brain organizes and structures language. The focus
is placed on concepts such as point of time, duration, frequency, causality, and negation,
which are communicated most frequently in English and on the grammatical structures to
280
convey these concepts. This sequencing of both communicative content and language
structures constitutes the strength of these courseware programs as they could equate the core
material of a long-term classroom-based English course. Unless requested, business content
can only be introduced as of level 1.5 onwards. From this level, the business focus increases,
with an emphasis on presentation and meeting skills, the language of numbers and
explanation, as well as the elements of argumentation, organization of ideas, and international
news. A detailed syllabus content of each course is provided in Appendix 11.
Other strong features of the E-learning program include interactivity, user-friendliness,

constant accessibility and speech recognition. The interactive design enables e-learners to get
intensive language practice which is the key to effective language acquisition that a classroom
setting often fails to foster. Intensive practice allows e-learners to master the language models
in the E-learning program as a foundation in English. The focal platform enables corporate
EFL learners to study at their own pace. So, at any point in the training program, they can
have instant access to repetition, instructional videos and comprehension aids such as
translation, on-screen text backup and glossary support. During any practice session,
participants can also record their own voices as many times as they wish and compare their
recording of a given utterance with the prerecorded native speaker model. This gives a chance
to the e-learners to prepare for the speech recognition tasks that have been integrated into
many activities and exercises and helps to develop oral fluency.
Throughout the E-learning program, all language is presented in contexts that can be
linked and extended into the lives and experience of the e-learners. This is done most
effectively in face-to-face follow-up sessions in the classroom, where participants can make
oral presentations, ask and answer questions, summarize material, work in pairs, and engage
in conversation about a specific topic or problem.
V.2.1.3. DynEd Courseware Content
In what follows, a short description of each courseware program is provided in order

for the reader to recognize what the courseware focus is and to distinguish core courses and
supplementary ones. For ampler details on each courseware program, including the modules
and study units, the reader is referred to Appendix 11. For general English, the main courses
are New Dynamic English and The Lost Secret. However, for business English Dynamic
Business English is combined with the previous two. This core courseware is designed for
basic through advanced proficiency levels. The other courseware programs are considered
281
supplementary and are added to the training program depending on the participants needs or
corporate training goals.
New Dynamic English (NDE) is a four-level courseware that provides the linguistic
foundation for the training program. It focuses on the conceptual framework of EFL in a way
that accelerates language learning and prepares students to handle complex ideas and general
language functions, including summarization, argumentation, and speculation. Listening and
speaking skills are the primary focus throughout the courseware, though reading and writing
skills are also developed, particularly at the higher levels. The course has 24 Mastery Tests
that e-learners take upon completion of each unit to make sure they have studied the content
sufficiently.
The Lost Secret (TLS) is a video-based course prepared in collaboration with the
BBC that can be used as a complement to NDE 2A and 2B. It provides review, language
extension, additional vocabulary and important situational language. The first two levels of
NDE and TLS provide an adequate language foundation, without which meaningful
communication of even simple ideas is not feasible. These two courses provide the core of an
intensive language study program. TLS includes 4 Mastery Tests.
Dynamic Business English (DBE) is a course that helps EFL e-learners develop the
ability to use English for business and in the workplace. It focuses on understanding and
making of oral presentations centered around ones company, job history, product
comparisons, quantitative English, and decision making. It focuses on business themes, with
an emphasis on oral presentation skills and listening comprehension.
Functioning in Business (FIB) is a story-based course that focuses on the proper way
to manage business and social encounters. Meant to be a companion course to DBE, it focuses
on the language functions necessary to do business in key situations, and general business
vocabulary. FIB is a supplementary course that helps e-learners develop the ability to
communicate business content in a variety of business situations such as business dinners,
trade fairs, executive meetings, etc.
English by the Numbers (EBN) is another supplementary course that is meant to

develop a trainees ability to deal with numbers and quantitative relationships. It seeks also to
help prepare learners to exchange information over the telephone and elaborate orally on
numerical information.
282
Clear Speech Works (CSW) focuses on improving pronunciation by using sound
production simulations and comparisons. Although some exercises are aimed at different
learning levels, CSW can be suitable for learners of all levels. This supplementary course
includes 24 lessons, each of which addresses a different aspect of English pronunciation.
Before using this course, the learner specifies to the platform what her native language is in
order to select lesson units that focus on sounds that are typically challenging for speakers of
that language. The courseware designer claims that it is based on patented instructional
strategies and techniques developed by speech pathology professors at Bostons Northeastern
University.
Advanced Listening (AL) is a supplementary course for advanced students who need
to improve their listening skills and vocabulary. It features lectures delivered by professors
from Stanford University. The themes of these intellectually stimulating presentations are
varied and appeal to different interests. The lectures are accompanied by comprehension
questions and advanced language activities such as idiomatic expressions, paraphrasing, etc.
Test Mountain (TM) is a supplementary course that helps e-learners to prepare for
standardized language tests such as TOEIC. It includes a practice test that is meant to
familiarize the learners with test structure and question types and a full, timed TOEIC exam
that is meant to be taken in formal conditions to assess the general level of e-learners.
For more details on each courseware program and its contents, the reader is referred to
Appendix 11.
V.2.2. Tracking the E-learners Progress
Once the e-learners have received by E-mail a suggested study path on the E-learning
platform, they have full access to any material within their skill level, except the Mastery
Tests, which are meant to be taken at least when the completion rate of the content reaches a
determined level (at this case made at 80%). Through the iRM, the researcher was able to
track the performance of every participant in the focus group (24 participants). The
effectiveness of the E-learning program and, by extension, the use of ICT in language
learning can be measured by the actual progress made by the participants. Such progress is
manifested in the achievement tests, the follow-up classroom sessions, and the TOEIC results
of some participants.
As students study each course in the program, their progress is monitored and
assessed. Each time a student answers a question by clicking on a word or picture, records a
283
sentence, completes a fill-in, Speech Recognition or other activity, the program updates the
students study records and assesses the quality and level of study. The complete study
records for all students are stored in the built-in tool called the Records Manager for easy
access and analysis by the E-learning Administrator/researcher. There are two types of this
tool: 1) a local Records Manager (LRM), which can be installed on the clients server at their
request so as to enable the Staff Training Manager or Human Resources Manager to check
frequency of use and inquire about the reasons of abstaining of some trainees; and 2) an
Internet Records Manger (iRM), which can be installed on any computer with Internet
connection and where the researcher wishes to track the performance of the e-learners
wherever they may be working.
V.2.2.1. The Internet Records Manager
DynEds iRM is a password-protected tool that has been designed for E-learning
program administrators in order to keep and manage learner records. It is required for mastery
tests, locking and unlocking units, and for assessing detailed study activities. Every mouse
click and every mistake made by a participant in any of the courses are recorded and thus can
be viewed by the staff training manager or the researcher in the iRM from any computer
connected to the Internet, be it at the office or even at a cyber-caf. By using this tool, the
researcher can:
1) view class records, so that he can easily see the records for each course the e-
learners are studying and switch between them;
2) view class records at several levels of a course, from an overview of the entire
course to more detailed views at the unit, lesson or even sub-lesson levels;
3) sort detailed e-learner performance fields at any level of course selected;
4) import student records E-mailed from students studying off-site, e.g. at home, and
transfer data in a tab-delimited format for integration into other record keeping
systems;
5) E-mail access codes to e-learners wishing to unlock some requested lesson

materials;
6) merge multiple data files from different sites into centralized records;
7) transfer participants and their records among existing classes;
8) E-mail technical log files to DynEd for technical troubleshooting and diagnosis;
284
9) E-mail usage files to anywhere to provide snapshot summaries of system usage; and
10) select alternate video compression schemes to optimize system performance.
The following Figure shows the set-up screen of the iRM, through which the
researcher can set up, change, and control a number of class settings, including passwords and
options for tests, and adjust the calculation of the participants completion percentage value.
Figure 5.21: Setting up E-learning class parameters
The screen-shot in the Figure above refers to the settings of a single class on the E-
learning platform, namely Class Pre-Int. 1, from which only three e-learners have been
selected to be part of the focus group for this case study. It should be noted then that, as
shown in Table 5.37, the 24 participants in the case study belong to different classes, each of
which has different settings. This management tool allows for adding, transferring and
deleting class members at any time.
Through the iRM, the researcher checks the performance of participants twice a month
and makes comments on the recorded data through the in-built E-mail function. The iRM
provides several levels of performance tracking that the researcher can use to advise and
guide participants. First, the iRM provides a general overview of the performance of e-
learners in every single class by showing the total amount of time spent on the platform as a
whole, the number of times the e-learners had recourse to translation, subtitling or the
285
glossary, the number of times they requested repetition, and the number of attempts to use
speech recognition and voice recording. The following screen-shot shows this type of
information.
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx -
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Figure 5.22: An example of e-learners performance on the platform
While there had been eighteen students enrolled in this model class (Pre-Int. 1), only
seven of them actually started using the E-learning platform, and only three of them were
selected to be part of the focus group for this case study. Their names were withheld in
compliance with the privacy protection terms of the E-learning contracts concluded with
interested companies. The iRM screen-shot above gives general data about the performance of
a class of 18 students where only 7 of them worked on some language activity. The data
shown above are sorted by student name; however, they can be sorted out by any of the ten
existing rubrics. These data can then be used in several ways using spreadsheets or any
statistics software or other performance tracking programs. The most straightforward way is
actually using the in-built E-mail function to transmit the study records and feedback,
comments and recommendations for further study.
286
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx -
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Figure 5.23: iRM E-mail Options
Through the in-built E-mail options of the iRM, the researcher can transfer the records
data to several parties including the trainees Human Resources Manager or import data E-
mailed by learners studying off line in order to synchronize the records on the iRM. The
following two screen-shots show the added value of the in-built E-mail function, which
allows the E-learning administrator to include a feedback message with the attached records
data and to specify the lapse of time covered in the feedback.
Figure 5.24: A sample records feedback E-mail
The E-mailed study records can also be carbon copied to third parties consented by the
e-learner at the outset. Moreover, the iRM provides more than just general study records. It
can provide even the smallest details of every lesson unit in the courseware constituting the E-
287
learning platform. In addition, those records details can be arranged, as can be seen in the
following screen-shot, by date or by levels of the course, with sub-levels and individual
lessons accessible at the click of the mouse.
05M-CS-ANDE-DOC
Figure 5.25: A sample of an E-learning participants study records arranged by lesson
The screen-shot above shows another level of study records data provided by the iRM.
These study records include the total amount of time spent in the lesson units studied and the
completion percentage of each course. The ratio between the time and completion percentage
is an indicator that helps the E-learning administrator/researcher to measure how effectively a
participant has used time and exploited the platform. Another important detail given at this
level is the score obtained at the embedded exercises and activities, which score is meant
track the actual evolution of the participants skill level as they go through the courseware
content. There are also padlock icons to the right of lesson titles to indicate whether a
particular lesson or test is locked or unlocked and whether any action in that regard has to be
taken.
It should be noted that although e-learners are allowed to use all the courseware
content recommended at the outset of the training, the E-learning administrator can restrict
access to some course units and tests at any time, the purpose being to keep the e-learner
focused and maximize progress. In addition, the completion percentage is adjusted, from time
to time, according to frequency of use and the amount of time spent on the courseware. The
288
actual completion percentage figure required for the automatic opening of Mastery Tests is
controlled by the E-learning administrator by entering a target percentage figure in the
specified place on the iRM. So, the Mastery Tests remain automatically locked unless the e-
learners have covered at least 80% of the courseware under study. In other words, a test is
either unlocked at will by granting access to it or automatically by setting the iRM to
unlock it when e-learners have covered a given amount of the unit content. More details about
the Mastery Tests are revealed in what follows.
V.2.2.2. The Mastery Tests
As explained earlier, at the end of each unit of a courseware module, there is a mastery
test that e-learners need to take before proceeding to the following unit. The score obtained in
this test determines whether the participant has mastered the unit content or not. These sub-
level achievement tests have been designed to help the E-learning administrator monitor and
evaluate the trainees progress. Each test takes from six to twelve minutes, and consists of
between 20 and 50 test items. In order to ensure variation, Mastery Test items are randomly
selected from a pre-set database of questions suiting the current e-learners level range.
Several types of questions, ranging from multiple choice, listening comprehension, sentence
construction, to sentence ordering, are included in each Mastery Test. An e-learners test
score is indicated at the bottom of the test screen on the E-learning platform, and is
automatically recorded in her/his study records on the iRM.
By and large, participants take a Mastery Test when they (or the E-learning
administrator) feel they have sufficiently mastered the language items covered in a given unit.
Furthermore, a score of at least 80 out of 100 indicates that a participant has mastered the
target language of a unit, thus being able to move on to the next unit. E-learners who score
less than 80 are advised to go back to the lessons in the unit and carry on studying until they
have mastered the material.
Depending on the e-learners initial level and linguistic background, the completion
percentage and study records are the yardstick used by the E-learning manager to measure the
progress of the participants. Once the test has been taken, e-learners are not allowed to retake
the test unless enough time has elapsed to make sure they have not memorized test items so as
not to invalidate the results. Otherwise, Mastery Tests are automatically re-locked once they
are taken. Participants can also see their test scores in their own records, which they can view
at any time when they are working on the platform.
289
Having mentioned all the positive features of the E-learning platform including the
embedded Mastery Tests, it is important to bear in mind that DynEds courseware is only one
part of the overall learning environment that can foster EFL learning and that any ranking of
overall learner performance should take into account a variety of factors, such as classroom
performance, written homework, and other forms of teacher evaluation. Therefore, the
proposed E-learning package includes a face-to-face classroom component that is meant to be
a follow-up to the computer-based component.
V.2.3. Follow-up Classroom Sessions
Given the paramount importance of the human element in the teaching and learning
operation, it is taken for granted that gaining a command of a language requires face-to-face
human interaction, not only between the teacher and the learner but also among the learners
themselves. Therefore, the follow-up classroom sessions that have been integrated in the
training of the corporate trainees are meant to complement the online training, create an
environment for human interaction and provide an opportunity for the trainees to put to use
what they have learned. In actuality, effective mastery of a language, at any level, is greatly
affected by the level of opportunity learners have to practice, particularly with other speakers.
At these face-to-face meetings, participants have a chance to go back to any language

item or skill that has not been adequately acquired, further strengthen their knowledge base
and enlarge their vocabulary repertoire. In fact, during these bimonthly two-hour sessions, the
participants are guided to personalize and extend the core language of the courses they have
been studying, the purpose being to give a sense of utility to the acquired language material
and increase the efficiency and depth of learner language acquisition. Some of the participants
bring to the classroom printed records of their E-learning practice with details of the language
content covered in order to inquire about a particular usage, while others come with questions
that they have formulated when using the E-learning platform.
It should be noted that the ultimate purpose of these face-to-face sessions is to validate
the language achievement of the trainees by means of a standardized TOEIC test. The scores
obtained by the participants are a reassuring indication of the value of the E-learning program
to the company funding the training. With a TOEIC test score, the employer can measure the
improvement achieved and compare the language skills of the sponsored participants. Such
information is likely to help the companys management to make informed decisions about
the promotion and mobility of their employees. Additionally, for a corporate entity, improving
language proficiency of personnel is equivalent to improving productivity and reducing costs.
290
However, not all participants managed to sit for the TOEIC for different reasons. While some
of them changed jobs, others were not ready to take the test because they had missed the
TOEIC preparation sessions.
The number of follow-up sessions that were initially expected to be attended in a

three-month module was six sessions. However, this objective was not met (see Table 5.40
below) because the EFL corporate trainees resorted to E-learning as an alternative to
classroom teacher-led training because they had unpredictable time tables. Therefore, class
attendance was not regular among the majority of participants. To find out more about the
outcome of the corporate EFL training undertaken by the participants, a longitudinal
evaluation of the focus groups progress over a three-month E-learning program is in order.
V.2.4. A Longitudinal Evaluation of E-learners Overall Progress
In order to evaluate the participants overall progress in English language learning, the
researcher had recourse to five indicators: 1) the e-learners initial skill level (placement test
scores), 2) the e-learners coverage rate of courseware content (completion percentage), 3)
monthly progress check scores (Mastery Tests), 4) number of follow-up sessions attended
(classroom face-to-face interaction) and 5) TOEIC test score when available. A close study of
these indicators will help in determining not only the overall progress of e-learners, but also
the actual pacing of each participant.
The participants initial level is indicated in the placement test scores they have
obtained at the outset of the E-learning program and which are presented in Table 5.37 and
interpreted in Table 5.38. For convenience, the participants levels are reproduced and
rearranged in the following table.
DynEd TOEIC Score

E-learners Skill Level Number
Placement Score Equivalent
01M-CS-MOOU-SCH
0.5 250~350 Elementary 2
23M-CS-MNSB-LYD
06F-CS-FALA-DOC
07M-CS-NAEL-DOC 1.0 300~400 Pre-Intermediate 3
18F-CS-ASOU-LYD
05M-CS-ANDE-DOC
09M-DR-JPBO-ATO
19F-CS-FABY-LYD
1.5 350~450 Intermediate 6
20M-CS-KAHA-LYD
21M-CS-KHEZ-LYD
22M-HR-MAPE-LYD
03M-CS-ABBE-LYD 2.0 400~650 Upper 7
10F-PR-KERA-SEC Intermediate
291
12M-PR-KADO-EAS
13F-CS-FAMA-LAB
16F-CS-NARI-SCH
17M-CS-RERO-PWC
24F-PR-REAT-CAL
02F-PR-NATA-DEN
08M-DR-ABME-LMS
11M-HR-ABKH-BMC 2.5 600~750 Advanced 5
14F-CS-HACH-SHE
15M-PR-HOSA-REP
04M-DR-LABE-ART 3.0 700~850 Higher-Advanced 1
Total number of e-learners => 24
Table 5.39: Corporate trainees level at the outset of the E-learning training
The participants placement score levels are arranged from the lowest to the highest
with an interpretation of DynEds scores in terms of TOEIC can-do levels. Although the e-
learners did not take a TOEIC test at the beginning of the training, their scores were disclosed
with a benchmark table containing score conversions into TOEIC. This benchmarking helps
the companys HR manager or staff training manager to better interpret the skill level of their
sponsored trainees. The TOEIC can-do levels table in Appendix 11 is sent with the E-
learning application package to the companys decision makers to be part of the training
dossiers of sponsored employees.
As noted earlier, the members of the E-learning focus group started their training on
different dates (see Table 5.37) with different initial levels (see Table 5.39). This longitudinal
case study entails primarily monitoring monthly evaluation results, and, at the same time,
gaining an insight into the impact this ICT integration initiative is having on the E-learning
training program as it unfolds.
292
1st month 2nd month 3rd month
E-learners SD PL OPM NFS TS
TST CP MT TST CP MT TST CP MT
01M-CS-MOOU-SCH 12-Jan-03 0.5 3:47 54% - 5:43 69% 0.5 2:18 43% - 0.0 0 -
02F-PR-NATA-DEN 09-Apr-03 2.5 1:09 38% - 10:04 92% 2.5 26:56 100% 3.0 +0.5 6 705
03M-CS-ABBE-LYD 02-May-03 2.0 12:57 100% 2.5 10:33 85% 2.5 14:09 89% 3.0 +1.0 5 695
04M-DR-LABE-ART 02-May-03 3.0 0:24 12% - 17:45 96% 3.0 3:39 71% - 0.0 2 775
05M-CS-ANDE-DOC 29-May-03 1.5 11:25 89% 1.5 0:37 28% - 2:59 78% 1.5 0.0 0 -
06F-CS-FALA-DOC 29-May-03 1.0 0:56 39% - 3:06 81% 0.5 0:12 18% - -0.5 0 -
07M-CS-NAEL-DOC 29-May-03 1.0 20:15 85% 1.0 23:46 97% 1.0 28:03 83% 1.5 +0.5 4 -
08M-DR-ABME-LMS 12-Sep-03 2.5 13:25 83% 2.5 11:13 93% 2.5 16:48 89% 3.0 +0.5 1 -
09M-DR-JPBO-ATO 22-Sep-03 1.5 27:23 98% 2.0 21:21 91% 2.0 18:07 78% 2.5 +1.0 2 -
10F-PR-KERA-SEC 25-Sep-03 2.0 16:58 79% 2.0 20:47 87% 2.0 21:35 100% 2.5 +0.5 5 650
11M-HR-ABKH-BMC 10-Oct-03 2.5 1:46 26% - 2:12 34% - 6:29 76% 2.5 0.0 2 685
12M-PR-KADO-EAS 16-Oct-03 2.0 8:12 87% 2.0 13:26 88% 2.5 2:16 37% - +0.5 3 -
13F-CS-FAMA-LAB 25-Nov-03 2.0 21:29 98% 2.0 19:46 95% 2.5 7:12 65% - +0.5 6 -
14F-CS-HACH-SHE 25-Nov-03 2.5 2:19 53% - 5:38 79% 2.5 9:18 84% 3.0 +0.5 4 725
15M-PR-HOSA-REP 25-Nov-03 2.5 9:45 84% 2.5 3:11 53% - 12:43 87% 2.5 0.0 3 700
16F-CS-NARI-SCH 25-Nov-03 2.0 1:58 32% - 13:12 83% 2.0 10:08 76% 2.0 0.0 3 -
17M-CS-RERO-PWC 25-Dec-03 2.0 8:57 81% 2.0 9:02 77% 2.5 9:58 84% 2.5 +0.5 3 -
18F-CS-ASOU-LYD 01-Jan-04 1.0 11:16 82% 1.5 2:08 63% - 9:34 75% 2.0 +1.0 6 -
19F-CS-FABY-LYD 01-Jan-04 1.5 8:56 80% 1.5 0:06 5% - 11:06 82% 2.0 +0.5 5 -
20M-CS-KAHA-LYD 01-Jan-04 1.5 9:11 79% 1.5 3:12 45% - 12:27 85% 2.0 +0.5 4 -
21M-CS-KHEZ-LYD 01-Jan-04 1.5 8:12 23% - 8:01 75% 1.5 10:16 78% 2.0 +0.5 5 -
22M-HR-MAPE-LYD 01-Jan-04 1.5 19:13 91% 2.0 16:07 95% 2.0 17:49 89% 2.0 +0.5 4 560
23M-CS-MNSB-LYD 01-Jan-04 0.5 17:59 85% 0.5 18:47 90% 1.5 22:37 93% 1.5 +0.5 4 -
24F-PR-REAT-CAL 03-Feb-04 2.0 10:09 80% - 0:16 14% - 0:06 7% - 0.0 0 -
Notes: SD: starting date PL: placement level TST: total time CP: completion percentage
MT: mastery test score OPM: overall progress made NFS: number of attended follow-up sessions TS: TOEIC score
Table 5.41: E-learners progress report over three months
293
From a quantitative point of view, the three-month E-learning program has, by and
large, contributed to the improvement of the e-learners skill level in English, as can be
attested by the decrease of the number of low levels (0.5 to 1.5) and increase in the number of
high levels (2.0 to 3.0). The following table summarizes the number EFL skill levels that e-
learners had throughout the three-month training period.
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Placement score 2 3 6 7 5 1
1st month MT score 2 2 5 8 6 1
2nd month MT score 2 2 6 5 9 1
3rd month MT score 2 1 3 7 7 5
Table 5.42: The number of EFL skill levels throughout the training period
Although the number of upper-intermediate (2.0) learners seems to remain static (7 at

both ends), the increase attested in the first month (8) is actually due to improvement from
lower levels and the decrease in the second month (5) is due to improvement to higher levels.
Table 5.41 provides more details about each participant with regard to the total amount of
time spent on the E-learning program each month and the completion percentage of the
courseware at hand. Where the monthly mastery score is not given, the participant did not
take the test either for personal reasons or for not reaching the minimal completion percentage
required for having the test unlocked. Therefore, where there is a blank cell, the DynEd score
level taken into consideration is the same as the one registered in the previous month. It
should be noted, however, that some e-learners were allowed to take the mastery test even if
they did not reach the required completion percentage (80%). This was left to the discretion of
the E-learning administrator, who can decide to unlock access to the mastery test for
participants who were close to the required percentage or who demonstrated some sort of
assiduity as registered in their activity records on the iRM or the questions they sent to the
administrator through the platform.
To focus on the progress made by the e-learners in the three-month period of training,
relevant data from Table 5.41 above can be summarized as follows:
E-learners PreT TST MCP PostT OPM

01M-CS-MOOU-SCH 0.5 11:48 55% 0.5 0.0
02F-PR-NATA-DEN 2.5 38:09 77% 3.0 +0.5
03M-CS-ABBE-LYD 2.0 37:39 91% 3.0 +1.0
04M-DR-LABE-ART 3.0 21:48 60% 3.0 0.0
05M-CS-ANDE-DOC 1.5 15:01 65% 1.5 0.0
06F-CS-FALA-DOC 1.0 4:14 46% 1.5 -0.5
07M-CS-NAEL-DOC 1.0 72:04 88% 1.5 +0.5
08M-DR-ABME-LMS 2.5 41:26 88% 3.0 +0.5
294
09M-DR-JPBO-ATO 1.5 66:51 89% 2.5 +1.0
10F-PR-KERA-SEC 2.0 59:20 89% 2.5 +0.5
11M-HR-ABKH-BMC 2.5 10:27 45% 2.5 0.0
12M-PR-KADO-EAS 2.0 23:54 71% 2.5 +0.5
13F-CS-FAMA-LAB 2.0 48:27 86% 2.5 +0.5
14F-CS-HACH-SHE 2.5 17:15 72% 3.0 +0.5
15M-PR-HOSA-REP 2.5 25:39 75% 2.5 0.0
16F-CS-NARI-SCH 2.0 25:18 64% 2.0 0.0
17M-CS-RERO-PWC 2.0 27:57 81% 2.5 +0.5
18F-CS-ASOU-LYD 1.0 22:58 73% 2.0 +1.0
19F-CS-FABY-LYD 1.5 20:08 56% 2.0 +0.5
20M-CS-KAHA-LYD 1.5 24:50 70% 2.0 +0.5
21M-CS-KHEZ-LYD 1.5 26:29 59% 2.0 +0.5
22M-HR-MAPE-LYD 1.5 53:09 92% 2.0 +0.5
23M-CS-MNSB-LYD 0.5 59:23 89% 1.0 +0.5
24F-PR-REAT-CAL 2.0 10:31 34% 2.0 0.0
Notes: PreT: Pre-test (placement level) TT: total study time
MCP: mean completion percentage PostT: Post-test (last mastery test taken) OPM: overall progress made
Table 4.43: E-learners progress correlated with total time and completion percentage
Before discussing the correlation between making progress in skill level and the
amount of time spent on the E-learning platform and the completion percentage of the
courseware, it is essential to note that sixteen out of twenty-four participants have actually
made progress in their English through E-learning. What is also worthy of noting is that seven
out of eight participants who did not manage to improve their English were at least successful
in maintaining their initial level. Additionally, the initial level of five of them ranged between
upper-intermediate and higher-advanced, which can be considered quite acceptable for a start.
In order to see if the time spent on the E-learning platform and the completion percentage of
the course units have a bearing on the stagnation in their skill levels, a comparison between e-
learners who made progress and those who did not is in order.
Placement Total Study Mean Completion

E-learners
Level Time Percentage
01M-CS-MOOU-SCH 0.5 11:48 55%
04M-DR-LABE-ART 3.0 21:48 60%
05M-CS-ANDE-DOC 1.5 15:01 65%
Stagnant
06F-CS-FALA-DOC 1.0 4:14 46%

11M-HR-ABKH-BMC 2.5 10:27 45%
15M-PR-HOSA-REP 2.5 25:39 75%
16F-CS-NARI-SCH 2.0 25:18 64%
24F-PR-REAT-CAL 2.0 10:31 34%
02F-PR-NATA-DEN 2.5 38:09 77%
Progress-
making
03M-CS-ABBE-LYD 2.0 37:39 91%

07M-CS-NAEL-DOC 1.0 72:04 88%
08M-DR-ABME-LMS 2.5 41:26 88%
09M-DR-JPBO-ATO 1.5 66:51 89%
295
10F-PR-KERA-SEC 2.0 59:20 89%
12M-PR-KADO-EAS 2.0 23:54 71%
13F-CS-FAMA-LAB 2.0 48:27 86%
14F-CS-HACH-SHE 2.5 17:15 72%
17M-CS-RERO-PWC 2.0 27:57 81%
18F-CS-ASOU-LYD 1.0 22:58 73%
19F-CS-FABY-LYD 1.5 20:08 56%
20M-CS-KAHA-LYD 1.5 24:50 70%
21M-CS-KHEZ-LYD 1.5 26:29 59%
22M-HR-MAPE-LYD 1.5 53:09 92%
23M-CS-MNSB-LYD 0.5 59:23 89%
Table 4.44: The impact of total study time and completion percentage on e-learners progress
The comparison of the activity records of the two categories of e-learners suggests,
prima facie, that progress is more related to courseware completion percentage than to the
amount of study time. However, since placement level has no direct impact on e-learners
achievement, the mean of the total study time and that of the completion percentage might be
telling, especially that the median of total study time of stagnant e-learners (13:24:30) and that
of their progress-making peers (37:54:00) pulls in the direction of relevance of time too.
E-learners Mean Total Study Time Group Mean Completion Percentage

Stagnant 15:35:45 55%
Progress-making 39:59:56 79%
Table 5.45: Group mean scores of e-learners for total study time and completion percentage
The descriptive statistics as shown in the frequencies and mean scores above indicate
that the more time a participant spends on the E-learning platform, the more she will be able
to reach the completion percentage required to take the mastery test and possibly move on to
the next level. However, when comparing individual cases, this might not be true for all
participants. For example, participant 15M-PR-HOSA-REP and participant 14F-CS-
HACH-SHE had the same initial level (2.5), but although the former spent more time using
the E-learning courseware (25:39 as opposed to 17:15), only the latter managed to move on to
level 3.0. Therefore, to say that time alone is a defining factor should be taken with caution. In
the following chapter, an inferential statistical test is used for the case study data to see the
extent to which such a generalization can hold true for the focus group.
As stated earlier, the focal E-learning program included a face-to-face component in

which participants could further demonstrate their ability to communicate in English and at
the same time prepare for the TOEIC test, which constitutes an official culmination of their
English language training. Regardless of the number of follow-up sessions attended,
296
participants could validate their achievement by simply sitting for the TOEIC. Those who did
not manage to attend all follow-up sessions could use Test Mountain, a supplementary
courseware program designed especially for familiarizing EFL learners with the TOEIC test
format. However, although twelve participants managed to attend a few classroom sessions
during the three-month period in focus, they for time constraints or other hitch failed to sit
for the TOEIC. The following table presents, among other relevant data, the scores obtained
by e-learners who took the TOEIC and the number of face-to-face sessions they attended.
Placement Final DynEd Number of TOEIC

E-learners
Level Score follow-up sessions score
02F-PR-NATA-DEN 2.5 3.0 6 705
03M-CS-ABBE-LYD 2.0 3.0 5 695
04M-DR-LABE-ART 3.0 3.0 2 775
10F-PR-KERA-SEC 2.0 2.5 5 650
11M-HR-ABKH-BMC 2.5 2.5 2 685
14F-CS-HACH-SHE 2.5 3.0 4 725
15M-PR-HOSA-REP 2.5 2.5 3 700
22M-HR-MAPE-LYD 1.5 2.0 4 560
Table 5.46: The TOEIC scores obtained by some e-learners compared with DynEd scores
All of the eight participants who managed to sit for the TOEIC after the three-month
E-learning program obtained scores that reflect their skill level at the end of the training.
Table 5.38 above gives labels to TOEIC score ranges and DynEd scores. For a detailed
interpretation of the TOEIC scores, see the can-do levels table in Appendix 11. No matter
how short the E-learning training period is, the results of this longitudinal case study can only
be indicative of the potential of ICT in language teaching and learning. Having presented the
results of the case study, which were in a large part positive, given the skill level
improvement made by the participants, the effective use of English in the real business world
remains to be proved.
V.3. Hypotheses Analysis
In this section, the hypotheses put forward in Chapter Three (Section III.1.3.),
especially those that relate to academic EFL learners and corporate EFL trainees, are analyzed
in the light of the quantitative data elicited from both subgroups in the survey and the case
study. There are three hypotheses that are directly relevant to this category of respondents.
The findings and interpretation of the descriptive statistics are presented and discussed
following the order in which the hypotheses occurred.
The first hypothesis to be considered is Given the impressiveness associated with

computers in general and the ubiquity of CALL applications in education in the developed
297
world, the majority of EFL students in Morocco would have positive attitudes towards ICT-
based education, and would perceive ICT as being effective for their learning. The data
regarding this hypothesis are culled from the following two attitude indices: enjoyment and
utility. The collective mean scores registered on these indices are 4.21 and 4.23,
respectively. The two indices are not only positive but also significantly higher than those
registered by students (3.76 and 3.94). Lumped together, the two mean scores lead to the
acceptance of the hypothesis that the importance of the computer fosters positive attitudes
towards ICT-based teaching.
The second hypothesis was: as the younger generations are predisposed to be

technology-driven, students who master ICT would not only have positive attitudes towards
CALL, but they would also demonstrate leadership by practicing it and suggesting ways of
using it collaboratively with peers and teachers. While the first part of the hypothesis has
been partially confirmed by the positive results of the enjoyment and utility indices, the
second part, which has to do with the leading and collaborative way of using ICT, is
contained in the familiarity attitude index (IAMS = 3.80) and students levels of computer
literacy, shown in Table 5.5 above and represented graphically as follows.
%
100
81.72%
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20 12.54%
0.18% 3.76% 1.79%
10
0
Extremely Below Average Fairly Extremely
poor average good good
Figure 5.26: Levels of the EFL students ICT skills
It should be noted that unlike the data in Table 5.5, the ones used in the histogram
above do not take into account the respondents who abstained from answering the
questionnaire item How would you rate your ICT skills? The majority of responses
(96.05%) reflect a positive level of familiarity with computers, which can be taken to mean
that students tend to have the necessary command of ICT skills that would allow them to use
it in their language learning endeavors. This is confirmed by the relatively higher rate of
298
computer literacy among students compared to teachers (99.51% as opposed to 88.88%) and
the figures presented in the following table that summarizes students answers to a
questionnaire items that asked them if they ever happened to help their teachers with
computer work.
Student responses
Level of Agreement Percentage
(427 / 605)
Strongly Disagree 68 (15.93%)
Disagree 75 (17.56%)
Undecided 97 (22.72%)
Agree 76 (17.80%)
Strongly Agree 111 (26%)
Table 5.47: Student intervention in their teachers use of ICT
Of the 427 students who answered this item (see Tables 5.15 and 5.16), a majority of
43.79% (n=187) confirmed having helped their teachers with ICT work. The level of
confidence in using ICT expressed by teachers (see Table 4.63), which slopes towards lack of
confidence by 66.90%, could be a viable reason for such student intervention. These data can
be said to corroborate the prediction made in the second hypothesis.
The third relevant hypothesis was: students who own personal computers are likely to
use ICT more frequently than those who do not. As attested by teacher responses, it was
found that there is an influential relationship between PC ownership and frequency of
computer use among teachers. However, for computer-literate students, it is difficult to make
such a conclusion because 97.56% of them did not answer the questionnaire item on
frequency of computer use (see Table 5.4). Therefore, to say that PC-owning students use the
computer more often than do the ones who do not own one would be an unfounded
conclusion. Hypothesis testing and attitudes assessment from a statistical point of view is
further discussed in the following chapter.
V.4. Conclusion
The present chapter has discussed the results of the EFL learner survey that has
covered a number of private and public institutions across Morocco and reported the
outcomes of a case study undertaken in a private educational setting in Casablanca. First, the
data on the academic EFL learners were presented and analyzed using descriptive statistics,
299
the focus being placed on assessing their attitudes towards ICT and CALL. Four indices have
been used to gauge their perception of the incorporation of ICT in language education.
Moreover, these attitude indices were correlated with three variables, namely age, gender,
and place of residence. All in all, the student survey results discussed in the foregoing
sections indicate that, by and large, academic EFL learners exhibit positive attitudes towards
ICT and its use in teaching in varying degrees. However, because the data have been collected
cross-sectionally, the results can only be said to be valid to a certain extent.
The second section of the chapter has reported the results of the longitudinal case
study, which took as a focus group 24 sponsored professional EFL learners who took part in a
full-fledged E-learning program that sought to give them the opportunity to study English
despite their busy time schedules. The major conclusion that can be retained of this
experience is that over a three-month training period, the majority of the e-learners managed
to improve their English or, in the worst of cases, maintain their original skill level.
The discussion of the results of the teacher and student surveys as well as those of the
case study has been undertaken without having recourse to any inferential statistical test,
which means that these results need further scrutiny using empirical methods of data analysis.
Therefore, before drawing any conclusions or discussing the findings and implications of the
two surveys and the case study, it is important that appropriate statistical tests be applied to
the data presented in this chapter and the one preceding it.
300
Chapter Six:
Discussion of Findings, Implications and

Recommendations
301
VI.0. Introduction
The objective of this chapter is to summarize the findings of the research study, discuss
the implications, and put forward some recommendations. It is, thus, divided into three
sections, the first of which discusses the results of the study through a scrutiny of the
descriptive data elicited from the surveys and the case study in the light of inferential
statistics. The second section extrapolates on the conclusions deduced from the study via
presenting the implications for various parties involved in language education. The third
section proposes some informed recommendations for educational institutions and teachers
who intend to use or already use ICT in their language teaching curricula.
VI.1. Discussion of the Research Results: an Inferential Statistics Approach
After conducting the research investigation and collecting relevant data from the two
focal groups (students and teachers) and presenting/summarizing them using descriptive
statistics (Chapters IV and V), the next step involves analyzing these data using inferential
statistical techniques. Prior to doing this, however, it is important to remind the reader of the
three statistical tests that have been adopted in the present study, the assumptions that need to
be made, the nature of the relevant variables, and the relevant input data from the previous
two chapters. The purpose of this section, then, is to lay the foundation for the forthcoming
analysis, which draws data from the descriptive statistics elaborated in Chapters IV and V and
procedures of inferential statistics as presented in Chapter III. For further details on statistical
concepts relevant to this study, the reader is referred to Chapter III, Section III.7.
The rationale for using inferential statistics is that the outcomes of the study need to be
reliable enough to reflect the situation in the target populations. Because the frequencies and
mean scores obtained through the descriptive statistics leave room for concluding that they
could be obtained by chance alone, a more rigorous analysis of data is called for. In fact, the
use of inferential statistics is also important because it helps in minimizing the likelihood of
reaching an erroneous conclusion about the relationship between the variables under
investigation.
The first step in the application of statistical analysis is to check if the research
hypotheses are testable and if not, which ones can be converted into statistical hypotheses
(null and alternative). It should be recalled that the ultimate purpose of the study is to assess
the effectiveness of using ICT in language education on the basis of students and teachers
attitudes towards CALL and that the central research question is: what effects will the
302
computerization efforts undertaken by educational authorities and the rise of a global
information society have on students and teachers attitudes.
VI.1.1. The Research Hypotheses Revisited
It should be recalled that some of the six research questions put forward in the General
Introduction have been answered through the review of the literature on CALL and the
official documents issued by Moroccan educational authorities (see III.1.1.). Likewise, some
of the research hypotheses, put forward in Chapter III and reproduced below for convenience,
have already been addressed in the previous two chapters in the light of the descriptive
statistics. For ease of reference, the hypotheses are numbered, the first being the one that
corresponds to the central research question of the study.
1- Given the impressiveness associated with computers in general and the ubiquity of
CALL applications in education in the developed world, the majority of students and
teachers in Morocco would have positive attitudes towards ICT-based education, and
would perceive ICT as being effective for their learning/teaching.
2- As younger generations are predisposed to be technology-driven, students who

master ICT would not only have positive attitudes towards CALL, but they would also
demonstrate leadership by practicing it and suggesting ways of using it collaboratively
with peers and teachers.
3- Students and teachers who own personal computers are likely to use ICT in
collaborative task-based activities, peer interaction, and student-teacher
communication more frequently than those who do not.
4- The younger the teachers, the more computer-literate they would be.
5- The wider the digital gap between students and teachers, the more difficult ICT
integration in education would be.
6- The less computer-literate teachers are, the more afraid they would be of computers
encroaching upon their professional roles and the more threatened they would feel in
their future as human teachers.
7- Teachers who have received pre-service training in ICT are more engaged in CALL
activity than those who have only attended conferences or seminars on CALL.
303
8- Teachers who have access to computers, software, and technical support in their place
of work are likely to use ICT in their profession better than those who receive general
training in ICT.
Having reiterated these hypotheses, there is an important point that should be made,
namely that two of them do not meet the requirements to be tested using the inferential
statistical method. One of them is hypothesis number two. While the first part of it, which has
to do with the variable of age, is included in the central hypothesis tested below, there is not
enough data to serve as input for testing the second part because there is only one
questionnaire item that elicits these data (statement 23 in the attitude Likert; cf. SQ, item 20,
Appendix 10) and about 53% of students either avoided answering it or did not express any
views (cf. Chapter V, especially Table 5.16 and the discussion in V.3). Another hypothesis
that does not meet the requirements for inferential statistical analysis is hypothesis number
six, which has to do with the potential threat that CALL poses for the future of teachers.
Again, there is only one questionnaire item that elicits this information and that is already
included in the anxiety attitude index. In addition, the samples under study include minorities
of computer-illiterate respondents (ranging between 0% and 12%) and majorities of CALL
practitioners (ranging between 40% and 100%).
Such state of affairs does not help in maintaining two essential assumptions in
inferential statistical analysis, namely normality of the distribution and independence (cf.
Brown, 1992 and Marczyk et al., 2005; see discussion in III.7.4). Since many students
withheld their views either by avoiding the items or opting for the neutral position
(undecided), the resulting distribution of the subgroups violates both normality
(disproportionate groups) and independence (some respondents answered the items while
categorizing themselves as computer-illiterate). Accordingly, for the second and sixth
hypotheses, which fail to fulfill the statistical requirements, suffice it to say that the
descriptive statistics reported in Chapters IV and V have provided an idea about the situation
in this regard.
As mentioned earlier, research hypothesis number one corresponds to the central

research question of this study. The descriptive statistics on teachers and students attitudes
shown in Chapters IV and V respectively indicate that both groups have positive attitudes
towards CALL, which implies that there is no major difference between the two groups. For
statistical analysis, this preliminary outcome is converted into statistical hypotheses, namely
the null hypothesis (H0) and an alternative hypothesis (H1), formulated as follows:
304
Occupation, age, sex, place of residence, computer literacy, computer ownership, and use of ICT in
H 0:
education have no impact on the respondents (students/teachers) attitudes towards CALL.
Occupation, age, sex, place of residence, computer literacy, computer ownership, and use of ICT in
H 1:
education have an impact on the respondents (students/teachers) attitudes towards CALL.
Table 6.1: The central statistical hypotheses
It should be recalled that teachers and students attitudes have been measured on the
basis of several indices calculated from their responses to a 5-point Likert scale. Since these
indices provide a measurement of attitudes (the focus of the central research question and the
corresponding hypothesis), these would be the dependent variables of the statistical analysis.
Additionally, since these indices have been worked out from a 5-point scale reflecting various
agreement positions and several Likert items (cf. Table 4.15 and Table 5.17), the resulting
mean scores would be measured on an interval scale. On the other hand, the independent
variables of the statistical analysis are the factors that might affect the respondents attitudes,
namely occupation (student/teacher), age, sex, experience, place of residence, computer
literacy, computer ownership, prior ICT training, and use of ICT in education, all of which are
measured on a nominal scale. Of these independent variables, two are exclusively relevant to
teachers, viz. experience and prior ICT training. As shown in Table 6.2, the dependent
variables for teachers also include two more attitude indices in addition to the ones shared
with students.
Variable Types Independent Dependent

Occupation Enjoyment
Age Anxiety
Sex Utility
Experience* Familiarity
Variables Place of residence Training in ICT*
Computer literacy Impact on teaching*
Computer ownership
Prior ICT training*
Use of ICT in education
Measurement Scales Nominal Interval
Table 6.2: The variables involved in the central statistical hypothesis
As the asterisked variables shown in the table concern only the sample of teachers, they
are excluded from the statistical computation. However, the underlined variable (occupation)
has been added to incorporate both samples (teachers and students) in the computation as
305
required by inferential statistics. Moreover, although there might seem to be a redundancy in
the occurrence of training as an independent and dependent variable, they are quite distinct
in terms of form and measurement scale, as their values are derived from distinct
questionnaire items. As an independent variable, it refers to whether the teacher has received
any training (formal or otherwise) in ICT, thus resulting in a dichotomous nominal scale
(yes/no). However, as a dependent scale, it refers to teachers attitudes to receiving training on
how to use ICT in education, measured on an interval scale. Given the nature of these
multiple variables and types of scales, the statistical test that needs to be applied to the central
hypothesis is a multivariate analysis of variance, known shortly as MANOVA. More details
on this test are given in the following subsection.
The remaining five ancillary research hypotheses (3, 4, 5, 7 and 8) have one objective in
common, namely to find out whether different independent variables (computer ownership,
computer literacy, age, prior ICT training, and access to computers) have an effect on the
common dependent variable (use of CALL in education). All the five independent variables
are discrete categorical variables, measurable on a nominal scale with frequencies as input
data. Likewise, the common dependent variable is measured on a dichotomous nominal scale
with frequencies as input data. Therefore, instead of testing them separately, they can be
combined together using the same statistical test. The reformulation of these hypotheses in the
following table further clarifies the point.
Research Independent Dependent

Statistical Hypotheses
Hypotheses Variables Variable
Owning a computer does not lead to using
H0
CALL in education. Computer
3
Owning a computer leads one to using ownership
H1
CALL in education.
As age plays no role in the teachers
computer literacy, digital gap between Age
4 H0
students and teachers does not make it
difficult to use CALL in education. &
&
As age plays a role in the teachers computer
literacy, digital gap between students and Computer
5 H1 literacy
teachers makes it difficult to use CALL in Use of CALL
education.
Pre-service training in ICT does not prompt
H0
teachers to use CALL in education. Prior ICT
7
Pre-service training in ICT prompts teachers training
H1
to use CALL in education.
Teachers who have access to computers in
H0 the workplace do not use CALL in
Access to
8 education.
computers
Teachers who have access to computers in
H1
the workplace use CALL in education.
Table 6.3: The variables involved in the ancillary statistical hypotheses
306
Because they target the same nominal dependent variable (use of CALL), these five
hypotheses will be tested together using the same statistical test, namely chi-square (2).
Additionally, since there are several independent variables, the appropriate version of the test
is the independent samples chi-square test. More details on this test are given in the following
subsection. To carry out a single analysis, the statistical hypotheses presented in Table 6.3 can
be lumped together as follows.
Computer ownership, computer literacy, age, prior ICT training, and access to computers have
H 0:
no significant effect on using CALL in education.
Computer ownership, computer literacy, age, prior ICT training, and access to computers have
H 1:
a significant effect on using CALL in education.
Table 6.4: The independent samples chi-square statistical hypotheses
These hypotheses show that an independent samples chi-square test is the appropriate
inferential tool to use instead of conducting several chi-square tests. If the test manages to
reject H0, then this means that the integration of ICT in language education is due in large part
to computer ownership, computer literacy, age, pre-service training in ICT, and/or access to
computers. Otherwise, if the test fails to reject H0, then the reported descriptive results are due
to chance alone.
An additional hypothesis needs to be formulated for the case study. As reported in

Chapter V, a focus group of 24 professional EFL learners took part in a three-month E-
learning program, at the beginning of which they took an entrance test that placed them on the
appropriate study paths and at the end of which they took a mastery test to see if any progress
had been made in their skill level. A comparison between the mean scores registered on the
pre-test and post-test reveals that sixteen of the e-learners did make progress and seven
managed to maintain their skill level as it was at the placement phase. This divides the group
into two small dependent categories: those who improved and those who did not. To compare
the entry-test scores and exit-test scores of these two small groups, a dependent samples t-test
was performed. Prior to that, relevant statistical hypotheses needed to be formulated. More
details on this particular type of t-test are given in the following subsection.
307
By using E-learning as a method of studying, professional English language learners do not do
H 0:
any better than in a conventional learning setting.
By using E-learning as a method of studying, professional English language learners do better

H 1:
than in a conventional learning setting.
Table 6.5: The dependent samples t-test statistical hypotheses
Because the target population from which the sample was selected is rather small
(around 100), the condition of randomness is relatively respected. The only criterion used in
the selection of the focus group members who participated in the E-learning case study was
the completion of the three-month period. Be that as it may, the t-test lends itself perfectly for
small-sized samples such as the ones in the case study.
Before testing any of the above-mentioned hypotheses, it is important to elaborate, in

turn, on the three inferential statistical tests to be performed on the designated samples.
VI.1.2. On the Statistical Tests Used in the Study
The choice of the appropriate statistical tests is based on the size of the samples (small;
large), the nature of variables (dependent; independent), the types of scales (interval; nominal;
ordinal), and of the input data (frequencies; means). As mentioned earlier, there are three
statistical tests that need to be performed on some descriptive statistics presented in Chapters
IV and V, namely: MANOVA (multivariate analysis of variance), chi-square (independent
samples 2), and t-test (dependent samples t-test).
MANOVA => Students and teachers attitudes towards CALL
Chi-square (2) => Factors leading to the use of CALL in education
t-test => EFL e-learners performance on an E-learning program
Table 6.4: The statistical tests used in the study
VI.1.2.1. MANOVA
MANOVA is a parametric inferential statistical test that belongs to the family of

analysis of variance (otherwise called ANOVA). When testing for statistical significance
between means, the researcher is actually analyzing variances. As Murphy and Myors
(2004:70) put it, analysis of variance is a statistical technique that involves asking the
question, Why do some people get high scores and others get low scores on the dependent
308
variable? In other words, this family of statistical methods have one function in common,
namely to place the focus of analysis on the variability perceived in the dependent variable.
In some studies like the present one, the mean scores are worked out on several
dependent variables. So, the test to conduct in this case is a multivariate analysis of variance,
shortly known as multivariate ANOVA or simply MANOVA. Indeed, it is used when there
are more than one dependent variable being linked to one another. Brown (1988:175)
describes multivariate analyses as a complex group of statistical approaches that are used
when two or more dependent variables are to be considered simultaneously within a given
study. Although conducting separate univariate ANOVA tests for each of the mean scores is
possible, MANOVA provides a more efficient and more informative way of analyzing the
data. So, in the case of this study, rather than conducting four separate analyses of variance
(i.e. for enjoyment, anxiety, utility, and familiarity), it is more practical to use a multivariate
method that combines these four dependent variables into a single analysis. More specifically,
it is factorial MANOVA (McMillan and Schumacher, 1993:353) because the analysis
involves not only more than one dependent variable, but also more than one independent
variable.
Murphy and Myors (op.cit.:70-71) review the features that render MANOVA a
powerful test. According to them, there are three issues that determine the power of
MANOVA:
First, () [l]arge samples, strong effects, and lenient alpha levels lead to high
levels of power, whereas small samples, small effects, and stringent alpha levels
lead to lower levels of power. Second, () power is higher when the variables
being examined () are highly correlated than when they are uncorrelated. Finally,
the power of MANOVA depends on the number of dependent variables. A study
that uses four or five dependent measures will tend to have more power than a
study that uses one () or two.
Worth noting is that the data under MANOVA analysis in this study meet all these
requirements. The samples are large enough (i.e. Nstudents=234; Nteachers=605), the effects, too,
are quite strong since the apparent effects of students and teachers ICT practices reported in
the descriptive statistics were quite substantial. In addition to this, the -level is set at < .05
(common in educational research). As for the correlation of variables, it is ensured by the
highly elaborate link among the various dependent variables on the one hand and the
independent variables on the other. Finally, this study uses six dependent variables, each of
which integrates several indices that measure different aspects of students and teachers
attitudes. What is more, MANOVA is qualified as a parametric procedure because the
309
analysis seeks to establish the characteristics (parameters) of the target populations as a
whole.
VI.1.2.2. Chi-square
Chi-square is a nonparametric inferential statistical test that is used to compare

frequencies emanating from nominal and ordinal scales. The test compares the reported, or
observed, frequencies with some theoretical or expected frequencies (McMillan and
Schumacher, op.cit.:360). While observed frequencies refer to the actual occurrences
(observations) in a sample, expected frequencies theoretically represent the population as a
whole. They are not observable in sampling research but can be estimated (Brown,
1988:188). The underlying procedure seeks to test whether one set of frequencies is higher or
lower than one would expect by chance.
This said, it should be borne in mind that chi-square is a nonparametric procedure as it

does not test hypotheses about the characteristics (parameters) of the target populations as a
whole, but, rather, it tests hypotheses about relationships between categorical variables,
shapes of distribution, and normality of distribution (McMillan and Schumacher, op.cit.:359-
360). There should be no contradiction here because the inferential procedure seeks to test
hypotheses by comparing frequencies for systematicity not extrapolation. Marczyk et al.
(2005:223) define the function of the test as follows:
Chi-square summarizes the discrepancy between observed and expected

frequencies. The smaller the overall discrepancy is between the observed and
expected scores, the smaller the value of the chi-square will be. Conversely, the
larger the discrepancy is between the observed and expected scores, the larger the
value of the chi-square will be.
What this implies is that there should actually be a discrepancy between observed
variables and expected variables for the test to apply correctly. Marczyk et al., (op.cit.:224)
add another requirement for the successful application of the procedure, namely that it should
be conducted on actual numbers and not on precalculated percentages or proportions. In
fact, Tables 6.12, 6.14, 6.16, 6.19 and 6.21 below display both the number of occurrences and
the frequencies (percentages).
As mentioned earlier, since there are more than one independent variable involved in
the statistical hypotheses presented in Table 6.4, the version of the chi-square test used in the
analysis of data is the independent chi-square test with a contingency table (McMillan and
Schumacher, op.cit.:361). More specifically, it is a five-way chi-square test (cf. Brown,
310
1992:650) since there are five independent variables (computer ownership, computer literacy,
age, prior ICT training, and access to computers). Independent variables are assumed to
influence dependent variables, hence the existence of an expected relationship of some sort. If
the worked-out chi-squared statistic is significant, this is an indication that the null hypothesis
does not hold, thus inferring that there is a relationship between the dependent variable (use of
CALL) and the five independent variables mentioned earlier.
VI.1.2.3. The t-test
The t-test is an inferential statistical procedure that is used to test mean score differences
between two groups of any size. It has a formula that generates a number used in determining
a significance level that would help in rejecting the null hypothesis. Table 6.5 presents the
formulated hypotheses for statistically analyzing the outcome of the case study presented in
Chapter V. They indicate that there is a dependent variable (achievement), which is originally
generated on an ordinal scale by the E-learning platform (see Tables 5.38 and 5.39). For
procedural requirements dictated by this kind of t-test, the ordinal scale is converted into a
nominal scale. As mentioned earlier, this variable gave rise to two related subgroups, thus
adopting the dependent samples t-test. McMillan and Schumacher (1993:346) report other
different labels for this type of the t-test, namely paired, correlated, and matched t-test and
explain the rationale behind this design.
This t-test is used in situations in which the subjects from the two groups are paired
in some way. A common example of this case is the same group of subjects tested
twice, as in a pretest-posttest study. Whether the same or different subjects are in
each group, as long as there is a systematic relationship between the groups it is
necessary to use the dependent samples t-test to calculate the probability of
rejecting the null hypothesis.
(Bold in the original)
In the focal case study, this means comparing the achievement (dependent variable) of
two subgroups made up of the same participants before and after taking a three-month E-
learning course of English.
VI.1.3. The Outcomes of the Inferential Statistical Procedures
VI.1.3.1. Attitudes towards CALL: a MANOVA analysis
First of all, it should be pointed out that the alpha decision level is set at the liberal
(lenient) level (i.e. < .05). However, before embarking on a MANOVA analysis, it is
important to remind the reader of the outcome of the descriptive statistics reported in Chapters
IV and V, which respectively discuss the views of teachers and students regarding the use of
311
ICT in language education. Tables 6.5 and 6.6 summarize the observed frequencies and mean
scores registered by the most significant subgroups (variable levels) of the two categories of
respondents (teachers and students). To round the frequencies to 100%, a null level in the
nominal scale of some variable categories, symbolized by the symbol, has been added, the
irrelevant variables being left out.
-25 25 ~ 35 36 ~ 45 46 ~ 55
Age 53 (22.65%) 137 (58.55%) 23 (9.83%) 10 (4.27%) 11 (4.70%)
Male Female
Sex 103 (44.02%) 120 (51.28%) 11 (4.70%)

Place of
residence 164 (70.09%) 20 (8.55%) 8 (3.42%) 42 (17.95%)
Computer literate Computer illiterate

Computer
Literacy 208 (88.89%) 26 (11.11%)
Owners Non owners

Computer
Ownership 86 (36.75%) 148 (63.25%)
CALL used No CALL used

Use of ICT
in education 128 (54.70%) 98 (41.88%) 8 (3.42%)
Enjoyment Anxiety Utility Familiarity

3.76 3.90 3.94 3.81
Attitudes
towards
CALL
Table 6.5: Teacher data (descriptive statistics)
312
The main information to retain from this table is that the teacher sample size is
Nteachers=234 and that the elicited attitudes are positive on the 5-point Likert scale (all going
beyond the average score 3). However, it should be noted that the reported index average
mean scores (IAMSs) are worked out for the group as a whole, not for individual respondents
as should be the case in the MANOVA analysis.
-18 18~22 23~27

Age 481 (79.50%) 109 (18.02%) 13 (2.15%) 2 (0.33%)
Male Female
Sex 328 (54.22%) 264 (43.63%) 13 (2.15%)

Place of
residence 578 (95.54%) 11 (1.82%) 3 (0.50%) 13 (2.15%)
Computer literate Computer illiterate

Computer
Literacy 602 (99.50%) 3 (0.50%)
Owners Non owners

Computer
Ownership 561(92.73%) 41 (6.78%) 3 (0.50%)
CALL used No CALL used

Use of ICT
In education 516 (85.29%) 88 (14.55%) 1 (0.17%)

4.21 3.99 4.23 3.80
Attitudes
towards
CALL
Table 6.6: Student data (descriptive statistics)
313
The key figure to retain at this stage from the student data table is that the sample size is
Nstudents=605 and that the elicited attitudes are positive on the 5-point Likert scale (all
exceeding the average score 3). As was the case for teachers, the reported IAMSs are
worked out for all the academic EFL students, not for individual respondents. A MANOVA
analysis, however, requires individual mean scores. The attitude IAMSs reported in the
descriptive statistics (Chapters IV and V) were calculated following this procedure:
1- Add up the number of responses in each of the 5 agreement positions to get the sum
of position responses;
2- Multiply the sum of position responses by the position coefficient 1 to 5 to get the
sum of position values;
3- Add up the number of responses for each item to get the sum of item responses;
4- Add up the position values of each item to get the sum of item values;
5- Divide the sum of item values by the sum of item responses to get the item mean
score;
6- Add up the mean scores of items that fall in the attitude index and divide by the
number of items to get the corresponding IAMS.
As can be seen in the process of mean score calculation, the results are worked out
vertically as required by descriptive statistics that seek to summarize rather than compare
subgroups on the basis of other variable. The mean scores calculated in this way sum the
attitudes of all respondents regardless of other important variables. The latter are the
independent variables that are supposed to affect not only the attitude indices (the dependent
variables) but also sampling (subgroups) of each category of respondents. For the sake of
MANOVA analysis, the calculation of the mean scores is done horizontally for every
respondent following a simpler procedure:
1- Multiply the individual item response by the response coefficient 1 to 5 to get the
item score;
2- Add up the item scores that fall in the attitude index and divide by the number of
items to get the corresponding individual IAMS.
The calculation of the mean scores is very important in a MANOVA test because its
main function is to perform inter-group comparisons of those means so as to determine if
there are any overall significant differences between the two main groups (teachers and
314
students). Having presented the descriptive data for the two groups, it is essential to discuss
the assumptions that underlie a MANOVA test.
While independence of samples is ensured by the discrete demarcation of subgroups,

normality of distribution needs to be further investigated. Although every effort has been
made to randomize the respondent selection procedure, some groupings turned out to be
unbalanced on the basis of some variables (see Table 6.5 and Table 6.6). For example, the
variable of place of residence resulted in disproportionate subgroups, with overwhelming
majorities for the two categories (70.09% vs. 95.54%) representing urban dwellers. Likewise,
the variable of computer literacy was not distributed between students and teachers in a
relatively balanced way as one would expect. As shown in Table 6.5 and Table 6.6 above,
there is a complex network of independent variables that regulate the sampling of
respondents. In fact, there seems to be a clear interaction between many of these variables.
McMillan and Schumacher (1993:355) define interaction as the effect of the independent
variables together. Accordingly, the perceived unbalance in the distribution of samples
should be taken as an indication of interaction. Indeed, as pointed out by McMillan and
Schumacher (op.cit.:355), [a]n interaction is evident if the differences between levels of one
independent variable are inconsistent from one level to another of the other independent
variable. The following representation shows the interconnection between the independent
variables involved in the MANOVA analysis.
315
1 2 3 4 Age
U SU R U SU R U SU R U SU R Place
M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F Sex
- + *Experience
+ - + - E-literacy
+ - + - PC ownership
+ - + - *ICT training
+ - + - + - + - + - + - Use of CALL
Figure 6.1: The interaction between the MANOVA independent variables
As can be seen in the arboreal representation, the variables can be divided into two
classes: those that concern the demographic data (age, place of residence, and sex) and those
that concern the educational data (computer literacy, computer ownership, and use of CALL).
While the former apply to all subgroups of the two major categories of respondents (teachers
and students), the latter include, in addition to the variables shared by all groups, two
(experience and ICT training) that apply only to teachers, both of which being excluded from
this analysis. This complex interaction between variables makes the MANOVA analysis
double-faceted since it should account for inter-group differences and intra-group differences.
In statistical terms, this is referred to as between-subjects and within-subjects measures. The
term between subjects reflects the fact that comparisons are between different groups of
respondents, whereas the term within subjects (known also as repeated measures) reflects
the fact that distinctions are to be drawn between different subgroups of a given category of
respondents.
316
After formatting the descriptive data for MANOVA analysis, it is essential to check that
the correlation coefficients for the dependent variables do not exceed 0.90 in order to avoid
multicollinearity, a term used to describe the detection of a high correlation between two or
more dependent variables (cf. Tabachnick and Fidell, 2001). The reason for this is that each
dependent variable should measure different aspects of the construct under investigation. The
following is an SPSS output regarding the correlation between the four dependent variables
(enjoyment, anxiety, utility, and familiarity) involved in the MANOVA analysis.

Pearson Correlation 1 0.006 0.623 0.763
Enjoyment Sig. (2-tailed) . 0.869 0.000 0.000
N 839 839 839 839
Pearson Correlation 0.006 1 0.474 0.133
Anxiety Sig. (2-tailed) 0.869 . 0.000 0.000
N 839 839 839 839
Pearson Correlation 0.623 0.474 1 0.593
Utility Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 . 0.000
N 839 839 839 839
Pearson Correlation 0.763 0.133 0.593 1
Familiarity Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 0.000 .
N 839 839 839 839
Table 6.7: Correlation test between dependent variables
This matrix suggests that there are no significant correlations between the different
dependent variables. Therefore, it is safe to conduct a MANOVA analysis on the data at hand
concerning 839 respondents (Nteachers=234 + Nstudents=605). The following two tables are
MANOVA outputs indicating the results of multivariate tests and between-subjects effects.
Effect Value F Hypothesis df Error df Sig.

Pillais Trace 0.487 194.477 4.000 819.000 0.000
Occupation
Wilks Lambda 0.513 194.477 4.000 819.000 0.000
Pillais Trace 0.112 4.746 20.000 3288.000 0.000
Age
Wilks Lambda 0.891 4.792 20.000 2717.266 0.000
Pillais Trace 0.009 0.956 8.000 1640.000 0.469
Sex
Wilks Lambda 0.991 0.955 8.000 1638.000 0.470
Pillais Trace 0.039 2.686 12.000 2463.000 0.001
Place
Wilks Lambda 0.962 2.695 12.000 2167.162 0.001
Pillais Trace 0.164 40.188 4.000 819.000 0.000
E-literacy
Wilks Lambda 0.836 40.188 4.000 819.000 0.000
Pillais Trace 0.031 3.273 8.000 1640.000 0.001
PC ownership
Wilks Lambda 0.969 3.294 8.000 1638.000 0.001
Pillais Trace 0.006 0.619 8.000 1640.000 0.763
CALL use
Wilks Lambda 0.994 0.619 8.000 1638.000 0.763
Design: Occupation + Age + Sex + Place + E-literacy + PC ownership + CALL use
Table 6.8: MANOVA output 1: Multivariate tests
317
This MANOVA output provides four different statistics, namely Pillais Trace, Wilks
Lambda, Hotellings Trace, and Roys Largest Root. However, following the common
practice among most researchers, only the values for two of them are reported: Pillais Trace,
which is considered to be the most robust of all, and Wilks Lambda, another rigorous and
commonly reported test. The statistic calculated in MANOVA is the F-ratio, which is the ratio
of variance due to manipulation of the factor (independent variables) divided by the variance
due to error. Where the F values and significance levels are identical, this means that the
independent variable has two levels and no missing responses. The values of real interest here
are the ones showing the significance of these F-ratios. As can be noted, the levels of
probability (p) for the factors sex (p = 0.469) and CALL use (p = 0.763) are significant at
0.05, which means that the null hypothesis can only be partially rejected. In other words, the
attitudes held by students and teachers towards the use of ICT in language education are
affected by whether they are male or female and whether they use or not use CALL as part of
their teaching/learning practices. However, the nature of this effect is not clear from the
multivariate test statistics because they do not indicate anything as to whether the effect was
on enjoyment, anxiety, utility or familiarity, or a combination of all. This can be checked in
the light of the results of the tests of between-subjects effects tabulated in the following
MANOVA output.
Dependent Type III Sum of Mean

Source df F Sig.
Variable Squares Square
Enjoyment 505870.280(a) 17 29757.075 1102.724 0.000
Anxiety 250936.957(b) 17 14760.997 592.110 0.000
Model
Utility 659360.804(c) 17 38785.930 1200.007 0.000
Familiarity 201935.679(d) 17 11878.569 812.171 0.000
Enjoyment 7308.052 1 7308.052 270.818 0.000
Anxiety 914.375 1 914.375 36.678 0.000
Occupation
Utility 263.771 1 263.771 8.161 0.004
Familiarity 2654.278 1 2654.278 181.480 0.000
Enjoyment 843.990 5 168.798 6.255 0.000
Anxiety 350.559 5 70.112 2.812 0.016
Age
Utility 655.383 5 131.077 4.055 0.001
Familiarity 730.399 5 146.080 9.988 0.000
Enjoyment 78.495 2 39.248 1.454 0.234
Anxiety 9.450 2 4.725 0.190 0.827
Sex
Utility 52.489 2 26.244 0.812 0.444
Familiarity 55.335 2 27.668 1.892 0.151
Enjoyment 184.689 3 61.563 2.281 0.078
Anxiety 545.081 3 181.694 7.288 0.000
Place
Utility 219.824 3 73.275 2.267 0.079
Familiarity 128.262 3 42.754 2.923 0.033
318
Enjoyment 2285.201 1 2285.201 84.684 0.000
Anxiety 2345.859 1 2345.859 94.100 0.000
E-literacy
Utility 4739.336 1 4739.336 146.631 0.000
Familiarity 1183.447 1 1183.447 80.916 0.000
Enjoyment 346.312 2 173.156 6.417 0.002
Anxiety 429.899 2 214.949 8.622 0.000
PC ownership
Utility 689.278 2 344.639 10.663 0.000
Familiarity 239.551 2 119.775 8.189 0.000
Enjoyment 21.278 2 10.639 0.394 0.674
Anxiety 23.481 2 11.740 0.471 0.625
CALL use
Utility 13.759 2 6.880 0.213 0.808
Familiarity 11.536 2 5.768 0.394 0.674
Enjoyment 22181.720 822 26.985
Anxiety 20492.043 822 24.929
Error
Utility 26568.196 822 32.321
Familiarity 12022.321 822 14.626
Enjoyment 528052.000 839
Anxiety 271429.000 839
Total
Utility 685929.000 839
Familiarity 213958.000 839
a R Squared = 0.958 (Adjusted R Squared = 0.957)
b R Squared = 0.925 (Adjusted R Squared = 0.923)
c R Squared = 0.961 (Adjusted R Squared = 0.960)
d R Squared = 0.944 (Adjusted R Squared = 0.943)
Table 6.9: MANOVA output 2: Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
After conducting Levenes test of equality of variances to make sure that the error
variance of the dependent variable is equal across groups, tests of between-subjects effects
were carried out to study univariate results, which include statistics for each of the dependent
variables, the values being given for the sums of squares for enjoyment, anxiety, utility and
familiarity. The row labeled Error contains details about the residual sums of squares and
mean squares for each of the dependent variables, whereas the row labeled Total contains
the values of the total sums of squares for each dependent variable. The most important parts
of Table 6.9 are the columns labeled F in which the F-ratios for each univariate test is listed
and Sig. in which the significance values of these tests are given. The values of p in the
table above indicate that there was a non-significant difference between the two major groups
(teachers and students) in terms of attitudes towards CALL, whether a given independent
variable has an effect or not.
To conclude, there is a significant effect of the independent variables of sex and

CALL use, but not of occupation (teacher vs. student), age, place of residence,
computer literacy, or computer ownership, on the combined dependent variable attitudes
towards CALL (F = 0.955 and F = 0.619, p < 0.05; Wilks Lambda = 0.9). Analysis of each
319
individual dependent variable, using a Bonferroni adjusted alpha level of 0.0125 (0.05 divided
by 4, the number of dependent variables), shows that there is no contribution of anxiety as an
aspect of attitudes (F = 0.19, p = 0.82) and that the subgroups differ in terms of enjoyment, (F
= 1.45, p = 0.23) utility (F = 0.81, p = 0.44), and familiarity (F = 1.89, p = 0.15).
VI.1.3.2. Factors Leading to CALL Use: a chi-square analysis
Before embarking on the inferential statistics per se, it is important to remind the reader
of the raw data in the form of frequencies regarding the factors leading teachers and students
to use CALL in their teaching/learning practices. The following contingency table
summarizes the observed frequencies based on the results of the dichotomous variable
questions of the samples involved. It should be noted, however, that except for the variable
age, which has four levels referring to four distinct age groups, all the other variables are
dichotomous (i.e. have two levels: yes/no). Additionally, answers are sometimes missing
because the item in question is either inapplicable as a result of the use of a filter or skipped
by the respondent.
Teacher Student
CALL Use CALL Use
Yes No Total Yes No Total
Yes 30 38 18 86 48 512 1 561
No 20 40 62 122 39 2 0 41
Ownership 7 10 9 26 1 2 0 3
Total 57 88 89 234 88 516 1 605
Yes 50 78 80 208 87 514 1 602
No 7 10 9 26 1 2 0 3
Literacy 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total 57 88 89 234 88 516 1 605
1 15 25 13 53 69 412 0 481
2 30 45 62 137 17 91 1 109
3 6 12 5 23 1 12 0 13
Age 4 6 2 2 10 0 0 0 0
0 4 7 11 1 1 0 2
Total 57 88 89 234 88 516 1 605
Yes 24 46 46 116
No 33 42 29 104
Training 0 0 14 14
Total 57 88 89 234
Yes 11 15 3 29 3 33 0 36
No 0 0 0 0 81 445 1 527
Access 46 73 86 205 4 38 0 42
Total 57 88 89 234 88 516 1 605
Table 6.10: CALL use among teachers and students
320
The observed frequencies displayed in the table above represent the actual number of
responses to the question whether participants use CALL or not (dependent variable) on the
basis of a number of independent variables. Theoretically, these figures can be manipulated to
work out the so-called expected frequencies, which are said to provide the best estimate of the
situation in the population as a whole (cf. Brown, 1988:188). In fact, the purpose of using the
chi-square test is to calculate the expected frequency for each cell and then compare the
expected frequencies with the observed frequencies and see if they are significantly different,
in which case it would be deduced that the distribution of observations across the cells is not
random. The first output generated in the process of conducting chi-square is a case
processing summary, which summarizes information about the cases involved in this test.
Teacher Cases Student Cases

Valid Missing Total Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent N Percent N Percent N Percent
CALL use * Ownership 128 54.7% 106 45.3% 234 100.0% 601 99.3% 4 .7% 605 100.0%
CALL use * E-literacy 145 62.0% 89 38.0% 234 100.0% 604 99.8% 1 .2% 605 100.0%
CALL use * Age 141 60.3% 93 39.7% 234 100.0% 602 99.5% 3 .5% 605 100.0%
CALL use * ICT training 145 62.0% 89 38.0% 234 100.0%
CALL use * Access 26 11.1% 208 88.9% 234 100.0% 562 92.9% 43 7.1% 605 100.0%
Table 6.11: Case processing summary
This table provides details about the data that can undergo processing (valid) and
missing data that are excluded from the test (can be calculated horizontally and vertically in
Table 6.10). It should be recalled that the variable Prior ICT training is applicable to
teachers only, hence the shaded cells in the previous two tables. It is also worth recalling that
the experimental hypothesis is that teachers or students who own a computer, have a level of
computer literacy, have a relatively young age, have prior training in ICT and have access to
computers in their educational institution are more likely to use CALL than those who do not.
What this hypothesis indicates is that a series of 22 chi-square tests need to be conducted in
order to see if each of the independent variables (computer ownership, computer literacy, age,
prior ICT training, and access to computers) is related or not to the dependent variable (CALL
use) for both teachers and students.
The following tables calculate the descriptive data (observed frequencies) and provide
within-variable (expected) frequencies for each 22 design involving one independent
variable and the major dependent variable. Rows give details about each level of the
dependent variable while columns give details about each level of one independent variable
for teachers and students. There are five row entries for each level of the dependent variable,
namely Count, which gives the number of participants falling into the cell, Expected
321
Count, which gives the number expected for this cell assuming no association between the
independent and dependent variable, % within CALL use, which calculates the percentage
of row total of the cases, % within IV, which calculates the percentage of column total of
the cases, and % of Total, which provides the overall percentage of the total number of
participants. As for the chi-square results, they are given right after each crosstabulation and
are reported on and interpreted in the light of a liberal alpha level.
Teachers Students
Computer ownership Computer ownership
No Yes Total No Yes Total
CALL use No Count 40 38 78 2 512 514
Expected Count 36.6 41.4 78.0 35.1 478.9 514.0
% within CALL use 51.3% 48.7% 100.0% .4% 99.6% 100.0%
% within Ownership 66.7% 55.9% 60.9% 4.9% 91.4% 85.5%
% of Total 31.3% 29.7% 60.9% .3% 85.2% 85.5%
Yes Count 20 30 50 39 48 87
Expected Count 23.4 26.6 50.0 5.9 81.1 87.0
% within CALL use 40.0% 60.0% 100.0% 44.8% 55.2% 100.0%
% of Total 15.6% 23.4% 39.1% 6.5% 8.0% 14.5%
Total Count 60 68 128 41 560 601
Expected Count 60.0 68.0 128.0 41.0 560.0 601.0
% within CALL use 46.9% 53.1% 100.0% 6.8% 93.2% 100.0%
% of Total 46.9% 53.1% 100.0% 6.8% 93.2% 100.0%
Table 6.12: Crosstabulation of CALL use * Computer ownership
Teachers Students
Asymp. Exact Exact Asymp. Exact Exact
Sig. Sig. Sig. Sig. Sig. Sig.
Value df (2-sided) (2-sided) (1-sided) Value df (2-sided) (2-sided) (1-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 1.557b 1 .212 231.155c 1 .000
a
Continuity Correction 1.137 1 .286 224.217 1 .000
Likelihood Ratio 1.565 1 .211 153.446 1 .000
Fishers Exact Test .276 .143 .000 .000
N of Valid Cases 128 601
a Computedonly for a 2x2 table
b 0 cells (.0%) have expected cout less than 5. The minimum expected count is 23.44.
c 0 cells (.0%) have expected cout less than 5. The minimum expected count is 5.94.
Table 6.13: Chi-square tests of CALL use * Computer ownership
While among teachers there was no relationship between CALL use and computer
ownership (2 = 1.557, df = 1, p = 0.212), among students there was (2 = 231.155, df = 1, p <
0.05). Given the fact that this is a 22 design and as the number of participants may not be a
good approximation of the total population, Yates correction (labeled Continuity
Correction) was used to confirm the chi-square results. Within the teacher sample, there are
44.1% who own a personal computer and actually use CALL, whereas 33.3% of them use
CALL although they do not own a computer. On the other hand, within the student sample,
only a minority of 8.6% have a personal computer and use CALL, whereas those who do not
322
have a computer and still use CALL constitute 95.1% of the student sample, thus
corroborating the chi-square results.
Teachers Students
E-literacy E-literacy
CALL use No Count 10 78 88 2 514 516
Expected Count 10.3 77.7 88.0 2.6 513.4 516.0
% within CALL use 11.4% 88.6% 100.0% .4% 99.6% 100.0%
% within E-literacy 58.8% 60.9% 60.7% 66.7% 85.5% 85.4%
% of Total 6.9% 53.8% 60.7% .3% 85.1% 85.4%
Yes Count 7 50 57 1 87 88
Expected Count 6.7 50.3 57.0 .4 87.6 88.0
% within CALL use 12.3% 87.7% 100.0% 1.1% 98.9% 100.0%
% of Total 4.8% 34.5% 39.3% .2% 14.4% 14.6%
Total Count 17 128 145 3 601 604
Expected Count 17.0 128.0 145.0 3.0 601.0 604.0
% within CALL use 11.7% 88.3% 100.0% .5% 99.5% 100.0%
% of Total 11.7% 88.3% 100.0% .5% 99.5% 100.0%
Table 6.14: Crosstabulation of CALL use * Computer literacy
Teachers Students
Pearson Chi-Square .028b 1 .867 .853c 1 .356
Continuity Correctiona .000 1 1.000 .011 1 .918
Likelihood Ratio .028 1 .867 .668 1 .414
Fishers Exact Test 1.000 .532 .377 .377
c 2 cells (50.0%) have expected cout less than 5. The minimum expected count is .44.
Table 6.15: Chi-square tests of CALL use * Computer literacy
The results of these tests indicate that there is no relationship between using CALL and
being computer literate, neither among teachers (2 = 0.028, df = 1, p = 0.867) nor among
students (2 = 0.853, df = 1, p = 0.377). It is worth noting that in the student crosstabulation
there are two cells that have an expected count of less than five, so recourse has been had to
Fishers Exact Test. As the figures in Table 6.14 illustrate, even if 60.9% of the targeted
teachers are computer literate, they do not use CALL while only 39.1% of them do use it in
their teaching practices. Likewise, while the majority (85.5%) of computer literate students do
not use CALL, only a minority (14.5%) of them actually use it.
323
Teachers Students
Age Age
1st 2nd 3rd 4th Total 1st 2nd 3rd Total
CALL use No Count 25 45 12 2 84 412 91 12 515
Expected Count 23.8 44.7 10.7 4.8 84.0 411.5 92.4 11.1 515.0
% within CALL use 29.8% 53.6% 14.3% 2.4% 100.0% 80.0% 17.7% 2.3% 100.0%
% within Age 62.5% 60.0% 66.7% 25.0% 59.6% 85.7% 84.3% 92.3% 85.5%
% of Total 17.7% 31.9% 8.5% 1.4% 59.6% 68.4% 15.1% 2.0% 85.5%
Yes Count 15 30 6 6 57 69 17 1 87
Expected Count 16.2 30.3 7.3 3.2 57.0 69.5 15.6 1.9 87.0
% within CALL use 26.3% 52.6% 10.5% 10.5% 100.0% 79.3% 19.5% 1.1% 100.0%
% within Age 37.5% 40.0% 33.3% 75.0% 40.4% 14.3% 15.7% 7.7% 14.5%
% of Total 10.6% 21.3% 4.3% 4.3% 40.4% 11.5% 2.8% .2% 14.5%
Total Count 40 75 18 8 141 481 108 13 602
Expected Count 40.0 75.0 18.0 8.0 141.0 481.0 108.0 13.0 602.0
% within CALL use 28.4% 53.2% 12.8% 5.7% 100.0% 79.9% 17.9% 2.2% 100.0%
% within Age 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
% of Total 28.4% 53.2% 12.8% 5.7% 100.0% 79.9% 17.9% 2.2% 100.0%
Table 6.16: Crosstabulation of CALL use * Age
Teachers Students
Asymp. Asymp.
Sig. Sig.
Value df (2-sided) Value df (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 4.495a 3 .213 .630b 2 .730
Likelihood Ratio 4.477 3 .214 .710 2 .701
a 2 cells (25.0%) have expected cout less than 5. The minimum expected count is 3.23.
b 1 cells (16.7%) have expected cout less than 5. The minimum expected count is 1.88.
Table 6.17: Chi-square tests of CALL use * Age
It should be noted that the age groups are classified according to the following ranges:
1st = -18; 2nd = 18~22; 3rd = 23~35; 4th = 36~45. The chi-square results reported in Table 6.17
above are invalidated by the fact that some cells have an expected frequency of less than 5.
Therefore, because this is not a 22 design and Fishers Exact Test may not be of help, the
analysis should undergo Recoding, i.e. collapse some cells by readjusting some values. In
this case, the four age groups will be collapsed into two distinct ranges as follows: young -
18~22 and adult 23~45, thus turning the design into a 22 design and ensuring that
Fishers Exact Test is reported.
Teachers Students
Pearson Chi-Square .434b 1 .510 .491c 1 .483
Continuity Correctiona .192 1 .662 .091 1 .763
Likelihood Ratio .430 1 .512 .575 1 .448
Fishers Exact Test .516 .328 .704 .418
c 1 cells (25.0%) have expected cout less than 5. The minimum expected count is 1.88.
Table 6.18: Chi-square tests of CALL use * Age after recoding
324
After the recoding process, it is apparent that there is no association between using
CALL and belonging to a certain age group, regardless of occupation (teachers: 2 = 0.434, df
= 1, p = 0.510; students: 2 = 0.491, df = 1, p = 0.704). Fishers Exact Test has been useful for
the student sample given the fact that one cell has an expected count of less than five.
Teachers
Prior ICT training
No Yes Total
CALL use No Count 42 46 88
Expected Count 45.5 42.5 88.0
% within CALL use 47.7% 52.3% 100.0%
% within Prior ICT training 56.0% 65.7% 60.7%
% of Total 29.0% 31.7% 60.7%
Yes Count 33 24 57
% within CALL use 57.9% 42.1% 100.0%
% of Total 22.8% 16.6% 39.3%
Total Count 75 70 145
% within CALL use 51.7% 48.3% 100.0%
% of Total 51.7% 48.3% 100.0%
Table 6.19: Crosstabulation of CALL use * Prior ICT training
Teachers
Asymp. Exact Exact
Sig. Sig. Sig.
Value df (2-sided) (2-sided) (1-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 1.432b 1 .231
Continuity Correctiona 1.054 1 .305
Likelihood Ratio 1.436 1 .231
Fishers Exact Test .240 .152
N of Valid Cases 145
Table 6.20: Chi-square tests of CALL use * Prior ICT training
It should be recalled that this variable concerns teachers only. The purpose of this test is
to see if teachers who have acquired computer skills through some kind of training, formal or
otherwise, are likely to use CALL in their teaching. Contrary to expectation, the chi-square
analysis reveals that there is no relationship between receiving ICT training and using CALL
(2 = 1.432, df = 1, p = 0.231).
325
Teachers Students
Access Access
CALL use No Count 15 15 445 33 478
Expected Count 15.0 15.0 447.4 30.6 478.0
% within CALL use 100.0% 100.0% 93.1% 6.9% 100.0%
% within Access 57.7% 57.7% 84.6% 91.7% 85.1%
% of Total 57.7% 57.7% 79.2% 5.9% 85.1%
Yes Count 11 11 81 3 84
Expected Count 11.0 11.0 78.6 5.4 84.0
% within CALL use 100.0% 100.0% 96.4% 3.6% 100.0%
% within Access 42.3% 42.3% 15.4% 8.3% 14.9%
% of Total 42.3% 42.3% 14.4% .5% 14.9%
Total Count 26 26 526 36 562
Expected Count 26.0 26.0 526.0 36.0 562.0
% within CALL use 100.0% 100.0% 93.6% 6.4% 100.0%
% within Access 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
% of Total 100.0% 100.0% 93.6% 6.4% 100.0%
Table 6.21: Crosstabulation of CALL use * Access to computers
Teachers Students
Pearson Chi-Square .b 1.323c 1 .250
Continuity Correctiona .826 1 .363
Likelihood Ratio 1.521 1 .217
Fishers Exact Test .336 .184
b No statistic calculated because Access is a constant.
c 0 cells (.0%) have expected cout less than 5. The minimum expected count is 5.38.
Table 6.22: Chi-square tests of CALL use * Access to computers
As far as the relationship between having access to computers and using CALL is
concerned, the chi-square test results indicate that there is no association between the two.
Because the teacher data lack frequencies for one level the independent variable (No), which
makes Access to computers a constant rather than a variable, no chi-square value has been
reported. However, the student crosstabulation shows that 84.6% of students who do not have
access to computers do not use CALL and that 15.4% who have access to computers do use
CALL, but any association that can be deduced from that is merely due to chance alone (2 =
1.323, df = 1, p = 0.250).
To recapitulate, of all the chi-square tests conducted, only one relationship has been
confirmed to exist between CALL use and computer ownership and that is among the student
population. Therefore, the only null hypothesis that is rejected from the list in Table 6.3 is the
one of research hypothesis 3. Suffice it to say that with the exception of student computer
ownership, there is no direct relationship between using CALL and owning a computer (for
teachers), being computer literate, being relatively young, receiving prior ICT training, and
having access to computers.
326
VI.1.3.3. The Effectiveness of CALL Use: a t-test analysis
As specified earlier, this is a pre-test post-test design in which participants have taken
an entry-test before starting the E-learning training. It is worth noting here that this same
entry-test can also be considered as an achievement test for their previous conventional
language learning program. At the end of the three-month E-learning program, the same
participants have taken an exit-test, which can be considered as an achievement test for this
particular training. As the mean scores to be compared belong to the same sample of learners,
the necessary adjustment measures for this situation have been made to carry out a dependent
samples t-test, which uses a formula that takes into account the interrelationship between the
two sets of mean scores.
It was hypothesized earlier that as participants opted for E-learning as a method of

studying English, their achievement in this virtual setting would outstrip the one in a
conventional learning setting (see Table 6.5). The running of the statistical test on SPSS
generated the following tables.
Std. Error
Mean N Std. Deviation Mean
Pair 1 pre-test 1.771 24 .6590 .1345
post-test 2.188 24 .6563 .1340
Table 6.23: Paired samples statistics
This first t-test output provides useful descriptive data showing that the participants
skill level has improved considerably over a period of three months as a result of using the e-
learning training platform.
N Correlation Sig.
Pair 1 pre-test & post-test 24 .883 .000
Table 6.24: Paired samples correlations
A Pearsons correlation has also been carried out to see if the two variables are
correlated. Although this significant result indicates that participants who did well in the entry
test did also well in the exit test, it does not show if the scores are significantly different.
Paired Differences
95% Confidence
Std. Std. Error Interval of the
Mean Deviation Mean Difference
Sig.
Lower Upper t df (2-tailed)
Pair 1 pre-test post-test -.4167 .3185 .0650 -.5512 -.2822 -6.409 23 .000
Table 6.25: Paired samples test
327
The average level of the E-learning participants is better in the posttest phase than in the
pretest phase (t = 6.409, df = 23, p < 0.00025, one-tailed). The t result is 6.409, the minus sign
meaning that the mean value for the first variable name in the Paired Variables box is lower
than the mean value for the second variable name. The p value is less than 0.00025 (0.005
divided by two) because the hypothesis is one-tailed as it predicts a positive relationship
between taking an E-learning course and improving ones skill level.
This section has provided findings for the main research question of the study, the
implications of which are discussed in the section that follows. As pointed out earlier, these
findings, taken as a whole, lead to the acceptance of the prediction that the impressiveness and
ubiquity of CALL in education in the developed world foster positive attitudes in students and
teachers in developing countries like Morocco. Some of the factors that have been found to
affect students and teachers attitudes, regardless of inter-group differences, are: computer
literacy, computer ownership and access to ICT. It was, however, found that there is a
difference in the way the variables of sex and CALL use affect the two main subgroup
samples of the study. Moreover, it was found that age, sex, place of residence,
computer literacy, computer ownership, and CALL use have a perceived impact more
on the enjoyment, utility, and familiarity aspects than on the anxiety aspect of
attitudes in the comparative referential analysis although anxiety was one of key factors that
was found to affect teacher attitudes in the descriptive part of the study. Furthermore, the use
of computers in education was found to be affected by computer ownership, age,
computer literacy, prior ICT training, and access to computers at varying degrees
among teachers and students, with the later being more affected by computer ownership
than their opposite numbers. Finally, differences in pre- and post-test scores of the treatment
focus group indicated that participants who were engaged in the three-month E-learning
program made a major improvement in their language skills, thus confidently generalizing the
result on the whole language learning population.
The inferential data analysis presented in the foregoing section has provided a
foundation for drawing the conclusions and recommendations that follow in the subsequent
sections. Relevant data have been tabulated, analyzed and discussed in the light of the
statistical methods adopted. This should have provided an in-depth look at the findings of the
research study, the characteristics of the target populations (teachers and students) through a
MANOVA, a reliability analysis of ICT use in language education through a series of chi-
square tests, and a sense of the effectiveness of ICT in language learning through the t-test
328
comparison of pre-test and post-test performances of a focus group of professional EFL e-
learners.
VI.2. Implications of the Findings of the Study
As explained in Chapter Three on the research design, the purpose of the study is to
investigate the effectiveness of ICT in language education through the elicitation of students
and teachers attitudes towards the use of ICT in the teaching and learning operation and see
whether it is expected to enhance academic standards in Morocco. Although Dunkel
(1987:367,371) noted that it was difficult to locate in print unequivocal empirical findings
supporting the effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) or computer-assisted
language learning (CALL), she acknowledged that research on CALL should focus on the
interaction of student characteristics/attitudes toward computers and the effectiveness of
CAI/CALL treatment. Gilbert (1998) enumerates five criteria to measure the effectiveness of
ICT in education from the student point of view: 1) motivation, 2) ease of use, 3)
convenience and accessibility of technology, 4) time taken to pass the course, and 5) positive
addiction.
If the fundamental research question of the present study has been concerned with
learners and teachers attitudes towards ICT and their perceptions of its usefulness in
language teaching and learning, the major finding is that positive attitudes towards ICT and
CALL do have a direct bearing on the integration of computers in education. The descriptive
statistics have shown that both students and teachers have quite positive attitudes despite the
slight disparity found between the two groups after a MANOVA analysis. In previous studies
such as Gardner (1985), it was demonstrated that there is a direct relationship between
attitudes and achievement in language learning. Other factors that lead, at least, to the use of
CALL, according to the findings of this study, include computer ownership, computer literacy
and access to computers (see results of the 2 test). The effectiveness of ICT in language
education was demonstrated by the results of the case study, in which the focus group made
up of professional EFL learners demonstrated their ability to move ahead in their achievement
in so short a period (three months). The t-test used to verify the study records of the targeted
e-learners shows that there is a systematic improvement when there is serious engagement on
the part of the e-learners in terms of time investment and course completion (descriptive
statistics).
Several implications for learners and teachers of English can be drawn from the findings
of the present study, which findings have been achieved through a combination of qualitative
329
and quantitative methods. Before embarking on the implications for students and teachers, it
is important to consider the implications of ICT integration for society at large, regardless of
professional occupation, and for educational decision-makers, whose policies influence the
field of education.
VI.2.1. General Implications
These implications are common, as they do not concern any group in particular. They
are meant for all members of society, including students and teachers. The general computer
literacy rates registered among students and teachers at the time when the questionnaire
surveys were conducted (mid 2004) and the readiness of the computer-illiterate respondents to
acquire ICT skills (the reported situation may have changed by now) are indicative of a rising
information society that subscribes to the global trend of ICT integration in all walks of life.
ICT has the power to transform formal institutions, including the long-standing notion of
physical space that has been always associated with schooling and training. It is not long
ahead from now that mobile learning (m-learning) will gain currency in Western countries,
where e-learning has already taken a considerable share of education and training. These
developments that lie ahead will either contribute to equalizing learning opportunities or to
widening the gap between the haves and the havenots. Via ICT, students and teachers can be
offered learning opportunities unavailable in their place of residence. However, the higher the
rates of electronic illiteracy among students and teachers, the less likely they will engage in
computerized education.
Those who once believed that ICT will never transform different aspects of life thought
that CALL is no more than wishful thinking manifested in the enormous amounts of hype that
surrounded it. Today they have to face the fact that much of that hype has become ordinary
and even commonplace. Many educational institutions in the industrialized world now
dispense some form of computer-based education in academic and vocational training. In
Morocco, there are a few private institutions and fewer public ones that have started
integrating a computer-based component in the programs of studies. Much of the current
situation is in large part due to lack of funding and scarcity of trained personnel to take the
lead in the computerization process. However, this state of affairs is not likely to last for long,
especially that the rising generations of students and teachers are more technology-driven than
their current counterparts. Although colossal budgets must be allocated in order to implement
CALL, the benefits to be reaped are worth it.
330
Another relevant point to be made is that ICT is sometimes wrongly seen as a panacea
for all problems in education, including insufficient funding, understaffed schools, inadequate
curricula, and so on. It is obvious that computers will not solve the problem of funding. In
fact, using ICT usually requires extra financial expenditures on software and hardware.
Although ICT can in the long term cope with the issue of understaffed schools by alleviating
the burden posed by the huge paperwork on the few staff members on duty, there is no
indication that massive recruitment will take place in the foreseeable future, especially after
the famous/notorious Voluntary Leave Operation, a World Bank recommendation to the
Moroccan government about reducing the mass salary budget by compensating staff members
for willingly leaving duty. In addition, ICT will not improve the current curricula without a
strong will to do so, irrespective of whether ICT is included or not.
To live up to the spirit of the NCET, the educational system must be committed to
educating all students at the highest possible level of excellence. As such, one of the most
important areas for improvement is equity in access to technology. Previous research (cf.
Schiller, 1996; Wenglinsky, 1998) has shown that ICT can help equalize opportunity for all
students, regardless of ethnic background, gender, geographic location and economic status.
Nevertheless, the absence of ICT resources restricts the possibilities for education and may
perpetuate economic disparities, regional advantage and gender bias (cf. Patterson and
Wilson, 2000). This barrier in resources is commonly defined as the digital divide.
VI.2.1.1. Electronic Literacy and Information Society
With the ubiquity of computers and the commonality of ICT use, the notion of literacy
no longer means what it used to mean. ICT has impacted how people communicate and how
they access information in a revolutionary manner. As ICT develops, new global demands
based on immaterial economy (based on knowledge) are imposed on societies. With the
advent of globalization, accelerated by the exponential growth of ICT, the standardization of
norms and practices worldwide has become a national need at the local level. Development
programs throughout the developing world include a component having to do with ICT
infusion that is meant to subscribe to the global trend of information manipulation and
transfer. Rasool (1999:97), commenting on a UNESCO project labeled Literacy for All,
states that literacy, when defined within the framework of sustainable development, includes
a broad and critical knowledge base, and an understanding of how societies function, and the
complex ways in which they are linked with global processes. In fact, ICT seems to have the
potential to eliminate conventional print illiteracy itself.
331
According to Shetzer and Warschauer (2000), electronic literacy is a notion that is
completely different from that of computer literacy, the latter being largely discredited for
its focus on basic computer manipulation such as turning on the computer and running simple
software (Papert, 1980). Following the footsteps of previous research (c.f. Eisenberg and
Berkowitz, 1998; Lemke, 1998), Shetzer and Warschauer (op. cit.) define electronic literacy
as a set of skills used in three areas of learning, namely communication (using ICT to
communicate between peers and teachers), construction (using ICT to construct learning
models), and research (Using ICT in project-based learning activities).
With the introduction of the computer in the educational scene, the notion of literacy
has undergone a major change. Warschauer (1997) advocates a sociocultural approach to
literacy in which a foreign language is learned by gaining entry into the discourse
communities of users of that language. This, according to Warschauer, has influenced CALL
in three ways throughout its development. Initially, CALL materials were based on the
principle of transmission, then on principles of constructivism and finally on principles of
dialogism. That is, learning has moved from a paradigm in which the learner passively
received computer-assisted instruction, to one in which the learner is given more autonomy
to construct her own learning model, and finally to one in which the learner develops meaning
in her interaction with a social audience.
As the Moroccan educational authorities and teaching community strive to play their
part in implementing the NCET, which stipulates that ICT is a key tool for future
development, they are actually paving the ground for a major social transformation, where
information is the raw material and the capital. With the rise of more computer literate
students, their integration in the job market depends more on their know-how and ICT skills
than on their degree alone. Therefore, the failure to adequately train students is tantamount to
producing unmarketable human resources, unfit for functioning in the information-based job
market. A system of education that prepares technologically abled students is likely to bridge
the digital gap that impedes the official establishment of a Moroccan information society,
where the manipulation and transfer of information is at the heart of development. Bridging
the gap between the computer literate and the computer illiterate is likely to place Morocco on
a competitive edge at the continental level (second in Africa in terms of Internet usage
according to www.internetworldstats.com). Moroccos subscription to this global trend of
computerizing various sectors and services is likely to lessen the acuteness of the digital
332
divide, a notion that refers to inequality in access rather than in literacy (cf. Warschauer,
2002).
Most educational institutions report that their ICT infrastructure and concomitant
facilities are inadequate, which makes it difficult to carry out their programs as stipulated by
the NCET. Morocco still has a lot to do in order to generalize access to ICT by providing
computers and Internet connectivity at competitive prices affordable to most institutions and
the majority of the Moroccan population. As explained in Chapter II, penetration rates of
computer ownership in Morocco is among the lowest in the world. If the situation improves, it
will not only reduce electronic illiteracy among the population, but it will also positively
influence the educational scene. As the results of the present study have demonstrated, there is
a direct connection between computer ownership and electronic literacy among students and
teachers alike.
VI.2.1.2. ICT and Its Connection to Education Reform
As alluded to earlier, reform entails change, which may be initially burdensome. Much
research has shown that there are different ways in which people respond to change and
perceive its value. By and large, people welcome change when they perceive its positive
impact on their immediate environment. Those who resist change have their own reasons for
doing so. Generally, they feel that their career or even their presence will be threatened if they
engage in reform. However, they forget that their failure to subscribe to reform efforts does
not only mean that they will be held responsible for impeding the reform, but it also means
that they will be swept away by the gale-force winds of change. These laggards, as Rogers
(1995) calls them, are change resisters who are often suspicious of innovations and usually
claim that they have limited resources. They contend that they must be sure that an innovation
will not fail before they can adopt it. Being a relatively new innovation in the field of
education, ICT must then have a connection of some sort with reform.
Warshauers (2000) study invokes two discourses related to ICT in education: the
discourse of reform and the discourse of inequality. By the discourse of reform, which he
qualifies as hopeful, is meant the transformations that educational institutions have to go
through in order to effectively integrate ICT in the classroom. On the other hand, the
discourse of inequality, which he qualifies as troubling, refers to the impact of the
socioeconomic status on access to ICT. Both discourses are quite relevant to the Moroccan
educational context. In fact, the NCET has been the backdrop of ICT integration in the
Moroccan educational system since the 2000-2001 academic year. Although ICT has proven
333
to be a useful tool of reform-minded educators, since it is now inextricably linked to the
reform movement itself, there is still a lot to be done as far as ICT integration in the Moroccan
educational system is concerned. As expounded in Chapter II, little has been achieved since
the inception of the NCET in 1999.
Given the hopefulness associated with the reform discourse (Warshauer, op. cit.), ICT is
likely to provide ample assistance in accomplishing a number of reform goals. For instance,
ICT has the ability to transform the way the educational process is conducted, as it can help
teachers perform their work with relative ease and speed. From a structural point of view,
computer networking creates a professional link between teachers and administrators never
attested before in the history of education, which is in compliance with the stipulations of the
NCET. From a purely pedagogical point of view, ICT is an invaluable tool for providing
inquiry-based collaborative learning, which is one of the objectives of the reform. Based on
the premise that any reform should start with the human element, teacher training, both in-
service and pre-service, has become a necessity. More details on the issue of teacher training
are discussed in section VI.2.2.2 below.
VI.2.1.3. CALL As a Cost-effective Educational Alternative
Moreover, due to the hardware and software costs, it is important to make sure that it is
a cost-effective investment in the Moroccan context when compared with alternative methods
(e.g. teacher-led computer labs). Although start-up costs might be higher than the educational
technology budget (hence its gradual integration), it is important to note that computer
equipment costs are generally recouped as the student population expands. In fact, several
studies have found that CALL is more economical than conventional language education (cf.
Kahn, 1997; Soo and Ngeow, 1998; Winship and Carter, 1999). However, for educational
authorities to be convinced of the cost-effectiveness of CALL, they need to be sure that the
benefits accruing from ICT integration are clearly worth the investment.
At the individual level, and aside from the somewhat expensive prices of computers, the
high cost of telecommunications (telephone and the Internet) constitutes a hindrance to the
majority of students and teachers as it is still beyond what their standard of living can afford.
The computer ownership rate in Morocco (1 as reported by the UN) is indicative of both
the low literacy rates and the low economic growth. However, with the fierce competition
among hardware retailers, the prices are gradually going down, especially those of clone
computers and second-hand ones imported from Europe. As for the number of Internet
subscribers, it has tripped, especially after the last improvements in the ADSL bandwidth.
334
This gradual decrease in prices should normally prompt more students and teachers to have
computers of their own, both for personal and educational use. Additionally, with an
increasingly faster integration of ICT in the educational context, classrooms in the future are
likely to be different from what they are like today.
VI.2.1.4. Awareness Raising for Positive Attitudes
Attitudes toward computers constitute an important factor that affects ones experience
with computers, at home or at school. As it has been argued in the present study and in
previous research (Gardner et al. 1993; Christensen, 1997; among others), positive attitudes
towards ICT and computer-based education lead to some kind of commitment in ICT
integration efforts. In a study by Christensen (1997), it was found that teachers attitudes
affect their self-confidence with computers in such a way that students confidence decreases
when teachers are more confident and students confidence increases as their teachers are less
confident. Additionally, personal experience plays a strong role in shaping an individuals
attitudes. In a study by Gardner et al. (op. cit.) a positive correlation between computer usage
and attitudes towards ICT has been identified. Negative experiences with computers
correlated with negative attitudes towards ICT while positive experiences with computers
correlated with positive attitudes. In the present study, it has been demonstrated that attitudes
are affected by a number of variables including computer literacy and computer ownership,
which positively lead to the endorsement of CALL.
In a study conducted by Griffith and Northcraft (1996), who investigated the effects of
introducing a new technology on attitudes to, and perceptions of innovation, it was concluded
that attitudes towards the innovation tend to be more positive when people are given adequate
time to become familiar with the technology. Findings of this study also corroborate the idea
that attitudes play a crucial role in determining the success or failure of ICT use in education.
Students and teachers who hold negative attitudes need to renounce their previous perceptions
of ICT by gaining more knowledge about its potential in education. The relatively increasing
levels of anxiety registered by some respondents are in large part attributed to the lack of use
of computers. For these respondents to overcome their negative attitudinal perceptions, they
need to have frequent access to computers and needs-based training or retraining. Christensen
(op.cit.) reported on a study by Persichitte and Bauer (1996), whose major finding is that
access to ICT upon completion of training is a critical factor in the success of the adoption of
ICT in education. The findings of this study are consistent with those reported by Christensen.
335
If one of the purposes of ICT is to facilitate communication between human beings,
then its integration in education is primordial. Negative attitudes should change in a positive
direction through awareness raising so that students and teachers would engage more
intensively in the process of CALL use by increasing the amount of access to computers in
the educational setting. In particular, CALL laggards, be they students or teachers, should be
given adequate time to overcome their negative attitudinal perceptions and anxiety toward the
computer. In Christensens (1997) study, it was found that teacher attitudes toward ICT and
teacher CALL use had an immediate impact on student attitudes. The findings of the present
study lend additional support to the conclusions reached by Christensen. Given this
importance of teachers attitudes, further research can investigate the impact of training in
ICT on teachers attitudes towards the adoption of CALL.
The key to developing positive attitudes is a successful training, a positive experience

with computers and a positive work environment. In a study conducted by Burkhardt (1994),
it was found that the formation of attitudes towards computers is affected by interactions
amongst peers and informal discussions so that those holding negative attitudes are likely to
change positively in the wake of a favorable environment. Over time, attitudes change as a
result of day-to-day improvements. Similarly, when teachers hold positive attitudes toward
ICT, this situation fosters positive attitudes in their students. The findings of the present study
are supportive of this conclusion. Furthermore, it is possible to eliminate negative attitudes
towards ICT by taking awareness raising measures such as dispelling the worries of
computer-phobic people who are afraid of a supposedly subversive potential of ICT and
creating environments that foster the formation of positive attitudes. Having confirmed the
impact of positive attitudes on adoption of ICT in education, additional research is needed to
determine if attitudes towards ICT have a bearing on attitudes towards education itself. Now,
what implications are there for the teacher and the learner?
VI.2.1.5. CALL and the Physical Classroom
As distance learning gains momentum, the physical constraints that used to impede one-
to-one counseling between a teacher and a student can be lowered to a great extent, and many
modes of pedagogical groupings are likely to become both feasible and effective. In a
networked system, everything is logically in one physical place, but it can appear virtually
wherever and whenever the user wishes. With a well-networked computer, students should be
able to avoid excuses such as I lost my notebook and the only copy available in the library
was checked out because the new educational environment will be more responsive to them.
336
CD-ROM-based materials can be made available on a stand-alone and networked bases, while
Web-based ones can be more accessible as they are not related to a specific location.
Eventually, these tools are likely to provide impetus for numerous academic studies.
With the advent of ICT, the use of the traditional four-wall classroom is no longer the
only option for teaching and learning. The computer becoming part and parcel of most facets
of modern life, the virtual classroom has become a viable option for the facilitation of
learning (Frizler, 1995). In such an open context of learning, technology provides students
with a real, diverse audience of co-learners from around the world. They are no longer limited
by the confines of the classroom or even the campus. Rather, they can have access to world
citizens of the global village thanks to the Internet and its concomitant technologies.
ICT-based distance education makes EFL/ESL learning more accessible for both local
and international learners of all age groups and skill levels. In particular, this mode of learning
is most beneficial to those who have physical limitations which prevent them from attending
traditional classes and those who have little access to native speakers or natural language and
cannot afford to study in an English-speaking country.
VI.2.2. Implications for the Teacher
As a result of the ICT incorporation efforts, several transformations in education have

affected the teacher, including her roles within the educational institution. To assume these
new roles, the teacher needs to be trained for them first. This structural change brings about,
as expected, both approval and resistance. In a study by Gilmore (1998), it was concluded that
teacher training has a positive impact on the attitudes of teachers towards ICT. Christensen
(1997) reported on many studies which found that the more teachers use technology, the
more they feel confident and comfortable in using technology for teaching. She also reported
on an undated study by Stuckman and Knapke which found that the teachers who
experienced success with computers readily sought additional training to enhance their
competencies.
Pelton and Pelton (1996) conducted a research study in which they sought to pin down
the correlation between teacher attitudes and acceptance of ICT. Their conclusion is that
teachers do not attempt to introduce ICT in education despite their awareness of its
importance because they lack knowledge of the field and confidence in using ICT, which lack
of confidence then leads to anxiety and reluctance to use technology (p. 167). Albion
(1996) ascribed this lack of confidence to inadequate teacher preparation. Goldstein (1997)
337
reported that teacher supervisors (inspectors) in the UK confirmed that teachers lacked
confidence and knowledge about the variety of computer applications made at their disposal.
Nevertheless, the blame should not be put solely on teachers, as there might be other factors
that delay or obstruct the integration of ICT in the teaching and learning operation. Selwyn et
al. (2001) note that teachers have long been thought to have shown a propensity for
doggedly resisting ICT integration, whereas in reality teachers attempting to assimilate
ICT into their practice have been hindered by a complex mix of barriers.
Gilmore (1998) posits that the reasons for the evasion of computer use among university
teachers include fear of change, lack of time, lack of knowledge about information
technology resources for specific course content, and rapid changes in hardware and software
developments. She goes on to cite other relevant reasons such as lack of financial reward and
academic recognition as important incentives that can prompt university faculty to engage in
computer-based course delivery. Another reason why some teachers are not interested in
adopting CALL is that they find it embarrassing when students display greater mastery of
ICT. Students come to school or university with more knowledge about ICT than their own
teachers, which constitutes an advantage for the former and a disadvantage for the latter.
Some teachers attribute this electronic skill lag to lack of the necessary time to devote to
learning ICT. Be that as it may, it is important for teachers to keep up with the latest ICT
breakthroughs.
This said, one should not exclude the psychological impact of the infusion of ICT in the
pedagogical realm on the teachers confidence in using it. Although some teachers are aware
of the fact that the introduction of ICT perforce entails a redefinition of their roles, others are
wary of hidden intentions. As noted by Tanguay (1997), some of them are afraid that
computers will someday replace English teachers. The anxiety index used to measure
attitudes in this study is constituted of items that refer to the subversive role of the computer
in education. However, this does not mean that computers are used in reform to replace the
teacher, but to help her in attaining the ultimate objective of teaching, namely student
achievement. As Tanguay (op. cit.) put it, [h]umans are powerful and computers are
powerful, and together, they are extremely powerful. Although there are some researchers in
the field who think that computers will eventually replace teachers (Hoffman 1995/1996), it is
an undesirable move. There will always be a need for a human teacher who facilitates
learning through the effective use of ICT, which lets the teacher focus on interaction and
338
individualized academic assistance. Frizler (1995) described the eventual replacement of
teachers by computers as a myth that will never materialize.
VI.2.2.1. New Roles for the Teacher
As blended learning gathers momentum, the number of teaching staff can be reduced,
not necessarily in the sense of laying them off, but in the sense of redeploying them as new
classes will have to be created to answer the growing and diverse needs of the next generation
students. This redeployment of teachers entails re(de)fining their roles in ICT-based
education. Therefore, they need to realize that ICT is meant to supplement rather than
supplant conventional education and that CALL is an add-on rather than an alternative. As the
computer takes on roles in the educational scene, the teacher should adopt new roles in such a
way that they complement each other. By providing a valuable insight into the possibilities
now available, the computer takes on the role of manager of learners and learning, a resource,
a tool for communication. None of these roles have been mastered by the teacher so far.
With the advent of CALL and the refinement of teaching methodologies, the roles of the
teacher (and that of the learner for that matter) have evolved considerably, the importance
accorded to the teacher having slowly ceded to the learner. Time has come when a real shift
from teacher-centered education to learner-centered education imposes itself. The
introduction of ICT in the educational scene has brought about a change in the relationship
between teachers and students. The teachers main role has changed from dispensing
knowledge to managing learning; that is, there is a shift from being an instructor and spoon-
feeder to playing a more humane role as a facilitator, helper or counselor for students. To put
it differently, as learning will be increasingly effected in a self-access mode, teachers need to
be present for counseling and guidance rather than instruction.
Within this new framework and as counselors, teachers can give advice concerning
effective learning strategies. They can also play the role of mentors by setting themselves as
successful models for their students to follow. This change bodes well for the student and the
teacher. Instead of giving lectures and providing resources, teachers can now give guidelines
and suggestions for further research. They are not supposed to provide answers or solutions to
every single learning issue; nor are they obliged to design learning content. Rather, they orient
students to specific resources and encourage them to be self-reliant by teaching them how to
find information, and not giving it to them. However, as mentioned earlier, there is a
compelling need for professional needs-based training in order for teachers to play these new
roles effectively.
339
VI.2.2.2. CALL and the Need for Innovative Teacher Training
As found in the present study and previous research (cf. Christensen, 1997; Gilmore,
1998, among others), training in ICT for educational purposes fosters positive attitudes that
eventually lead to endorsement of CALL. Therefore, the need for a new approach to teacher
training is clearly called for. Additionally, it should be recalled that the NCET focuses
primarily on teacher training when it comes to integrating ICT in the educational process (cf.
Article 119 of the NCET, II.2.2). However, in a follow-up interview with two teacher trainers
from the CPR (Centre Pdagogique Regional) and the ENS (Ecole Normale Suprieure)
reported in Chapter IV, no link whatsoever is made in the mind of trainers or trainees between
the NCET and the training in which they are involved. What is more, whatever tasks or
courses relating to ICT integration facilitated at these teacher training institutions are the
result of individual efforts. However, in a comprehensive report by Moursund and Bielefeldt
(1999), it is stated that teacher training programs in the US too do not provide pre-service
teachers with the necessary skills to get them ready to effectively use ICT in their classrooms.
That is, constant readjustments of the training programs are required to comply with the
changing needs of teachers and learners and the rapidly changing technology. Therefore, no
training program should wait for all conditions to be perfectly met before launching ICT in
education.
It is to some extent true that new teachers have often been frustrated by the results that
ICT has delivered, either because they are themselves skeptic of its potential or because they
have not received adequate training in how to incorporate it into their teaching programs. It is,
therefore, incumbent upon teacher trainers to familiarize themselves with the various
educational uses of the computer so as to be able to transfer these skills to pre-service teachers
who will be responsible for implementing the stipulations of the NCET and eventually expand
the scenarios for the use of computers in language learning. The question that arises, however,
is: Will all teachers be cooperative enough to make the ICT integration process a success?
That some teachers resist change is a usual phenomenon. Such resistance is sometimes
manifested in the indifference and passivity on their part or the negative stand they adopt
regarding the utility of ICT. Some of them put into question the very legitimacy of the
change, arguing for maintaining the status quo to supposedly avoid an unnecessary disruption
of the educational system. By and large, those who reject change seem to do so out of
complacency or fear of the upheavals that the introduction of ICT in the educational scene
might bring about. One way to dispel these fears is by providing innovative training that
340
focuses on raising pre-service teachers awareness about the educational power of ICT.
Therefore, the need for a new professional approach to teacher training arises. According to
Laffey and Musser (1998), the main change that pre-service teachers fear is the impact that
ICT integration might have on the student-teacher relationship and their role in the classroom.
A well-rounded teacher training program should normally focus on all these elements to help
the would-be teachers in their prospective ICT integration efforts.
One of the results reported in the descriptive part of the present study indicates that
prior ICT training has a positive impact on teacher attitudes. However, the discrete chi-square
value for the role of pre-service ICT training in the adoption of CALL does not support the
existence of a positive consequence (see Table 6.20). One implication of this is that pre-
service teachers are more likely to adopt ICT for personal and professional purposes after
receiving training on how to use it. Concurrently, it is important to realize the need for in-
service training for experienced teachers as well. Additionally, computer-centered teacher
training should not overemphasize technical matters at the expense of pedagogical concerns.
Both components should go in parallel to satisfy the ever growing requirements of educational
technology and the day-to-day classroom needs of the teacher. It is therefore incumbent upon
educational authorities to elaborate an integrated teacher-support program using the expertise
of trained mentor peers. Gilmores (1998) study, which investigated the impact of training on
the attitudes of university faculty, reports on several types of ICT training models, but the
models with the most success are workshops, one-on-one training, and colleague mentoring.
Evaluation and follow-up are also important considerations. However, for teacher training to
be efficient, the necessary ICT infrastructure should be in place.
In order to ensure a successful ICT integration in the educational system, a methodical

approach to teacher training needs to be put in place, an approach based on several training
sessions drawing on several aspects of the educational use of ICT rather than a one-shot
training workshop based on one aspect of CALL. At the same time, special care should be
taken to cater for the diverse needs of teachers by further examining methods of ICT training.
The objective being to effectively use ICT in the educational process, pre-service teachers
should be encouraged to examine cases where the focus is on technology use, and not on the
technology itself, in combination with their own learning about technology, and tasks that
focus on the production of useful resources for teachers when they move into the field
Gillingham and Topper (1999:311). In addition, experienced teachers should take the lead in
ICT integration given their past involvement in in-service training. As a result of these
341
training efforts, both pre-service and experienced teachers should be able to identify the
benefits of ICT to maximize learning and facilitate the acquisition of transferable skills. Not
only will this training enable them to differentiate between appropriate and inappropriate uses
of ICT for teaching and learning, but it will also help them identify, select, and use hardware
and software resources that have been especially designed to meet specific educational
objectives.
At a later stage, the ongoing training and the expertise acquired on the ground will help
teachers get involved in the design process of CALL materials and so be able to connect ELT
content with ICT standards and meet the diverse needs of the rising student populations
whose ICT skills grow faster than those of their predecessors. With this gradual ICT
integration approach, teachers will be more comfortable with ICT-based course delivery and
computer-based assessment. This strategy is beneficial for both the teaching community and
the educational authorities, as it is likely to enhance the standards of education in Morocco,
thus reflecting the current best practices in ICT-based teaching and learning across the globe.
VI.2.2.3. CALL and Courseware Design
One of the most important outcomes of ICT integration that is related to both the new
roles of the teacher and teacher training is the involvement of the teaching community in the
courseware design. Ideally, an informed CALL designer is knowledgeable about both Applied
Linguistics and Computational Linguistics. With the growing use of computers in the field,
teachers should face up to a new reality characterized by the rising ICT-driven generations
and the ubiquity of digital materials of all sorts. Therefore, one of the key functions that future
teachers should have is to author courseware materials to meet the learning needs of their
students. That is, they should be designers and developers of courseware rather than just users
or consumers of pre-packed CALL materials.
In many parts of the world, teachers still consider themselves as implementers of CALL
who at best are incapable of developing their own courseware. However, as more and more
teachers will wish to control their own content, they need to be trained to develop or author
CALL materials tailored to the requirements of their own pedagogical environment. The
advantage of the teacher being author of her own CALL materials is that she can be sure that
all students do benefit from these materials as they are meant to be integrated into the course.
The teacher/designer in this case acts as the architect of the learning project and thus is
unrestricted by copyright regulations that prohibit the user to copy, modify or redesign the
materials. According to McCarthy (1994), some of the factors that influence the design and
342
content of courseware include student age, linguistic and cultural background, the status of the
language being taught, and the reasons for learning it. The teacher is in a better position to
study the effectiveness of the courseware in the specific context of the learners. According to
McCarthy (1998), the teacher/designer can assume several responsibilities such as
establishing a linguistic corpus, structuring the linguistic content and presenting it in a simple,
lucid and logical manner.
VI.2.3. Implications for the Learner
ICT integration will not only revolutionize the ways in which courses are delivered by
teachers but it will also transform the ways in which students learn. Because ICT can
individualize learning through its customizable tools, students can make progress on a subject
at their own paces; moreover, those who lag behind can receive additional interpersonal
attention from the teacher. As an add-on to conventional teaching and learning, the computer
proves to be effective in reducing the amount of time for learning of subject matter and in
fostering autonomy in learners, who are more likely to assume the responsibility of their own
learning better than in other paradigms. Additionally, computers never get impatient or
moody, as they can wait and repeat several times without embarrassing the learner when
she/he makes mistakes.
VI.2.3.1. The Potential of ICT and CALL Effectiveness
ICT has several potentials in language education. From the point of view of the learner,
ICT is a motivation booster because it can accommodate multiple learning styles. ICT is not
an independent technology, but rather it integrates a number of technologies that can be used
in a discrete or integrative manner. Research suggests that students with different learning
styles benefit from different technologies. Multimedia courseware, for example, has major
implications for students who have difficulty learning in a print environment. Simulations,
hypermedia, video and voice annotations offer alternate modes of learning. Whereas analytic
learners may experience greater academic success from simulation software, non-analytic
learners benefit more from tutorial, drill and practice software. In other words, CALL lends
itself to various learning styles through its use of multiple media (multimedia and
hypermedia).
By and large, students of different ages and ability levels consider CALL to be more
motivating than conventional methods of teaching. This boosted motivation can be attributed
to the students active engagement in the learning process, the ability to make mistakes
343
without embarrassment, the instantaneous feedback, the graphic and game format of the
computer, and the feeling of control (responsibility) it gives to the learner. Several studies,
including the case study reported in the present work (in which 24 professional learners took a
three-month E-learning program), support the effectiveness of CALL in achievement. One of
the greatest advantages of using ICT in language education is its ability to create the type of
interaction that fosters acquisition. Such interaction is crucial for constant communication
between students and teachers and for constant improvement of achievement, enhancing
learning and performance. The interactive features of CALL such as animated tutorials and
instant feedback provide more options for learners to be proactive in their learning endeavors.
For Gunawardena et al. (1998:141), interaction is the process through which negotiation of
meaning and co-creation of knowledge occurs in a constructivist learning environment. It
should be noted, however, that interaction must not be confounded with learning. Interaction
is more a means by which the learner can enhance understanding and improve interpersonal
connections (Paulsen, 1995) than an end in itself. The strength of CALL here relates to its
ability to create a rich learning environment and a situation in which learners can interact with
the learning materials.
Multimedia, as one of the features of current CALL materials, allows for the integration
of the four language skills and fosters interactive learning in an exciting, dynamic and
autonomous learning environment. Additionally, it caters for a wide range of learning styles
and creates an environment in which students are exposed to authentic contexts in the target
language. Never before have students been able to explore learning scenarios as made
possible by the current CALL materials, which include graphic interfaces, animated pictures,
videos, and soundtracks. Multimedia CALL materials have major implications for students
who have had difficulty learning in a conventional setting. Simulations, hypermedia, and
voice recognition tools offer alternate modes of teaching and evaluation. Multimedia has often
been praised for its motivating effect, as it can keep students engaged in their learning. This
engagement allows learners to approach CALL material with their own agendas and their own
actions. They are not passive learners since they need to think about the language, engage
with it and respond to it. With the development of artificial intelligence, multimedia CALL
has improved a great deal as it can now simulate reality by providing quasi-authentic
situations of language use and state-of-the-art speech recognition. Advanced CALL
technologies can administer customized lesson sequences that branch according to each
students unique needs, automatically tract progress, perform data analysis and generate
344
reports. Not only will this state of affairs allow the teacher to provide individual attention to
every learning need, but it will also help her evaluate and improve the learning environment.
All these improvements foster efficiency in learning.
VI.2.3.2. CALL, Self Access and Autonomy
The provision of a tool and an environment through which learners could autonomously
develop their language skills has been one of the rationales behind the development of CALL.
Given the multimedia nature of language, it seems that CALL is capable of providing a
certain degree of autonomy in language learning by delivering self-study materials in a
flexible environment. In fact, the use of the computer as an integral self-access resource has
been shown to raise self-esteem among users, thus reducing learner anxiety and increasing the
level of autonomy. Usually, self access is associated with the promotion of autonomy in
learning (cf. Sheerin, 1997; Sturtridge, 1997; Little, 2001; Littlemore, 2001). In fact, the
notion of self access in language learning is not new, as it is not related exclusively to
computers. It was originally conceived to refer to environments that can be freely (without
teacher control) accessed by language learners (cf. Holec, 1987; Little, 1989). Hoven
(1997:199) defines autonomy as:
the ability to function as an (autonomous) individual, seeking help and

negotiating meaning with others (whether they be teachers, counsellors, native
speakers of the target language, other non-native-speaking learners, computer
software programs, or other sources of language text), when the
situation/environment presents the opportunity or when self-evaluation or
monitoring dictates the need.
The contribution of self access to autonomy lies in the opportunities it provides for
language learners to explore a wide array of language resources without being directed by a
teacher. In such an environment, learning takes place through the exploration of language
materials, be they in print format (books, encyclopedias, dictionaries, etc.), analog format
(audio cassettes, video cassettes, microfiche, etc.) or digital format (CD-ROMs, DVDs, the
Web, etc.). It is believed that interaction with these self-access materials fosters greater
learning autonomy.
With the advent of the Web and multimedia in the early 1990s, self access gained
momentum in language education because it provides the learner with a great deal of
autonomy, i.e., the choice of when, where, and how to learn. Additionally, because students
can learn at their own pace, fast-learning students are not held back by slower students. In this
student-centered environment, learners are given freedom to pursue their own interests and
methods of learning. Concurrently, this freedom entails the inculcation of some degree of
345
responsibility in learners who must possess initiative and self-discipline to study on their own,
perform tasks, and complete assignments. Thus, ICT is not simply used to perform tasks more
efficiently, but rather to consider possibilities for action and engagement otherwise not
possible toward the goal of maximizing learner autonomy and empowerment. The
effectiveness of autonomous learning can be measured by the participation of students in
courses that use ICT for course delivery, increased motivation, and higher rates of retention.
Pratt (1993) reports on a British project, dubbed Pupils as Autonomous Learners Using
Microcomputers, in which students were given laptops to use both at home and at school
when need be. However, if British students were lucky enough to be born in a G8 country
whose ministry of education can afford to subsidize laptop computers, many students in
countries of the South are denied the opportunity of having access to obsolete computers in
their own schools. These unlucky students would have to wait till 2005 to rejoice over UN-
subsidized laptops announced by Kufi Annan, the UN Secretary General, at the International
Conference on Information Technology, held in Tunisia in September 2005. At the turn of the
century, language teaching methodology too underwent a major transformation with the shift
from a purely communicative approach to a more socio-cognitive approach based on
constructivism, in which students are given more freedom (autonomy) to manipulate language
in order to construct their own model of learning. As students make sense of information by
placing it in the proper context and determine whether it is of use to them, they are said to
have constructed their own knowledge.
With the changes in teacher roles, learning becomes more task-based than knowledge-
based. With the rising digital culture, students will not find difficulty in finding the
information they need for their courses, be they language-based or content-based. With the
growing ubiquity of computers and prevalence of Internet connectivity, more information has
become easily accessible to the majority of students with a mouse click. Therefore, it is more
profitable for them to perform tasks in which they have an opportunity to manipulate
language and learn new items than just to receive instruction based on knowledge.
Be that as it may, it has been noted by students and teachers alike that access to
computers in some equipped schools in Morocco is very much restricted. What is more is that
when students are granted access to computer labs, they are accompanied by a teacher or
technician who usually intervenes to correct students interaction with the computer, an
interviewed teacher said. This state of affairs cannot be said to foster autonomy in any way
because not only are computers under control but students freedom to use them is restricted
346
as well. For the teacher to reap the yield of self access, they need to keep a distance with their
students after assigning them research projects or tasks to perform on their own. As such, the
computer is meant to be a mechanism by which knowledge can be generated and consulted. In
addition, the more comfortable students are with CALL materials the more they manipulate
the language being taught/presented. While the teacher in this paradigm still has significant
control over class activities, it is not direct control but rather control that stems from
structured tasks assigned to students. Thus, the student gains more and more freedom to
decide on her own course content and learning path.
VI.2.3.3. CALL and Collaborative Learning
As the computer plays a mediating role among students and teachers, ICT creates a
collaborative environment in which students provide feedback and reinforcement to one
another as they go about solving problems cooperatively. This is true both when they work at
the same computer in a self-access center or a computer lab or when they use their own
personal computers at home. In comparison to solitary computer work, working in a small
group at the computer is likely to enhance learning and improve achievement. Using
synchronous and asynchronous Internet tools, students can collaborate more frequently at
their convenience. They are likely to be involved in a variety of different tasks that develop
expertise in differing language areas. In an environment that fosters collaborative learning,
students are likely to consult fellow students as well as the teacher on sources of information,
appropriate materials and so on. As can be noted, the relationship between the teacher and the
learner at this stage is not much different from that between two learners.
Practicing the oral language skills (listening and speaking) in a natural way with peers
requires the concurrent existence of more than one student. Therefore, collaborative learning
here becomes a necessity rather than a supplement. The computer and particularly the Internet
can play a crucial role in developing this kind of collaboration among students. For example,
a group of students working on the same project might use telephony via IP to discuss
different aspects or parts of their project and exchange attachments and relevant materials.
Thanks to the facilitating power of ICT, which has provided new and easy ways of
communication among students, collaborative projects can now be effected much more
conveniently than has otherwise been possible. In addition, finalized collaborative projects
can be easily transferred using a number of media and storage devices.
347
VI.2.3.4. CALL and the Expansion of Learning Opportunities
As mentioned earlier, the use of ICT in language education fosters the expansion of
learning opportunities as there is virtually no limit to the number of students who can enroll in
a course at the same time. Moreover, ICT is believed to have the power to equalize learning
opportunities although it may create a digital gap (cf. Warschauer, 2002). Through distance
learning, students can be offered learning opportunities that may not be available locally.
They can also engage in long-term, on-line exchanges with experts and develop mentor
relationships. With the widespread use of the Internet, several educational services have
begun offering online connections that allow students to communicate with peers in the target
language both synchronously and asynchronously.
Learning is transformed through an authentic, real-world context. That is, students can
have access to the same resources as professionals and produce work that can have value
outside the school context. The expansion of learning opportunities for students is definitely
going to contribute to the quantity of intake and the quality of content, thus raising the
standards of education as a whole. In a nutshell, such learning can undermine the notion of the
educational institution as a physical space, as there is more talk about distributed classrooms,
e-learning and m-learning as buzz words in Educational Technology.
Another closely related implication for language learners is that informal learning can
be as effective as formal learning. That is, a lot more learning can take place in an informal
setting such as cyber space, as when surfing the Net or chatting with key-pals, than within the
confines of the classroom setting. From a macro educational point of view, this is tantamount
to the expansion of the potential of educational institutions in terms of capacity. More and
more students and more and more learning opportunities are likely to be created in such an
open environment. Through ICT-based distance learning, educational institutions increase
their revenues and bring learning opportunities to a population of potential students who
otherwise would not be able to attend a traditional course. This, in addition, might be a good
incentive to dropouts who would like to resume their education in a flexible manner.
The main thrust of the foregoing section has been to look into some implications of ICT
integration in foreign language education for society at large and for the teacher and the
learner in particular. Thus, it has been noted that ICT has impacted positively on the new
generations with widespread electronic literacy being a major characteristic of the rising
information society. Such social transformation has attested to the revolutionary reform in
education where ICT proves to be a cost-effective alternative to conventional course delivery
348
and where the notion of physical space is put into question. In this new context, the teacher is
faced with the need to play new roles in the teaching operation, among which there is the role
of CALL designer, which requires prior training. Teacher training in ICT has become a
necessity not only as a designer of CALL, but also as a consumer. Some implications that
have been stated for the learner include the potential of ICT in rendering language learning
more effective and the learner more autonomous. ICT is motivating because it gives the
feeling of being in control of ones learning. Thanks to CALL, collaborative learning has
become more feasible and rewarding and more and more learning opportunities are created.
In the light of the findings of the study and the implications discussed above, the
following section puts forward recommendations for various parties involved in education.
VI.3. Recommendations
The ultimate purpose of these recommendations is to contribute to maximizing the

educational benefits and minimizing the limitations of using ICT in education in an attempt to
develop the confidence of language students and teachers. These recommendations are not
meant to provide ready to use solutions or implementation procedures, but, rather, to provide
insight based on informed investigations and the findings of the research study. Essentially,
the recommendations are made for improvements in CALL and research that is needed to
inform CALL practices.
VI.3.1. Teacher Training for Effective CALL Implementation
Throughout the process of conducting research for this thesis, several themes and topics
emerged repeatedly. From the feedback received from respondents and interviewees, one of
the key concerns in ICT integration is teacher training in computer skills, which training is
meant to enable teachers to fully take part in CALL. Therefore, it is suggested that a full-
fledged teacher training program be in place before actually seeing CALL being implemented
to the benefit of educational institutions at large and that of the learner in particular. For a
sound and comprehensive teacher training program to achieve its goal of effective ICT
integration, the collaboration of educationalists, teachers, students and administrative staff is
called for. Such training should obviously go beyond the point of computer awareness
(knowledge about ICT) of mere computer literacy (basic ICT skills). An effective training in
the educational uses of ICT is expected to equip teachers with the skills that are appropriate
for the grade level and courses they are teaching or they will be called upon to teach.
349
As the results of the present study have determined the existence of a relationship
between teacher training in ICT and attitudes towards CALL, which, in turn, have a bearing
on CALL endorsement, specific recommendations regarding improvement of teacher
education have been identified:
1- elaborating full-fledged training programs at the national level (teacher training

institutions), regional level (academies), and local level (schools and universities), dispensing
appropriate training in terms of skills, knowledge, relevance to educational goals, and
delivery;
2- conducting piloting projects and organizing seminars, workshops, and tutorials to

ensure ongoing teacher development, thus encouraging progression beyond initial training and
making ICT literacy a lifelong concern for teachers, who should become more aware of the
value and benefits of ICT to themselves and their students;
3- making a clear link between ICT integration and the reform efforts in the mind of
pre-service teachers so as to contribute to the success of computer-based education;
4- reassuring teachers that ICT integration is not in the least meant to make them
redundant, but, rather, to help them perform their tasks in a way that complies with the
demands of the current job market and the need of the new generations of students, which
amounts to building strategic ICT planning and budgeting into the long-term development of
all teachers whose careers progress along a management line.
Moreover, opportunities for continuing professional development (in-service training)

need to be available on an ongoing basis, i.e. not only the one-off event but also opportunities
for teachers to go on developing at a pace which suits their circumstances and resources. It
should also be pointed out that training must be focused on the types of ICT resources
available to teachers in the workplace. This is so because training in the use of ICT resources
before putting them at the disposal of teachers on a day-to-day basis may result in frustration,
demotivation and wasted effort. In addition, training must enable teachers to work with a
range of computers and operating systems in such a way as to be able to transfer the learned
skills to various environments. Although educational authorities are moving towards a
standardized approach in terms of hardware and operating systems, teachers still need to be
able to transfer their skills between different types of systems.
350
VI.3.2. Provision of ICT Equipment and the Issue of Access
Normally, planning and training should come before the purchase and installation of
equipment. Unfortunately, in many cases, ICT is introduced into schools before any plans are
made to train teachers to use it in educational work areas. Therefore, it is advised to identify
or predict potential ICT additions that may be incorporated with effective training from the
outset in order to increase the likelihood of adoption by teachers. For the teacher training
objectives to be achieved, educational institutions must be equipped with the necessary ICT
materials that would enable teachers and students to engage in CALL. However, educational
decision-makers are expected to encourage ICT use and make sure that the purchased
computer configurations are exploited to the full by:
1- providing computer equipment, which must be commensurate with the current ICT
skills of teachers and students so as not to run the risk of under-exploiting functions that are
not immediately needed;
2- ensuring unrestricted access to ICT at the educational institution so as to encourage

CALL adoption by both teachers and students who need to be made aware of the existence of
ICT within their own school (e.g. location and availability), as well as broadening awareness
of a wide range of ICT resources, with less emphasis on word-processing and more on the
potential of underused resources such as video conferencing;
3- addressing issues of inequity in educational use of ICT and creating mechanisms that
encourage computer ownership and ensure equitable access to hardware, software, Internet
connectivity, and digital content for all students, teachers and institutions;
4- providing constant technical support to encourage access to ICT, reinforce CALL

use, keep motivation high, and avoid the feeling of frustration.
In addition to all this, educational authorities should strive to learn from past
experiences of developed countries that have now made big strides in CALL and those of
developing countries that are in the same situation as Morocco. Cossa (2002) reports on a
study by Miller (1997), conducted in an African country, according to which a successful
integration of ICT in schools takes time and goes through five stages, which he terms:
introduction, entry, intermediate, penultimate and creation. However, for this evolution to be
carried out successfully, the necessary ICT infrastructure (hardware and software) needs to be
in place and the necessary funds should be allocated to ensure an unhampered implementation
of CALL. Morocco, as an emerging developing country, also has constraints having to do
351
with funding and infrastructure. However, knowledge and experience gained from educational
ICT integration in developed countries can help a great deal in speeding up the integration
process in developing countries and reducing the cost and time required for adopting CALL.
As reported by Cossa (op.cit.), some international development agencies, which donate
computers and offer training in ICT, expect teachers and students in developing countries to
move from the introduction phase to the creation phase in a period estimated at one to three
years. Therefore, efforts should be made to recoup investment by optimizing the use of
equipment.
VI.3.3. Commitment to CALL and Incentives Schemes
To ensure a serious commitment to CALL on the part of teachers who are expected to
play a leading role in disseminating best practice information on ICT use, educational
authorities and administrative staff should work out a scheme whereby teachers receive some
sort of incentives as a sign of recognition and a boost to their motivation. In such a positive
environment, teachers are likely to go beyond mere consumption of imported CALL materials
to embark on the production of courseware that answers the immediate learning needs of local
student populations. Thus, ICT integration efforts should be geared towards:
1- starting with blended learning as an in-between mode of learning whereby the teacher
dispenses hybrid courses using conventional methods and ICT-based methods and
administering computer-based tests to place students and diagnose their language needs;
2- encouraging CALL production and authoring by endorsing teacher initiatives and

contributions;
3- involving administrative staff in the ICT integration process by making them play a
positive role in the coordination of teacher efforts, which must be supported and recognized;
4- offering incentives to leading teachers and students who prove to engage in the ICT
integration process.
Moreover, mechanisms whereby teachers are supported in identifying and evaluating

the CALL resources appropriate to their needs should be in place. This way, teachers will
make informed decisions about CALL and are likely to pluck up enough courage to embark
on CALL design or at least courseware authoring, which is much more feasible. As more and
more teachers get involved in educational uses of ICT, commitment to pursuing CALL should
thrive vigorously. Leading teachers have a particular role to play in encouraging the use of
352
ICT because they exhibit awareness about the benefits of ICT in all contexts and because they
can set themselves as CALL practitioner models.
VI.3.4. Funding Allocations for Research and Development
In spite of the fact that the budget allocated to scientific research in Morocco is too slim
to cover the expenses required by the constant development of all educational fields, efforts
should be made to align resource allocations with teachers and students expectations and
enhance standards of education. Thus, teachers, administrators and educational authorities
need to adopt continuous improvement strategies to measure progress and adjust accordingly
within the available funds. Moreover, active action should be taken to seek out funds from
national and international donor organizations to speed up the ICT integration process and
pass the quality threshold in order to be more competitive. There is no doubt that local
research and development in CALL will encourage the teachers and students who come from
regions that are not yet involved in CALL to subscribe to the efforts being made, thus
reducing the digital divide that might exist between urban centers and rural areas.
To ensure ongoing progress in CALL, it is important that further research and

development be conducted by increasing investment in education and raising funds from local
corporate sponsors who are likely to recruit candidates from the institutions in question. That
is, research centers and higher education institutions should not rely on the ministry of
education as the sole source of funds for research and development. The authorities must
make funds available for CALL program evaluation and research into the impact of ICT on
student achievement and the way in which it can improve the quality of education.
Additionally, data on how ICT can help in the achievement of educational objectives are
needed to inform the research and development efforts.
VI.3.5. Recommendation for Further Research
The present research study does not claim a thorough coverage of ICT-related issues in
language education. Although its main focus has been the assessment of CALL effectiveness
via the elicitation of teachers and students attitudes towards the use of ICT in language
education, it has also touched upon several relevant topics having to do with CALL, including
a case study on a group of Moroccan e-learners. However, the work remains broad in focus as
it has dealt with the use of ICT in language education in general. Prospective studies might be
concerned with the effect of CALL on specific language areas such as vocabulary
development, grammar, the four language skills, etc. Further research could also be conducted
353
on the use of ICT in content-based education. It is important to know if the results of the
attitude survey on language education are applicable to other subject areas where a language
is not being taught.
If ICT integration perforce transforms educational practices, additional research is

warranted to determine the relationship between the new paradigms and the development of
transferable skills among learners. How is ICT likely to benefit students in their future
careers? Will ICT-based education be considered as an added value by their potential
employers? What new skills can students learn on their own as a result of CALL use?
This study focused on the teachers (pre-service and experienced) and learners (academic
and professional), but further research needs to take into consideration the parents point of
view and/or the decision-makers perspective. Are the parents more satisfied with the
performance of their children when they use ICT in their learning? Does ICT allow parents to
keep a close eye on their childrens learning activities and facilitate follow-up, intervention
and support? As for the educational authorities, it is essential for them to know if the
investments made in ICT integration have actually delivered the goods. Was the equipment
cost worth the investment? How long can it be used before it becomes obsolete? What
software license is suitable to the educational institutions in terms of cost and convenience?
While the present work has dealt with the use of, rather than the production of CALL,
prospective research can investigate teacher engagement in educational technology and efforts
to start producing and authoring tailor-made CALL materials. How much time should
teachers spend being CALL practitioners before they can start producing CALL materials of
their own? What skills do they need to become courseware designers? Is CALL production a
cost-effective endeavor that is worth going into or is it more economical and practical to use
commercialized pre-packaged courseware materials?
The research study was conducted while educational reform was still under way, which
implies that students and teachers attitudes might have been affected by the incomplete ICT
integration process. A research question for future studies is: as individuals become
increasingly familiar with CALL, does the tendency of CALL adoption increase or decrease,
and do teachers and students attitudes change significantly towards ICT and CALL? Has the
reform been successful in fully integrating ICT in the teaching and learning operation? Has it
contributed to bridging the digital gap existing between the haves and have-nots? Will
Morocco be able to catch up with the developed countries in terms of computer literacy
among people involved in education (teachers, students, trainers, administrators, etc.)?
354
VI.4. Conclusion
The main thrust of the present chapter has been to look at the descriptive data through
the lens of inferential statistics. The results of the first two statistical tests were mainly
comparative as the analyses integrated both teachers and students, the major differences being
related to the variables of sex and CALL use in the MANOVA analysis and to computer
ownership in the chi-square analysis. The third statistical analysis (t-test), the purpose of
which was to compare the professional learners skill level before and after taking an E-
learning course, revealed that the use of ICT in their particular context and situation proved to
be effective, hence the improvement in the language skill levels.
On the basis of these findings and others referred to in the previous two chapters, some
relevant implications have been brought to the fore, in particular those that concern education
in general and those that concern students and teachers. The general implications that have
been discussed have to do with the social transformations resulting from the integration of
ICT in education, the role of ICT in implementing educational reform, the cost benefit of
CALL, awareness raising among all parties involved in the educational process, and the
impact of educational technology on conventional teaching methods. The implications for the
teacher touched upon new roles within an ICT-based educational framework, the need for
effective pre-service and in-service teacher training, and the possible involvement of teachers
in ICT-based course design. As for the implications for the learner, they were concerned with
the potential of ICT in answering the learning needs of students and the effectiveness of
CALL in promoting autonomy, collaboration and expansion of learning opportunities.
Finally, some recommendations were elaborated and suggested for educational

institutions and teachers who use or intend to use CALL in their language education/training
programs. These recommendations were targeted at improving teacher training for effective
CALL implementation, facilitating access to ICT, providing incentives to key educationists
who can enforce commitment to CALL, and allocating funds for research and development in
educational technology. Moreover, as the work focused on some aspects of CALL, some
relevant recommendations have been made for further research in this field.
355
General Conclusion
356
The ultimate objective of the present study has been to investigate the effectiveness of
using computers in language teaching and learning through the elicitation of teachers and
students attitudes towards the integration of ICT in language education. The objectives of
this study have been achieved through the elicitation of statistical data from two categories of
respondents, namely students and teachers, the examination of official ministerial documents
and national projects related to the use of ICT in education, and the evaluation of an e-
learning program in which the researcher was involved. Around 600 students and more than
200 teachers from different regions of Morocco participated in this investigation by filling out
a questionnaire and responding to a few interview questions. The latter data collection
instrument was mainly used as a follow-up technique targeting those who actually use CALL
in their daily teaching/learning practices. In addition to this main investigation, a case study
was carried out to find the extent to which using CALL as the main learning mode can deliver
the goods as far as effective learning progress is concerned.
The central research question of the present study was to see how the computer can
enhance academic standards in Morocco for both students and teachers. This has been
achieved through the elicitation of teachers and students attitudes towards ICT and their
perceptions of its usefulness in language teaching and learning. By and large, the students
attitudes towards CALL and the use of ICT in education were more positive than those of
teachers, the main reason being that the computer literacy rate among students is higher than
among teachers. To measure their attitudes, the researcher used several indices to show
students and teachers positions regarding six different aspects of computer-based education.
Other research questions have been investigated, and while some of them, like those related to
school computerization and teacher training, were answered using official documents from
ministerial departments in charge of education, others were answered using parts of the
survey questionnaires and follow-up interviews.
Undoubtedly, ICT-based teaching has affected many delivery modes across various
schools of thought, hence the ongoing transformations in conventional education. This
obviously requires teachers and students to constantly keep up with the developments in the
field by updating their knowledge of the new educational trends and through effective
training. As found in the present study, training in ICT and CALL has been one major
concern for the majority of teachers who believe that they are not trained well enough to
integrate computers in their daily practices. At the same time, educational authorities have
expressed their concern about the slow pace of ICT integration in the Moroccan system of
357
education. For example, the main projects aiming at integrating ICT in education, like Plan
2008 and MARWAN, have not met their objectives to date.
Given the positive attitudes of students and teachers towards CALL and the high hopes
that educational authorities and decision makers pin on enhancing the standards of education
and improving student achievement through the effective use of ICT, it can be easily
concluded that the future of computer-based education in Morocco is very promising. In fact,
all the reform endeavors undertaken by the Moroccan educational authorities consider ICT as
an integral part of the reform efforts. As expounded in Chapter II, the NCET hinges on ICT to
achieve the objectives of the reform by the year 2010. Additionally, to support these reform
efforts, several complementary projects have been launched to help meet the objectives,
although not within the times set at their inception, including the Plan 2008: une classe, un
multimdia et Internet,, E-Maroc, 10.000 engineers a year till 2010, to cite but few.
The structure of the present study has six chapters, including a literature review, which
provided a critical appraisal of the historical development of CALL (Chapter I), and
background information about ICT in Morocco, which has provided a foundation for the
research study as a whole (Chapter II). There were many aspects to the research design
adopted in this study (Chapter III). On the one hand, the collected data were described and
analyzed using descriptive statistics in two separate chapters, each of which dealing with a
category of respondents: students (Chapter IV) and teachers (Chapter V). Moreover, the data
drawn from the survey were supplemented when necessary by data drawn from follow-up
interviews. Student data were also supplemented by records registered by a focus group of
professional learners of English using an e-learning platform. On the other hand, an inferential
statistical analysis was undertaken in the final chapter before embarking on the discussion of
the findings and drawing conclusions (Chapter VI).
The main hypothesis test sought to find out if the variables of occupation, age,
sex, place of residence, computer literacy, computer ownership, and use of ICT
have any bearing on the respondents attitudes towards CALL using MANOVA. The analysis
of this hypothesis has shown that although both students and teachers exhibit positive
attitudes, the independent variable sex and the dependent variable CALL use impacted
the results. The second hypothesis test sought to find out if the variables computer
ownership, computer literacy, age, prior ICT training, and access to computers have
any significant effect on using CALL in education using the chi-square analysis, which has
revealed that computer ownership plays a central role in deciding to use CALL. Finally,
358
another inferential statistical test (t-test), which was used in the case study to compare the
professional learners skill level before and after taking an e-learning course, has shown that
using CALL makes a difference in their level of English.
The implications of these findings were found to be related to the social transformations
resulting from computerizing education, the role of ICT in the implementation of educational
reforms, the cost effective educational solutions brought by CALL, awareness among
teachers, students, parents, and authorities about the educational benefits of ICT, and the
impact of ICT on conventional teaching methods. New teacher roles have been identified in
the light of the pedagogical contribution brought by ICT. For example, in an ICT-dominated
educational setting, the teacher is seen as a model whose main role is to guide students to
achieve their learning goals, and not as a lecturer imparting knowledge into empty heads.
Other implications for the teacher touched upon the importance of pre-service and in-service
training in order for the teachers to be able to keep up with the growing need for computers in
education and keep abreast of the latest developments in the field of CALL and the various
educational uses of ICT. Another relevant implication for teachers is their possible
involvement in CALL materials design given their knowledge of the language skills to be
taught and their close relationship with students.
As for the implications for the learner, they were concerned with the potential of ICT in
answering the learning needs of students, the effectiveness of CALL in promoting autonomy,
the collaborative power of the computer, and the expansion of learning opportunities.
Students have apparently succeeded to develop some noticeable ease with ICT tools, which
enable them to learn in a way that matches their capabilities and answers their aspirations.
Besides, ICT has proved to be a means that lends itself to diverse learning styles as it can be
by itself a source of motivation given the learners control of the learning situation, thus
developing the ability to be more autonomous. Another aspect of the effectiveness of CALL is
its ability to create more collaborative learning situations among learners, both within the
classroom and beyond. In addition, CALL expands the learning opportunities of individual
students by providing more room for practicing the language being learned and various
stimulating tasks that foster learning. This expansion of learning opportunities concerns not
only the individual learner, but also the learning community as a whole because through ICT
educational institutions can reach out to more students than any time before.
In what follows, a summary of the major findings concerning students and teachers
attitudes towards ICT as a learning/teaching tool is given. Many independent variables were
359
used to measure attitudes, namely occupation (teacher vs. student), sex, CALL use,
age, place of residence, computer literacy, and computer ownership. Above all,
students presented slightly more favorable attitudes toward computers and CALL than did
teachers. Contrary to comparative statistics, the results of referential statistical tests indicated
that only sex and CALL use were influential variables that affected students and
teachers attitudes, especially as far as enjoyment, utility and familiarity are concerned.
Anxiety as a dependent variable was of more significance in intragroup comparison

(within the student subgroup and the teacher subgroup separately) than it was in intergroup
comparison (students vs. teachers). Thus, teachers and students who owned a computer at
home showed a more favorable disposition towards ICT use in education than those who did
not own one. Moreover, students and teachers from rural areas showed higher rates on anxiety
(frustration) than peers from urban centers. Moreover, while those who had Internet access at
home presented lower rates on anxiety, those who had no access to the Internet at home
showed more frustration through the high rates registered on the anxiety scale. Younger
teachers were more computer literate than older ones and thus showed lower rates on anxiety
than older teachers.
Although this work is meant to contribute to the ongoing research efforts in the field of
Educational Technology, it makes no pretence to covering all aspects of the topic under
investigation. Admittedly, it does not claim to be comprehensive or inclusive, neither in terms
of coverage nor in terms of the research design. Of course, more investigation in this direction
is needed for a fuller appreciation of computer-assisted language education. Some limitations
have been identified and further research into each of the following points is recommended:
- The computers potentials and shortcomings in language education in Morocco.
- Future developments in ICT infrastructure and professional training related to

computer-based language education in Morocco.
- Issues of quality in the design and delivery of computer-based language education.
- Computer-assisted language assessment and related backwash effects.
- The newly rising trend in Classroom 2.0 using social networking technology.
- Integration of ICT in the Moroccan university through the project termed Le

Campus Virtuel Marocain as an alternative to MARWAN.
- Case-studies on the impact of local projects such as Tarbiya and Madrassati.
360
References
Ahmad, K., Greville, C., Rogers. M., & Sussex R., 1985. Computers, Language Learning
and Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Albion, P. R. (1996). Student teachers use of computers during teaching practice in primary
classrooms. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 24(1), pp. 63-73.
Ager, R. (1998). Information and communications technology in primary schools: Children
or computers in control? London: David Fulton Publishers.
Agnaou, A. (1999). Integrating information and communications technology in education:
A focus on students and teachers attitudes. Unpublished major research paper for the
DESA degree. Fez: SMBA University. Available on line at http://www.agnaou.cjb.net.
Andrews, T. (1994). Videoconferencing: an interactive communication tool for distance
learners. On-CALL, 8(2), pp. 30-32.
APEBI. (2001). Contrat Progrs 2001. Casablanca: Association des Professionnels des
Technologies de lInformation.
Asher, J.L. (1977). Learning another language through actions: The complete teacher's
guidebook. Los Gatos, California: Sky Oaks Publications.
Atkinson, P. and Delamont, S. (1993). Bread and dreams or bread and circuses? A critique
of case study research in education. In M. Hammersley (ed.). Controversies in
classroom research, Buckingham: Open University Press.
Austin, R. and Mendlick, F. (1993). E-Mail in Modern Language Development. ReCALL, 9,
pp. 19-23.
Baack, S., Brown, T. and Brown, J. (1991). Attitudes Toward Computers: Views of Older
Adults Compared with Those of Younger Adults. Journal of Research in Computing,
23, pp. 422-433.
Barnes, S. B. (2003). Computer-mediated communication: Human-to-human
communication across the Internet. Boston: Allyn & Bacon Publishers.
Bassey, M. (1992). Creating education through research. British Educational Research
Journal, 18 (1), pp. 3-16.
Baud, D. and McDonald, R. (1991). Educational development through consultancy.
Guildford: SRHE.
Bauman, M. (1997). Online Learning Communities. Internet document, URL:
http://leahi.kcc.hawaii.edu/org/tcc_conf97/pres/bauman.html, retrieved June 20, 2000.
Behr, A.L. (1988). Empirical research methods for the human sciences. Durban:
Butterworths.
Berge, Z. and Collins, M. (1995). Computer-mediated communication and the online
classroom in distance learning. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
Bonk, C. and Cunningham, D. (1998). Searching for learner-centered, constructivist, and
sociocultural components of collaborative educational learning tools. In C. Bonk and K.
King (Eds.), Electronic collaborators (pp. 25-50). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
362
Box, S. (2003). CALL past, present and future. System, 31, pp. 13-48.
Brett, P.A. (1995). Multimedia for listening comprehension:- The design of a multimedia-
based resource for developing listening skills. System, 23, p.1.
Brooks, N. (1964). Language and language learning: Theory and practice. New York:
Hartcourt Brace.
Brown, J.D. (1988). Understanding research in second language learning: A teachers
guide to statistics and research design. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Brown, J. D. (1991). Statistics as a foreign language Part 1: What to look for in reading
statistical language studies. TESOL Quarterly, 25(4), pp. 569-586.
Brown, J. D. (1992). Statistics as a foreign language Part 2: More things to consider in
reading statistical language studies. TESOL Quarterly, 26(4), pp. 629-664.
Bruckman, A. (1996). InterMOO with MITs MUD Wizard Amy Bruckman People will
surprise you if you just give them a chance. Kairos Journal. 1(2). Internet document,
URL: http://english.ttu.edu/kairos/1.2, retrieved June 17, 2001.
Brumfit, C. J. and Johnson, K. (Eds.). (1979). The communicative approach to language
teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of Meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bull, S. (1994). Learning Languages: Implications for Student Modelling in ICALL,
ReCALL, 6(1), pp. 34-39.
Burkhardt, M. (1994). Social Interaction Effects Following a Technological Change: A
Longitudinal Investigation. Academy of Management Journal. 37(4), pp. 869-898.
Bush, M. and Terry, R. (Eds.) (1997). Technology-Enhanced Language Learning.
Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Company.
Cameron, S. (1994). Technology in the classroom: Proceed with caution. Computer-
Mediated Communication Magazine, 1(3), p. 9, Internet document, URL:
http://www.rpi.edu/~decemj/cmc/m ag/archive.html, retrieved June 02, 2000.
Castells, M. (1996). Rise of the Networked Society. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Castells, M. (1998). End of Millennium, Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Chamot, A.U. and O'Malley, J.M. (1996). The Cognitive Academic Language Learning
Approach: A model for linguistically diverse classrooms. Elementary School Journal,
January, pp. 259-273.
Chapelle, C. A. (1997). CALL in the year 2000: Still in search of research paradigms?
Language learning and Technology, 1(1), pp. 19 - 43.
Chapelle, C. A. (2000). Is network-based learning CALL? In M. Warschauer and R. Kern
(Eds.) Network-based Language Teaching: Concepts and Practice, (pp. 204-228).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Chapelle, C. A. (2001). Computer Applications in Second Language Acquisition:
Foundations for Teaching, Testing, and Research. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
363
Chapelle, C. A. and Jamieson, J. (1991). Internal and External Validity Issues in Research
on CALL effectiveness. In Dunkel, P. (Ed.) Computer-Assisted Language Learning and
Testing: Research Issues and Practice, (pp. 37-59). New York: Newbury House.
Chastain, K. (1976). Developing Second Language Skills: Theory to Practice, (2nd ed.).
Chicago: Rand McNally.
Chen, J. F. (1996). CALL is not a Hammer and not Every Teaching Problem is a Nail!
Changing Expectations of Computers in the Classroom. The Internet TESL Journal,
2(7). Internet document, URL: http://www.aitech.ac.jp/ ~iteslj/Articles/Chen-
CALL.html, retrieved June 20, 2000.
Chen, J., Belkada, S. and Okamoto, T. (2004). How a Web-based course facilitates
acquisition of English for academic purposes. Language Learning and Technology, 8(2),
pp. 33-49.
Chen, J.F. (1997). Computer generated error feedback and writing process: A link. TESL-
EJ, 2(3). Internet document, URL: http://violet.berkeley.edu/~cwp/TESL-
EJ/ej07/a1.html, retrieved October 30, 1999.
Chomsky, N. (1957). Syntactic Structures. The Hague: Mouton.
Chomsky, N. (1993). A minimalist program for linguistic theory. In Hale and Keyser (eds.)
The view from Building 20. Cambridge, MA.: MIT Press.
Christensen, R. (1997). Effect of Technology Integration Education on the Attitudes of
Teachers and their Students. Doctoral dissertation, University of North Texas, Denton.
Available online: http://courseweb.tac.unt.edu/rhondac, retrieved January 12, 2004.
Christensen, R. and Knezek, G. (2000). Internal Consistency Reliability for the Technology
in Education Competency Survey. New Orleans, LA: Preparing Tomorrows Teachers
Evaluator, American Educational Research Association.
Christophel, J., Hardy, C., Johnson, D., Kramer, K., Knezek, G., and Williams, S. (1998).
Analysis of Personality Types and Attitudes Toward Information Technology. Internet
document, URL: http://courseweb.tac.unt.edu/gknezek/personty.htm, retrieved
November 30, 2002.
Chun, D. M. and Plass, J. L. (2000). Networked multimedia environments for second
language acquisition. In M. Warshauer and R. Kern (Eds.), Network-based Language
Teaching: Concepts and Practice (pp. 151-170). New York: Cambridge University
Press.
Clark, C. L. (2000). Working the Web: A Students Research Guide, (2nd ed.). Orlando, FL:
Harcourt.
Cohen, L. and Manion, L., (1994), Research Methods in Education, (4th ed.). London and
New York: Routledge.
Connelly, F. M. and Clandinin, D. J. (1990). Stories of Experience and Narrative Inquiry.
Educational Researcher, 9(5), pp. 2-14.
Cossa, G.C. (2002). Implications of introducing Information and Communication
Technology in Mozambican schools. Unpublished M.Ed Thesis. University of Pretoria.
Internet document, URL: http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/generossa/cossaessay.doc,
retrieved March 20, 2006.
Crystal, D. (2001). Language and the Internet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
364
Curran, C. A. (1972). Counseling-Learning: A Whole Person Model for Education. Apple
River, IL: Apple River Press.
Davies, G. (1997). Lessons from the past, lessons for the future: 20 years of CALL. In
Korsvold A-K. and Rschoff B. (eds.) New Technologies in Language Learning and
Teaching, Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe.
Davies, G. and Higgins, J. (1982). Computers, Language and Language Learning, London:
CILT.
Davis, R. C. (1992). Multimedia support for studies in foreign language and culture. IBM
Higher Education: Supplement to T.H.E. Journal, March, pp. 36-37.
Dede, C. (1998). Six challenges for educational technology. An extended version of this
draft paper appeared in the 1998 ASCD Yearbook, Learning with Technology. Internet
document, URL: http://www.virtual.gmu.edu/ SS_research/cdpapers/ascdpdf.htm,
retrieved July 5, 2001.
Delcloque, P. (2000). History of CALL. Internet document, URL: http://www.history-of-
call.org/, retrieved July 17, 2001.
Denzin, N. K. (1978). Sociological Methods. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Desmarais, L. (1998). Les Technologies et lEnseignement des Langues. Montral: Les
Editions Logiques.
Dickson, L. (1987). Self-instruction in Language Learning: New Directions in Language
Learning. NY: Cambridge University Press.
Direction de la Statistique. (1999). Indicateurs Sociaux. Rabat: Haut Commissariat au Plan.
Direction de la Stratgie, des Etudes et de la Planification. (1999). LEcole et les Nouvelles
Technologies de lInformation et de la Communication, "Plan 2008 : une Classe - un
Multimdia Internet". Rabat: Ministre de lEducation Nationale.
Dunkel, P. (1987). The effectiveness literature on CAI/CALL and computing: Implications
of the research for limited English proficiency learners. TESOL Quarterly, 21, pp. 367-
372.
Eastment, D. (1994). CD-ROM: an overview of available materials. Modern English
Teacher, 3(4), pp. 68-77.
Eastment, D. (1996). Survey Review: CD-ROM materials in English language teaching
today. ELT Journal, 50(1), pp. 69-79.
Ebersole, S. (1995). Media determinism in cyberspace. Internet document, URL:
http://www.regent.edu/acad/schcom/rojc/mdic/md.html, retrieved January 5, 2001.
Eisenberg, M., and Berkowitz, B. (1998). Curriculum initiative: An agenda and strategy for
library media programs. Norwood, NY: Ablex.
Ellis, 1994.
Firestone, W.A. (1987). Meaning and method: The Rhetoric of Qualitative and Quantitative
Research. Educational Researcher, 16(7), pp. 16-21.
Frisby, A. W. (1957). Teaching English: Notes and Comments on Teaching English
Overseas. London: Longman.
365
Frizler, K. (1995). The Internet as an Educational Tool in ESOL Writing Instruction.
Unpublished Master's thesis, San Francisco State University. Internet document, URL:
http://thecity.sfsu.edu/~funweb/thesis.htm, retrieved 28 June, 2001.
Futurist (2000). Cyber citizenship gains in developing countries. Futurist, 34(5), pp. 19-
21.
Gardner, R. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning. London: Edward
Arnold.
Gardner, D., Dukes, R. and Discenza, R. (1993). Computer use, self-confidence and
attitudes: A causal analysis. Computers in Human Behavior. 9(3), pp. 427-440.
Garfield, E. and Emeritus, C. (1998). Mapping the World of Science. The Scientist, 1998,
Philadelphia.
Garrett, N. 1987. A Psycholinguistic Perspective on Grammar and CALL. In Smith, W. F.
(Ed.) Modern Media in Foreign Language Education: Theory and Implemeantation.
Lincolnwood, III: National Textbook Company, pp. 169-196.
Garrett, N. (1991). Technology in the service of language learning: Trends and issues.
Modern Language Journal, 75(1), pp. 74-101.
Gattegno, C. (1972). Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent Way. 2nd ed. New
York: Educational Solutions.
Gunawardena, C. N., Lowe, C. A., and Anderson, T. (1998). Transcript analysis of
computer-mediated conferences as a tool for testing constructivist and social-
constructivist learning theories, Proceedings: Distance learning '98: The 14th Annual
Conference on Distance Teaching and Learning, (pp. 139-145). Madison, WI:
University of Wisconsin.
Gibbons, W. J. (1997). From dungeons to degrees. Internet document, URL:
http://leahi.kcc.hawaii.edu/org/tcc_conf97/pres/gibbons.html, retrieved June 20, 2000.
Gilbert, S. (1998). 3 Years of Changes. Washington, D.C.: American Association for Higher
Education.
Gillingham, M. and Topper, A. (1999). Technology in teacher Preparation: Preparing
teachers for the future, Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 7(4), pp. 303-
321.
Gilmore, E. (1998). Impact of Training on the Information Technology Attitudes of
University Faculty. Doctoral dissertation, University of North Texas, Denton.
Goldstein, G. (1997). IT in English Schools: A Commentary on Inspection Findings 1996
1996. London: OFSTED/NCET.
Gonzalez-Lloret, M. (2003). Design task-based CALL to promote interaction. Language
Learning and Technology, 7(1), pp. 86-104. Internet document, URL:
http://llt.msu.edu/vol7num1/gonzalez/, retrieved October 13, 2003.
Goodfellow, R., Jefferys, I., Miles, T. and Shirra, T. (1996). Face-to-face language learning
at a distance? A study of a videoconference try-out. ReCALL 8(2), pp. 5-16.
Goodyear, P. (2000). E-learning, knowledge work and working knowledge, Proceedings of
the IST Conference, Nice, France, November 2000. Internet document, URL:
http://istevent.cec.eu.int/en/, retrieved May 2, 2002.
366
Graddol, D. (1997). The Future of English. London: The British Council.
Graus, J. (1997). An Evaluation of the usefulness of the internet in the EFL classroom.
Unpublished MA thesis. Department of English: University of Nijmegen.
Greenfield, R. (2003). Collaborative E-mail exchange for teaching secondary ESL: a case
study in Hong Kong. Language Learning and Technology, 7(1), pp. 46-70.
Griffith, T. L. and Northcraft, G. B. (1996). Cognitive Elements in the Implementation of
New Technology: Can Less Information Provide More Benefits? MIS Quarterly. 10(1).
pp 99-110.
Hagen, S. (ed.). (1993). Using Technology in Language Teaching. London: CILT.
Hanson-Smith, E. (1997). Technology in the Classroom: Practice and Promise in the 21st
Century. Internet document, URL: http://www.tesol.org/
pubs/profpapers/techclass2.html, retrieved June 20, 2000.
Hasman, M. A. (2000). The Role of English in the 21st Century. Forum, 38(1), pp. 2-6.
Healey, D. and Johnson, N. (Ed.). (1995). 1995 TESOL CALL Interest Section Software
List. Alexandria, VA: TESOL Publications.
Heeks, R. (1999). Information and Communication Technologies, Poverty and
Development. Development Informatics Working Paper series No. 5. Institute for
Development Policy and management. Manchester: University of Manchester.
Higgins, R. (1997). Milking the MOO cow: Combining interim technologies for learning in
cyberspace. Internet document, URL:
http://leahi.kcc.hawaii.edu/org/tcc_conf97/pres/higgins.html, retrieved June 20, 2000.
Hitchcock, G. and Hughes, D. (1995). Research and the Teacher: A Qualitative Introduction
to School-Based Research. New York: Routledge.
Hodgson, M. G. S. (1993). Rethinking World History: Essays on Europe, Islam, and World
History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hoffman, S. (1995/1996). Computers and Instructional Design in Foreign Language/ESL
Instruction. TESOL Journal, Winter 1995/1996, pp. 24-29.
Holec, H. (1987). The learner as manager: managing learning or managing to learn? In
Anita, W. and Joan, R. (Eds.), Learner Strategies in Language Learning, (pp. 145-156).
London: Prentice Hall.
Holec, H. (1988). Introduction. In Holec, H. (ed.), Autonomy and Self-directed Learning:
Present Field of Application, (pp. 6-18). Council for Cultural Co-operation. Council of
Europe, Strasbourg.
Holmes G. (1984). Creating CAL courseware: some possibilities. In Wyatt D.H. (ed.)
Computer Assisted Language Instruction, Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Hoven, D. (1997). Improving the management of flow of control in computer-assisted
listening comprehension tasks for second and foreign language learners. Brisbane:
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Queensland.
Hoven, D. (1999). A model for listening and viewing comprehension in multimedia
environments. Language Learning and Technology, 3(1), pp. 88-103.
367
Hymes, D. (1972). On Communicative Competence. In J. B. Pride and J. Holmes (Eds.),
Socioliguistics, (pp. 269-93). Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Institute for Academic Technology, University of North Carolina (1995). In Centre for
Educational Technology Steering Committee: A Vision Statement for Distributed
Learning at the University of British Columbia. Retrieved November 17, 2001 from:
http://www.cet.ubc.ca/about/vision.html.
Joyce, B., Weil, M., & Showers, B. (1992). Models of teaching. (4th ed.). Needham
Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Kafai, Y, .and Resnik, M. (1996). Constructionism in Practice: Designing, Thinking, and
Learning in a Digital World. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associations.
Kahaner, D. (1994). Japanese Activities in Virtual Reality. IEEE Computer Graphics and
Applications, 14(1), pp. 75-78.
Kahn, B. (1997). Web-based Instruction (WBI): What Is It and Why Is It?. In Kahn, B.
Web-based Instruction (pp. 5-18). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology
Publications.
Kaliski, T. 1992. Computer-assisted language learning (CALL). In P. Roach (ed.).
Computing in Linguistics and Phonetics: Introductory Readings, pp. 97-109. San Diego:
Academic Press.
Kasper, L. F. (2000). New technologies, new literacies: focus discipline research and ESL
learning communities. Language Learning and Technology, 4(2), pp. 105-128.
Kaye, A. (1991). Learning together apart. In A. Kaye (Ed.), Collaborative Learning
Through Computer Conferencing: The Najaden Papers (pp. 1-24). Berlin: Springer-
Verlag.
Kenning, M. M. and Kenning, M. J. (1990). Computers and language learning: Current
theory and practice. New York: Ellis Horwood.
Kenny, R. (1998). Reinventing Undergraduate Education. Internet document, URL:
http://notes.cc.sunysb.edu/pres/boyer.nsf/ (Boyer Commission), retrieved August
13,2000.
Kinkead, J. (1987). Computer conversations: e-mail and writing instruction. College
Composition and Communication, 38(3), pp. 337-341.
Klausmeir, H. J. and Goodwin, W. (1975). Learning and human abilities: Educational
psychology (4th ed.). New York: Harper & Row Publishers.
Kleinmann, H.H. (1987). The effect of computer-assisted instruction on ESL reading
achievement. Modern Language Journal, 71, pp. 267-276.
Klemm, W. R. (2003). Building Global Community Over the Internet. In Varis, T. Utsumi,
T. and Klemm, W. R. (Eds.) Global Peace Through the Global University System.
Hmeenlinna: University of Tampere, Finland.
Knezek, G. and Christensen, R. (1997). Attitudes Toward Information Technology at Two
Parochial Schools in North Texas. Denton, TX: Texas Center for Educational
Technology.
368
Knezek, G., Christensen, R., Gilmore, E., Kim, H., Morales, C., Voogt, J., and Moonen, B.
(1999). Teacher and student attitudes toward information technology in four nations.
San Antonio, TX: Society of Information Technology and Teacher Education (SITE).
Knezek, G., Christensen, R., Hancock, R., and Shoho, A. (2000). A structural model of
technology integration. Paper submitted to the Hawaii Educational Research
Association, Honolulu, Hawaii.
Kramsch, C. (1999). Teaching text and context through multimedia, Language Learning
and Technology, 2(2), pp. 31-42.
Krashen, S. (1981) Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford:
Pergamon.
Krashen, S. D. and Terrell, T. D. (1982). The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in
the Classroom. Oxford: Pergamon.
Kroonenberg, N. (1994/1995). Developing communicative and thinking skills via electronic
mail. TESOL Journal, 4(2), pp. 24-27.
Kumaravadivelu, B. (1993). Maximizing learning potential in the communicative
classroom. English Language Teaching Journal, 47(1), pp. 12-21.
LEconomiste (1999). Un mga-plan dinformatisation du Fondamental. Issue of Tuesday
Nov. 23, 1999.
Laffey, J. and Musser, D.(1998). Attitudes of preservice teachers about using technology in
teaching. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 6(4), pp. 223-242.
Lambert, L., Walker, D., Zimmerman, D., Cooper, J., Lambert, M., Gardner, M., & Slack,
P. (1995). The Constructivist Leader. New York: Teachers College Press.
Layne, P. and Lepeintre, S. (1996). Distance Instruction. Annual Review of Applied
Linguistics, 16, pp. 226-239.
Le Matin. (1999). Pour une cole nationale du XXIme sicle. Special Supplement COSEF.
Nov. 26.
Lee, C. (1999). An exploration of pedagogical implications of using networked-based
computer mediated communication in the communicative language classroom.
Interpersonal Computing and Technology Journal, 7 (1-2). Internet document, URL:
http://www.emoderators.com/ipct-j/1999/n1-2/lee.html.
Leefa, V. J. (1992) Making foreign language texts comprehensible for beginners: An
experiment with an electronic glossary. System, 20, pp. 63-74.
LeLoup, J. W. and Ponterio, R. (1994). FLTEACH: What is it and do I need it? Using
Electronic Mail for Professional Development. NYSAFLT Annual Meeting Series, 11,
pp. 37-54.
LeLoup, J. W. and Ponterio, R. (1998). On the Net Using WWW Multimedia in the Foreign
Language Classroom: Is This for Me? Language Learning and Technology, 2(1), pp. 4-
10.
LeLoup, J. W. and Ponterio, R. (1995a). Networking with foreign language colleagues:
Professional development on the Internet. Northeast Conference Newsletter, 37, pp. 6-
10.
369
LeLoup, J. W. and Ponterio, R. (1995b). FLTEACH: Online professional dialogue. In M.
Warschauer (Ed.), Virtual connections: Online activities and projects for networking
language learners (pp.375-392). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Lemke, J. L. (1998). Metamedia literacy: Transforming meanings and media. In D.
Reinking, M. McKenna, L. Labbo, and R. D. Kieffer (Eds.), Handbook of Literacy and
Technology: Transformations in a Post-Typographic World, (pp. 283-301). Hillsdale,
NJ: Erlbaum.
Levy, M. (1997). Computer-Assisted Language Learning: Context and Conceptualization.
Oxford: Clarendon.
Liden, R. C. and Adams, S. M. (1992). Technological Change: Its Effects on the Training
and Performance of Older Employees. In Luis Gomez-Mejia and Michael Lawless
(Eds.), Advances in Global High-Technology Management. (pp. 217-234). Greenwich,
CN.
Little, D. (Ed.). (1989). Self-Access Systems for Language Learning. Dublin: Authentik /
CILT.
Little, D. (2001). Learner autonomy and the challenge of tandem language learning via the
Internet. In Chambers, A. and Davies, G.D. (Eds.). Information and Communications
Technology: a European perspective. Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger.
Littlemore, J. (2001). Learner autonomy, self-instruction and new technologies in language
learning: current theory and practice in higher education in Europe. In Chambers, A. and
Davies, G.D. (Eds.). Information and Communications Technology: a European
perspective. Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger.
Littlewood, W. (1996). Autonomy: An anatomy and a framework. System, 24(4), pp. 427-
435.
Lozanov, G. (1978). Suggestology and outlines of Suggestopedy. New York: Gordon and
Breach, Science Publishers.
MacDonald, L. (2002). E-learning: Education is one of the applications still growing after
dot.com meltdown. Montreal Gazette. September 18, 2002.
Maddison, A. (1982). Microcomputers in the classroom. Kent: Hodder & Stoughton.
Mahoney, M. J. (1991). Human Change Processes: The scientific foundations of
psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books.
Maier, P., Barnett, L., Warren, A. and Brunner, D. (1998). Using Technology in Teaching
and Learning. London: Kogan Page.
Marczyk, G., DeMatteo, D. and Festinger, D. (2005). Essentials of Research Design and
Methodology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons,Inc.
Marsh, J. (2001). How to Design Effective Blended Learning. Sunnyvale, CA: Brandon-hall.
Marshall, C. and Rossman, G. (1995). Designing qualitative research (2nd edition).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Mathison, S. (1988). Why Triangulation? Educational Researcher, 17, pp. 13-17.
Mayer, R. E. (1989). Models for understanding. Review of Educational Research, 59, pp.
43-64.
370
Mbambo, B. (2001). The Internet As an Information Conduit in Developing Countries: an
investigation of World Wide Web usability among small and medium textile enterprises
in Botswana. Unpublished PhD thesis. Department of information science: the
University of Pretoria, South Africa.
McAndrew, P., Foubister, S. P. and Mayes, T. (1996). Videoconferencing in a Language
Learning Application. Internet document, URL:
http://www.icbl.hw.ac.uk/~sandra/publications/iwc.html, retrieved June 24, 2001.
McCarthy, B. (1994). Choice and constraint in software design. On-CALL Journal, 8(2), pp.
5-12.
McCarthy, B. (1998). CALL Design: A grammar lesson for the student and a lesson in
Applied Linguistics for the designer. On-CALL Journal, 12(2), Internet document, URL:
http://www.cltr.uq.edu.au/oncall/mccarthy122.html, retrieved June 24, 2001.
McCarty, S. (1996). The Internet for educator development. The Language Teacher, 20(9),
pp. 17-18.
McClintock, R. (1992). POWER AND PEDAGOGY: Transforming Education through
Information Technology. New York: Institute for Learning Technologies.
McMeniman, M. and Evans, R. (1998). CALL through the eyes of teachers and learners of
Asian languages: Panacea or business as usual? On-CALL Online, 12(1).
McMillan, J. H. and Schumacher, S. (1993). Research in Education: a conceptual
introduction. New York: HarperCollins College Publishes.
Merriam, B. (1988). Case study research in education: a qualitative approach. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Merriam, S. (1998). Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education. San
Fransisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Miller, P. (1997). The integration of Computers at Pinelands High School: A case study.
Unpublished M.Ed Thesis. University of Pretoria.
Moursund, D., and Bielefeldt, T. (1999). Will New Teachers be able to teach in the digital
age? National survey on Information technology in Teacher Education. Internet
document, URL: http://www.mff.org/pubs/ME154.pdf, retrieved July 23, 2003.
Murphy, K. R. and Myors, B. (2004). Statistical Power Analysis: A Simple and General
Model for Traditional and Modern Hypothesis Tests. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Murray, D. E. (2000). Changing technologies, changing literacy communities? Language
Learning and Technology. 4(2), pp. 43-58.
Nagata, ?. (1993)
National Charter on Education and Training. (1999). Rabat: COSEF (Commission Spciale
Charge de lEnseignement et de la Formation).
Ngeow, K. Y. (1999). Classroom practice: Enhancing and extending learning styles through
computers. In Egbert, J. and Hanson-Smith, E. (eds.), CALL environments: Research,
practice and critical issues. Alexandria, VA: TESOL.
Nunan, D. (1988). The Learner-Centred Curriculum. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
371
Nunan, D. (1995). Closing the gap between learning and instruction. TESOL Quarterly.
29(1), pp. 133-158.
Omaggio-Hadley, A. (1993). Teaching Language in Context. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Omaggio-Hadley, A. (2001). Teaching language in context. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Oxford, R. L. (1994). Where are we regarding language learning motivation? Modern
Language Journal, 78, pp. 512-514.
Oxford Dictionary of Computing, the. (1996). Pyne, S. and Tuck, A. (Eds.). Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Pantiel, M. and Petersen, B. (1984). Kids, Teachers, and Computers: a guide to computers
in the elementary school. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Papert, S. (1980). Mindstorms: Children, computers, and powerful ideas. New York: Basic
Books.
Paramskas, D. M. (1999). The shape of computer-mediated communication. In Keith
Cameron. (ed.) Computer assisted language learning (CALL): Media, design, and
applications. pp. 13-34.
Pastore, M. (2001). Geographics. Issue: May 21. Internet document, URL:
http://www.clickz.com/experts/contact_author/index.php/252_166081, retrieved
October 15, 2004.
Patterson, R. and Wilson, E. J. (2000). New IT and social inequality: Resetting the research
and policy agenda, Information Society, 16(1), pp. 77-86.
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications Inc.
Paul, J. (ed.) 2000. Technology Education vs Educational Technology. Tech Notes, 2(2).
Paulsen, M. F. (1995a). The Online Report on Pedagogical Techniques for Computer-
Mediated Communication. Internet document, URL:
http://www.nettskolen.com/forskning/19/cmcped.html, retrieved July 20, 2000.
Paulsen, M. F. (1995b). Moderating educational computer conferences. In Z. L. Berge and
M. P. Collins (Eds.), Computer-mediated communication and the online classroom,
volume three: distance learning, (pp. 81-89). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
Pederson, K. M. (1987). Research on CALL. In W. F. Smith (ed.,) Modern media in foreign
language education: Theory and implementation. Lincolnwood: National Textbook
Company, pp. 99-131.
Pelgrum, W. J. and Anderson R. E. (1999). ICT and the Emerging paradigm for Life Long
Learning: A Worldwide Assessment of Infrastructure, Goals and Practices. Amsterdam:
International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement.
Pelton, L., and Pelton, T. (1996). Building attitudes: How a technology course affects
preservice teachers attitudes about technology. In Robin, B. Price, J. Willis, J. W. and
Willis, D. A. (eds.), Technology and Teacher Education Annual (pp. 167-171).
Charlottesville, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education.
Pennington, M. and Brock, M. N. (1992) Process and product approaches to computer-
assisted composition. In Pennington, M. and Stevens, V. (eds.), Computers in Applied
Linguistics. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, pp. 1-8.
372
Persichitte, K. A., and Bauer, J. W. (1996). Diffusion of computer-based technologies:
Getting the best start. Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education, 5(1/2),
pp. 35-41.
Piper, A. (1987). Helping learners to write: A role for the word processor. ELT Journal,
41(1), pp. 122-124.
Pittman, G. 1963. Teaching Structural English. Brisbane: Jacaranda.
Poirot, J. L., and Knezek, G. A. (1992). Experimental designs for determining the
effectiveness of technology in education. The Computing Teacher, 20(3), pp. 8-9.
Pratt, J. (1993). Beyond the metaphor: breakdown and realignment. In Moira Monteith
(Ed.), Computers and Language, (pp. 44-56). Oxford: Intellect.
Prosser, M. and Trigwell, K.(1998). Teaching for Learning in Higher Education.
Buckingham: Open University Press.
Pyne, S. and Tuck, A. (1996). Oxford Dictionary of Computing. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Rassool, N. (1999). Literacy for Sustainable Development in the Age of Information.
England: Multilingual Matters.
Richards, J. C. and Rodgers, T. S. (1986). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching:
a description and analysis. Cambridge: CUP.
Robb, T. N. (1996). E-Mail Keypals for Language Fluency. Foreign Language Notes. 38(3),
pp. 8-10.
Ropp, M. M. (1999). Exploring individual characteristics associated with learning to use
computers in preservice teacher preparation. Journal of Research on Computing in
Education, 31(4), pp. 402-424.
Roblyer, M.D., Castine, W. H. and King, F.J. (1988). Assessing the impact of computer-
based instruction: A review of recent research. New York: Haworth Press.
Rogers, E. (1995). Diffusion of Innovations. New York: Free Press.
Rowe, J. C. (1993). The Writing Class. In Poster, Mark (ed.) Politics, Theory, and
Contemporary Culture (pp. 41-82). New York: Columbia University Press.
Ruschoff, B. (1997). Technology enhanced resources and information technology in
language learning. Language Teaching. 30(4), pp. 231-235.
Sakamoto, T. (1992). Impact of Informatics on School Education Systems: National
Strategies for the Introduction of Informatics into Schools. Nonsystematic, but Still
Systematic. In Samways, B. and van Weert, T. J. (eds.), Impact of Informatics on the
Organization of Education, (pp. 129-135). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Sakamoto, T. (1996). Development of Educational Technology Contributing to Educational
Reform. Educational Technology Research, 19, pp. 1-21.
Sakamoto, T. (1999), Educational reform by information and communications technology:
ICT strategies for educational improvement- A Japanese perspective. In Proceedings of
ED-MEDIA-99 World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and
Telecommunications, Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education, 4,
pp. 2-14.
373
Sanders, D. and Kenner, R. (1984). Whither CAI? The need for communicative courseware.
In D.H. Wyatt (ed.), Computer Assisted Language Instruction (pp. 33-39), Oxford:
Pergamon Press.
Schank, R. and Cleary, C. (1995). Engines for education. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Schiller, H. I. (1996). Information inequality: The deepening social crisis in America. New
York: Routledge.
Schrupp, D., Busch, M. D., and Mueller, G.A. (1983). Klavier imhaus - An interactive
experiment in foreign language instruction. CALICO Journal, 1(2), pp. 17-21.
Schulz, R. (1995). A talking textbook: Grammar - an edutainment and multimedia approach
via WinCALIS 2.03. Proceedings of the Computer Assisted Language Instruction
Consortium (CALICO) Annual Symposium, Duke University, USA, pp. 51-60.
Schumacker, R. E. (1996). A Beginners Guide to Structural Equation Modeling. Mahwah,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Schwab, D. P. (2005). Research Methods for Organizational Studies. Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Selwyn, N., Dawes, L., and Mercer, N. (2001). Promoting Mr. Chips: the construction of
the teacher/computer relationship in educational advertising. Teaching and Teacher
Education. 17(1), pp. 3-14.
Serdiukov, P. (2000). Educational technology and its terminology: new developments in the
end of the 20th century. Proceedings of ED-MEDIA, pp. 1022-1025. Montreal, Canada:
AACE .
Sergiovanni, T.J. (1994). Building Community in School. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
Inc.
Sheerin, S. (1997). An exploration of the relationship between self-access and independent
learning. In Benson, P. and Voller, P. (Eds). Autonomy and Independence in Language
Learning. (pp. 54-65) London: Longman.
Sherry, L., Billig, S. H., and Tavalin, F. (2000). Good online conversation: building on
research to inform practice. J. Interactive Learning Res. 11(1), pp. 85-127.
Sherwood, K. D. (1994). A Beginner's Guide to Effective Email. Internet document, URL:
http://www.webfoot.com/ducky.home.html, retrieved June 28, 2001.
Shetzer, H., and Warschauer, M. (2000). An electronic literacy approach to network-based
language teaching. In M. Warschauer and R. Kern (Eds.), Network-based language
teaching: Concepts and practice (pp. 171-185). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Shuell, T. J. (1996). Cognitive Learning, Review of Educational Research, 56(4), pp. 411-
436.
Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Son, J.-B. and ONeill, S. (1999). Collaborative e-mail exchange: A pilot study of peer
editing. Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning, 2(2), pp. 69-87.
Soo, K. (1999). Theory and research: Learning styles, motivation and the CALL classroom.
In Egbert, J. and Hanson-Smith, E. (eds.), CALL environments: Research, practice and
critical issues. Alexandria, VA: TESOL.
374
Soo, K. and Ngeow, Y. (1998). Effective English as a second language (ESL) instruction
with interactive multimedia: the MCALL project. Journal of Educational Multimedia
and Hypermedia, 7(1), pp. 71-89.
Stern, H. H. (1983). Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Stevens, A. and Hewer, S. (1998). From policy to practice and back. Internet document,
URL: http://greco.dit.upm.es/~leverage/conf1/hewer.htm, retrieved July 10, 2000.
Stevens, V. (2000). Language learning techniques implemented through word-processing:
grammar-based exercise templates for becoming proficient with word-processing.
Internet document, URL:
http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Olympus/4631/wordproc.htm, retrieved May 20,
2001.
Strei, G. (1979). New pedagogy for old technology: Reviving the language laboratory.
English Teaching Forum, January, 17(1), pp. 7-11.
Sturtridge, G. (1997). Teaching and language learning in self-access centres: changing
roles? In Benson, P. and Voller, P. (Eds). Autonomy and Independence in Language
Learning. (pp. 66-78) London: Longman.
Swartz, 1990
Tabachnick, B.G. and Fidell, L.S. (2001). Using Multivariate Statistics, (2nd edition). New
York: HarperCollins.
Tanguay, E. (1997). English Teachers, Prepare Yourselves for the Digital Age. Internet
document, URL: http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/~tanguay, retrieved May 20, 2001.
Tella, S. (1995). Introducing international communications network and electronic mail into
foreign language classrooms: A case study in Finnish senior secondary schools.
University of Helsinki, Department of Teacher Education, Research Report.
Terrell, T. D. (1982). The natural approach to language teaching: an update. Modern
Language Journal, 66, pp. 121-32.
Ticoll, D. (2000). It takes an infrastructure. Tele.com, 5(16), pp. 86-87.
Turbee, L. (1996a). MOO and IRC: whats the big difference to the language learner?
Internet document, URL: http://web.syr.edu/~lmturbee, retrieved June 20, 2000.
Turbee, L. (1996b). MOOing in a foreign language: how, why, and who? Internet
document, URL: http://home.twcny.rr.com/lonnieturbee/ papers.html, retrieved July 10,
2000.
Tyrer, P. (1997). De-centering the classroom through online technologies: The creation of
cybercity, a case study. Internet document, URL:
http://leahi.kcc.hawaii.edu/org/tcc_conf97/pres/tyrer.html, retrieved June 20, 2000.
Underwood, J. (1984). Linguistics, computers, and the language teacher: A communicative
approach. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
UNDP Panel of Experts. (2001). ICT for development. Internet document, URL:
http://www.undp.org/info21/new/n-ecosoc.html, retrieved March 12, 2002.
United States Internet Council (2000). The state of the Internet in Africa. Internet document,
URL: http://www.usic.org, retrieved March 12, 2002.
375
Wagner, E. D. (1999). Beyond distance education: Distributed learning systems. In Harold
Stolovitch and Erica Keeps (eds.) Handbook of Human Performance Technology (2nd
ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer.
Walker, R. (1993). The conduct of educational case studies: ethics, theory and procedure. In
M. Hammersley (Ed.), Controversies in classroom research, Buckingham: Open
University Press.
Warner, C. N. (2004). Its just a game, right? Types of play in foreign language CMC.
Language Learning and Technology, 8(2), pp. 69-87.
Warschauer, M. (1995). E-Mail for English Teaching: Bringing the Internet and Computer
Learning Networks into the Language Classroom. Alexandria, VA: TESOL
Publications.
Warschauer, M. (1996). Computer-assisted language learning: An introduction. In S. Fotos
(Ed.), Multimedia language teaching (pp. 3-20). Tokyo: Logos International.
Warschauer, M. (1997). A sociocultural approach to literacy and its significance for CALL.
In K. Murphy-Judy and R. Sanders (Eds.), Nexus: The convergence of research and
teaching through new information technologies (pp. 88-97). Durham: University of
North Carolina.
Warschauer, M. (1998). Researching technology in TESOL: Determinist, instrumental, and
critical approaches. TESOL Quarterly, 32(4), pp. 755-761.
Warschauer, M. (2000a). Online learning in second language classrooms: An ethnographic
study. In M. Warschauer and R. Kern (Eds.), Network-based language teaching:
Concepts and practice. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Warschauer, M. (2000b). The changing global economy and the future of English teaching.
TESOL Quarterly, 34(3), pp. 511535.
Warschauer, M. (2000c). Technology and school reform: A view from both sides of the
track. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 8(4). Internet document, URL:
http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v8n4.html, retrieved June 28, 2001.
Warschauer, M. (2002). Reconceptualizing the Digital Divide. First Monday, 7(7), Internet
document, URL: http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue7_7/warschauer/index.html,
retrieved November 16, 2004.
Warschauer, M. and Meskill, C. (2000). Technology and second language learning. In J.
Rosenthal (Ed.), Handbook of undergraduate second language education (pp. 303-318).
Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Warschauer, M., Turbee, L. and Roberts, B. (1994). Computer learning networks and
student empowerment. (Research note #10). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii,
Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center.
Weasenforth, D., Biesenbach-Lucas, S. and Meloni, C. (2002). Realizing constructivist
objectives through collaborative technologies: threaded discussions. Language Learning
and Technology, 6(3), pp. 58-86.
Wenglinsky, H. (1998). Does it compute?: The relationship between educational technology
and student achievement in mathematics. Princeton, New Jersey: Educational Testing
Service.
376
Widdowson, H. G. (1978). Teaching language as communication. Oxford, UK: Oxford
University Press.
Wilkins, D. A. (1976). Notional syllabuses. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Williams, E. (1999). Predicting e-mail effects in organizations. Internet document, URL:
http://www.firstmonday.dk/issues/issue3_9/williams/ index.html, retrieved July 13,
2000.
Windeatt, S. (1986). Observing CALL in action. In G. Leech and C. N. Candlin (Eds.).
Computers in English Language Teaching and Research (pp. 79-97). London:
Longman.
Windschitl, M. (1998). The WWW and classroom research: What path should we take?
Educational Researcher, 27(1), pp. 28-33.
Winship, J. and Carter, D. (1999). Alternative Delivery Modes of Teaching and Learning
Using New Information Technology. A STRATEGIC INITIATIVE PROJECT,
University of Curtin, Australia.
Wyatt, D. (1984). Computers and ESL. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
Zhner, C. (1996). Network-based language learning: technology and access. ReCALL
Newsletter, 8.
Zhao, Y., Hueyshan, S., and Mishra, T.P. (2000). Teaching and learning: Whose computer
is it? Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 44(4). Internet document, URL:
http://www.readingonline.org/ electronic/elec_index.asp?HREF=/electronic/jaal/12-
00_Column/index.html, retrieved March 10, 2002.
377

Agnaou / PHD Dissertation (Volume I)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Agnaou / PHD Dissertation (Volume I)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdellah University

Faculty of Letters and Human Sciences

The Effectiveness of Integrating Information

A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorat

Submitted by: Abderrahim Agnaou Supervised by: Dr. Mohamed Ouakrime

my parents, the repository of love and tenderness;

In my beloveds ear, I whisper:

No thesis is perfect, but every thesis is perfectible.

Table 1.1: The historical development of the disciplines influencing CALL

Figure 1.1: The branches of Educational Technology

Appendix 1: A List of ICT/CALL Terms and Acronyms

I would like to sincerely thank my former colleagues at Calliope in Casablanca, the

List of Tables iii

List of Figures viii

Table of Contents xiv

General Conclusion . 356

As it cannot stay as a bystander in the midst of the current technological developments

- What are the computers potentials and shortcomings in language education?

- How can the computer enhance student achievement?

- What transformations is computer-based education likely to bring about? What

- What developments in computer-based education are on the horizon for Morocco?

By answering the above-stated research questions, it is hoped to determine how

Educational Technology: A brief review of

Attempting a thorough review of the literature on Educational Technology is not an

Educational Technology is an inherently multidisciplinary field of study, which draws

I.1. The Growing Terminology of a Changing Educational Technology

Although Educational Technology is a contemporary field of study whose framework

In Serdiukov's (2000:iv) Thesaurus of Educational Technology Terms and Their

Technology Education is a curriculum that involves more than just computers. It

General CAI/CBI CAL/CBL

Figure 1.1: The branches of Educational Technology

The representation in Figure 1.1 makes a paradigmatic distinction between

Programmed learning initiated in the 1960s by behaviorist educationalists has

With the application of the findings of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in computer-based

As Lian (1992:67) describes it, AI in a CALL context typically [...] is thought of as

Educational software whether it incorporates AI features or not is technically referred to

Almost all present-day courseware stored on CD-ROMs utilizes multimedia and

The invocation of various concepts in Educational Technology in the foregoing was

I.2. Educational Technology and Language Education

I.2.1. Teacher-Centered Versus Learner-Centered Educational Technology

It seems that the teacher-centered mode of instruction, as distinct from a learner-

According to Nunan (1995), there are five levels in learner-centeredness:

2. Involvement: Learners make choices among a range of options.

3. Intervention: Learners modify / adapt tasks.

4. Creation: Learners create their own tasks.

5. Transcendence: Learners become teachers and researchers.

Following Nunans five levels of learner centredness, in order to be an independent

I.2.1.1. Computer-Assisted Instruction

reducing the amount of time for learning of subject matter,

boosting students attitudes to using computers while noting improved academic

tutorial-type courseware, which seemed to work for secondary students,

considering CAI as a supplement to, rather than as a replacement for, teacher-based

achievement rates and differences.

The teacher-centered configurations and practices of technology teach students to be

As can be noted in the foregoing discussion of CAI practices by observers of instructor-

I.2.1.2. Computer-Assisted Learning

According to Joyce, Weil and Showers (1992:1-2),

how teaching is conducted has a large impact on students abilities to educate

Prosser and Trigwell (1998) refer to teacher-focused strategies and student-focused

Zhao (2000) describes the position of the computer in a learner-centered model of

I.2.2. Technico-pedagogical Development of CALL

As a matter of fact, the growth of CALL, being affected by developments in Applied

50s Mid 70s Structuralism Behaviorism Audiolingualism Mainframe