LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

TERM PAPER

OF
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

TOPIC- MANAGEMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

IMPACTS

Submitted to: Submitted by:

MR. PRATISH SRIVASTAV Anayat Ansari

In Lsm LPU Roll No.-B31

Section-RS1904

Reg. no.-10906120
 DECLARATION

I, Anayat Ansari student of Lovely Professional University have completed

the Project on:

MANAGEMENT AND TECHNOLOGY IMPACTS

The information given in this project is true to the best of my knowledge.

(ANAYAT ANSARI)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all I would like to thank the Lovely University and take the
opportunity to do this project as a part of the M.B.A.

Many people have influenced the shape and content of this project, and
many supported me through it. I express my sincere gratitude to MR.
PRATISH SRIVASTAV for assigning me a project of Human Resource
Management, which is an interesting and exhaustive subject.

He has been an inspiration and role model for this topic. His guidance and
active support has made it possible to complete the assignment.

I also would like to thank my Friends who have helped and encouraged me
throughout the working of the project.

Last but not the least I would like to thank the Almighty for always helping
me.
 PREFACE

This project is undertaken to fulfill the project work component of the M.B.A
program in 2st Semester. My project guide from L.P.U is Lect. MR.
PRATISH SRIVASTAV. The term paper is based on-

MANAGEMENT AND TECHNOLOGY IMPACTS

 INTRODUCTION

MEANING OF MANAGEMENT

Management is the process of designing and maintaining an environment in which

individuals, working together in groups, efficiently accomplish selected goals.

In other words “Management is the process of planning, organizing, leading, and

controlling the efforts of organization members and of using all other organizational
resources to achieve stated organizational goals.

Management focuses on the entire organization from both a short and a long-term
perspective. Management aims to increase the effectiveness of organizations. It's about
making the most of the resources entrusted to you, and making sure the expectations of
customers, employees and shareholders are met.

Traditionally, management includes the following:

• planning
• organizing
• leading
• controlling

More specifically, management is responsible for the primary activities of the firm; those
being inbound logistics, operations, outbound logistics, marketing and sales, and
service.

Management is also responsible for the support activities of infrastructure (accounting,

finance, strategic planning), human resource management (recruiting, training and
development, compensation management), technology developments (product and
process improvement), and procurement (material acquisition).

Management crosses cultural boundaries as most organizations of significant size

operate internationally. Primary and support activities are performed in an international
context.

MEANING OF TECHNOLOGY

Technology is a systematic application of scientific or other organized knowledge to

practical tasks. Technology includes the tools –both machines and ways of thinking –
available to solve problems and promote progress between, among and between
societies. Technology includes not only knowledge or methods that are necessary to
carry on or to improve the existing production and distribution of goods and services, but
also entrepreneurial expertise and professional know-how.

FEATURES OF TECHNOLOGY

 Technology relates to change- technology forces change on people. In modern

society it has brought quite fast and furiously changes, it is called FUTURE
SHOCK.
 Effects of technology are widespread-technology ripples through society until
every community is affected by it.
 Technology feeds on itself- technology makes more technology possible.
Technology acts as a multiplier to encourage its own faster development.
 Technology is a complex set of knowledge, ideas, and methods and is likely to
the result of a variety of activities, both internal and external.
IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY

TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

 Technology reaches people through business- managers of business
organizations pool the necessary resources and use new discoveries to convert
them into useful products’ society depends on business to benefit from new
discoveries flowing into useful goods and services for all mankind.

 High expectations of consumers- technology has contributed to the emergence of

affluent societies. New varieties of products, superior in quality, more safe and
more comfortable, are to be supplied to the consumers. This calls for substantial
investment in R& D.

 System complexity- technology creates complexity. As a result living becomes

more complex.

 Social change –

• There is change in social change due to technological change. An

invention may destroy the economic basis of a city, displace thousands of
workers, yet same invention may result in the creation of new city
somewhere.
• Technology changes the pattern of their social life. A invention may open
new employment opportunities to women, change in working hours,
increase in leisure hours, open jobs to youth.
• Technology helps iron out social differences but has created status
differences instead.
  Technological phases and social system they create- Technology has brought ,
along with it, new words, new food, new dress and habits.

TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMY

 Increased Productivity -Technology results in increased productivity in terms of

both quality and quantity. Like, in hospitals, it is qualitative and in factories, it is
quantitative in nature. Improved productivity , results in increased wages and fall
in prices.

 Jobs tend to become more intellectual- advanced technology needs employees

who are knowledgeable and skilled.

 Problem of techno structure (scientific and professional workers) - an

organization with new technology have pool of scientists, engineers, college
graduates, highly skilled workers. It creates problem like- retention of employee,
difficulty in placing people in a pattern.

 Need for bioprofessinal and multiprofessional managers have increased.

 Increased demand for capital- today’s technology necessitates massive

investment of money on acquiring or discovering new ideas and their adoption,
educating, training and maintaining of the managers.
  Rise and decline of products and organizations- a product have its own life cycle.
So new technology may destroy an existing product, like TV. Replaced radio,
xerography hurt the carbon paper business or i-pod replaced the walk- man etc.

 Expenditure on R&D –

• A company must make the required resources available for effective R&D.
• Technology transfers, the process of taking new technology from the lab to
the market is equally important. This transfer takes larger time as org.
grows in size.
• As new technology comes in, old technology needs to be abandoned. The
R&D manager must determine this technological discontinuity.
• Technology can be either outsourced or developed through in- house R&D
apart from in- house R &D, firms can also tap the R&D capabilities of
competitors, suppliers, and from others through licensing, R&D
agreements and joint ventures.
• Next issue relates to decision on product innovation or process innovation.
In early stages product innovation are imp. as products physical attributes
and capabilities will affect financial performance. later , process innovation
such as improved manufacturing facilities, improved quality and faster
distribution becomes important in maintaining product economic returns.

TECHNOLOGY AND PLANT IMPLICATIONS

 Fear of risk - adoption of new technology comes with the fear of risk.
  Total quality management- It refers to the deep commitment of an
organization to quality. new principles of TQM are- meet consumer
requirement on time, to do error free work, manage by prevention , not by
correction, measure the cost of quality. it have implications for both
employees and manager to improve their working.

 E- COMMERCE AND E- BUSINESS- E- commerce focuses on

distribution. Marketing and sales process, e- business emphasizes
integration of systems, processes, organization, markets. E –commerce
through is made possible through technology. It provides several benefits
to business like , convenience in conducting business, an electronic
meeting and trading place adds efficiency to business, benefits to
consumers in form of increased options, efficiency in distribution.

 FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM- under FMS, machines are

designed to produce batches of different products. It is integrated
computer aided design, engineering and manufacturing, can produce a
large volume products. With fms, when management want to produce new
part , it does not need to change mavhines,it needs to change only
computer programming. Under fms, workers need training and higher
skills.

HOW DOES TECHNOLOGY EHANCE STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT?

Basic Skills Instruction

• Computer assisted instruction to drill

• Multi-media software - teach to a variety of learning styles
• Videodiscs - strengthen basic skills
 • Video and audio technologies - bring material to life
• Distance learning - at least as effective as traditional methods of instruction
• All forms - develop new skills related to use of technology itself, necessary in
workplace

Advanced Skills Instruction

• Interactive educational technologies, like……….

Computer-generated simulations

Videodiscs

Internet

CD-ROM

• Students learn to: organize complex information, recognize patterns, draw

inferences, communicate findings
• Learn better organizational and problem-solving skills

Assessment of Student Progress

• More comprehensive with multimedia

• Assessments which require student’s active participation
• Electronic portfolios

Student Motivation
 • They like it better
• Increased family involvement
• Improved teachers’ skills
• Improved School Administration and Management

RESEARCH PROCESS IN BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT

Before looking at the elements that comprise the research process, it is important to be
clear about the nature of research. The outcome of research is the production of new
knowledge and new understandings, usually achieved through the testing of existing
theories or the building of new theories. Research is not about mindless fact gathering
in a theoretical void, but the development and rigorous testing of hypotheses and
conjectures within theoretical frameworks. It is also about the development of new
theories, new knowledge and new understandings. An insight into the nature of theory in
business in management and the process of building theory in management can be
gained.

Stage of process:

 Initial questionnaire design, piloting and questionnaire finalization.

 Sampling frame, sample size, sampling strategy and sample selection
phase.
 Fieldwork management phase.
 Data management and preparation phase.
 Data Analysis phase.
 Writing up phase.
RATIONALE OF THE STUDY

Very few studies are being conducted in order to find out the best HR Development
practices along with different industrial sectors. Some other studies are also found
indicating relationship among type of technological change and HR Development
suitable practices all over the world but in Pakistan this concept is just getting roots. In
fact, if we peep into the research world in Pakistan studies on impact of human resource
development started taking their roots in 1970‟s and the impact of technological change
on organizational productivity in 1980‟s but still after research paper found representing
true figures of impact of technological change on HRD practices.
No research has been conducted earlier that could identify the relationship and best

Suitable practices to guide HR processional It is often hard to explain; when, why and
how this association and interconnections, exists, Identifying key practices, keeping an
eye on current technological change as well as forecasting future. In this situation it gets
more importance to guide the organization for selecting the best HRD practices to stay
at the abreast of the competition.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVE

This study is mainly focused on identify the best Human Resource Development
Practices used by different organizations against fast technological change in broad
sense; while more specifically following are objectives of the study.

 What are the impacts of technological change on human resource

development Practices?

 What is the nature of the resistance to technological change experienced

  What is the nature of differences among companies from various industrial
sectors in using human resource development strategies to cope with
technological change?

HYPOTHESIS

H1: Technological changes influence Human Resource Practices.

H2: There are different HR Development practices in different industries against
technological change.

SAMPLE AND METHODOLOGY

Sample consisted of 150 organization and only 82 organizations responded from

different sectors of economy in Rawalpindi and Islamabad that are assumed to be
undergone the abrupt technological changes. These are Financial Services institutes, IT
and Telecom, Small and medium Enterprises, Educational Institutions, Administrative
institutions and other. Overall response rate was 55%. It was used because
technological changes are more likely to impact almost all type of organizations in one
way or in other. Respondents were either HR managers or general managers.
The questions were carefully worded to avoid misinterpretation. Technical terms were
also explained in simple language. The questionnaire layout was formatted in a logical
and aesthetically pleasing manner to ensure a higher response rate. The structured
questionnaire was designed using a five-point Likert-type response scale and some
categorical items were provided for choosing frequency of use. The questionnaires were
provided to the HR managers and Top Executives. Due to the initial low response rate,
same process of survey was repeated three times.
Questionnaire ; comprising over two types of questions; first part consisted of questions
in order to identify training and development schedules, level of the management
normally trained, conducting and evaluation development strategies problems that
organizations have to face hindrances towards technological change.

Which parts of the process are the most difficult to deliver?

There are mainly two type of phases where researcher phases more
difficulty………………….
 Data analysis phase:

• How should I analyze my data?

• How do I get my data into the software?
• How do I interpret the results of the analysis?
• How can I transcend the descriptive and use more advanced
Analytical technique?

 Writing up phase:

• How should I structure my research findings?

LITERATURE REVIEW:-

ARTICLE-(1)-
Impact of Information Technology Management Practices on Customer Service

ABSTRACT

Recently, despite huge incentives and subsequent increases in investment in customer

relationship management technology, many firms have not been able to increase their
customer satisfaction index ratings. The purpose of this paper is to gauge whether IT
management practices differ among firms where IT has a major role in transforming
marketing, operations, or both, which give the firms advantage by affecting their
customer service. Several research hypotheses are tested using data obtained from a
survey of 213 IT-leaders in the financial services industry. The results clearly indicate
that the IT-leader firms have a higher level of IT management sophistication and a
higher role for their IT-leaders compared to IT-enabled customer focus, IT-enabled
operations focus, and IT-laggard firms. This paper concludes with the implications for
both researchers and practitioners.

ARTICLE (2)-

ECONOMIC GROWTH - A CASE STUDY OF MATORI LGA THE ROLE OF SMALL

AND MEDIUM SIZED ENTERPRISES FOR IN LAGOS, NIGERIA

ABSTRACT-

This study, the role of small and medium sized enterprises for economic growth, was
undertaken to find out how SME sub-sector in Nigeria has performed and its
impact on the economic growth of the country. Small and Medium Scale
Enterprises (SMEs) is accepted globally as a tool for empowering the citizenry and
economic growth.
ARTICLE (3)-

Intrusion Management

ABSTRACT-

Information security is tasked with protecting the confidentiality, integrity, and

availability of an organizations information resource. A key aspect in protecting
these resources is developing an understanding of the threats, vulnerabilities, and
exposures that they face by using Risk Management.

ARTICLE (4)-

The impact of technology on the Iranian insurance companies

ABSTRACT-

The conditions for doing business are rapidly changing. The Internet and related
advances in information technology significantly affect financial services in general
and insurance markets and institutions in particular.

ARTICLE (5)-

Inter-organizational Application Integration: Developing Guidelines Using

Multi Grounded Theory

ABSTRACT-

Information technology (IT) has drastically changed the traditional way to do business.
In theory, coordinating information sharing among organizational partners offers
notable advantages through cost savings, productivity, improved decision making,
and better customer service.

ARTICLE (6)-
Sport Management; Study results from Deakin University update understanding
of sport management

ABSTRACT-

Based upon theories derived from the IOR literature, these six preconditions for IOR formation
were considered to determine if emerging broadcasting technologies impact on IOR formation
between Australian Football League (AFL) and National Rugby League (NRL) clubs and
broadcasters.

ARTICLE (7)-

What's your preference?; An exploratory examination of the effect of human vs ATM vs

online interactions on overall consumer satisfaction with banking services.

ABSTRACT-

The purpose of this paper is to explore the effects of human interaction versus
interactions with technology in overall customer satisfaction with banking services,
specifically, tellers versus Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) vs online
transactions. All types of interactions are important in services, yet their level of
importance is changing as the environment change. Two studies were conducted
through surveys with students who had a bank checking account; six item
measures were used to examine human interaction, interaction with an ATM,
interaction with an online banking service and overall satisfaction with the specific
bank. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to determine the effects of the
interactions on overall satisfaction. The findings from the two studies show that
while the human encounter was more important before online banking became so
prevalent, the convenience of online banking has displaced the importance of
human interaction. However, there were gender differences in that males, more
than females, remain influenced by teller transactions. The study utilizes student
samples, which could be biased. However, students are also users of banking
 services so they represent a traditional target market for financial service firms.
The results are informative for managers when planning and implementing new
online services in the financial industry. This paper draws together research on
interpersonal interactions and technological interactions to examine the effects on
overall satisfaction. Given the proliferation of technological advances,
understanding how these technologies impact customer satisfaction is vital.

ARTICLE (8)-

LEARNING IN 2020: A WHOLE NEW WORLD OF WORK

ABSTRACT-

This publication spoke with leaders and thinkers in the learning industry to get their
insight into what the next decade holds for workplace learning and why you should be
paying attention now. The following are their predictions: 1. although the next 10 to 12
years might not constitute any drastic upheavals, there are shifts and changes at work
on every level. 2. Technology's impact on how you learn is returned the favor as
machines and applications become smarter, and form increasingly symbiotic
relationships with other applications as well as learners themselves. 3. The role of
workplace learning and performance professionals will change because of the need for
new skills, competencies, and communication. 4. Today's narrow talent management
scope broadens to incorporate organization-wide strategy and executive-level support.
5. The learning leaders of 2020 may not have their names carved in stone, but several
are off to a great beginning.
ARTICLE (9)-

TECHNOLOGY IN REAL ESTATE: A 75-YEAR MARCH OF PROGRESS

ABSTRACT-

Over the 75 years of IREM's existence, the commercial and multifamily segments of the
real estate industry have been no exception to this breathtaking escalation. Today, real
estate management is driven by its underlying technology. The scope of technological
innovation would astound even the most visionary leaders of three quarters of a century
ago. Handwritten bookkeeping methods from the 1930s eventually gave way to the first
forms of automation. Technology has evolved to the current state of the art in real estate
technology: strategically focused Internet-based property management software
packages that consolidate portfolio, financial, lease and other data into one database.
Capabilities that were virtually unthinkable 75 years ago are now within people's reach.
As a result, companies are better positioned to achieve their strategic priorities across
their entire real estate business. By understanding technology's impact and making
careful, strategic technology choices, real estate business leaders can reap the rewards
of a more efficient and agile enterprise.

ARTICLE (10)-

Re-examining the causal structure of information technology impact research

ABSTRACT-

About 20 years ago, Markus and Robe noted that most research on IT impacts had
been guided by deterministic perspectives and had neglected to use an emergent
perspective, which could account for contradictory findings. They further observed
that most research in this area had been carried out using variance theories at the
expense of process theories. Finally, they suggested that more emphasis on
multilevel theory building would likely improve empirical reliability. In this paper, we
reiterate the observations and suggestions made by Markus and Robe on the
 causal structure of IT impact theories and carry out an analysis of empirical
research published in four major IS journals, Management Information Systems
Quarterly (MISQ), Information Systems Research (ISR), the European Journal of
Information Systems (EJIS), and Information and Organization (I&O), to assess
compliance with those recommendations. Our final sample consisted of 161
theory-driven articles, accounting for approximately 21% of all the empirical
articles published in these journals. Our results first reveal that 91% of the studies
in MISQ, ISR, and EJIS focused on deterministic theories, while 63% of those in
I&O adopted an emergent perspective. Furthermore, 91% of the articles in MISQ,
ISR, and EJIS adopted a variance model; this compares with 71% from I&O that
applied a process model. Lastly, mixed levels of analysis were found in 14% of all
the surveyed articles. Implications of these findings for future research are
discussed.

ARTICLE (11)-

Cultural diversity and information and communication technology impacts on global

virtual teams: An exploratory study

ABSTRACT-
Modern organizations face many significant challenges because of turbulent
environments and a competitive global economy. Among these challenges are the use
of information and communication technology (ICT), a multicultural workforce, and
organizational designs that involve global virtual teams. Ad hoc teams create both
opportunities and challenges for organizations and many organizations are trying to
understand how the virtual environment affects team effectiveness. Our exploratory
study focused on the effects of cultural diversity and ICT on team effectiveness.
Interviews with 41 team members from nine countries employed by a Fortune 500
corporation were analyzed. Results suggested that cultural diversity had a positive
influence on decision-making and a negative influence on communication. ICT mitigated
the negative impact on intercultural communication and supported the positive impact
on decision-making. Effective technologies for intercultural communication included e-
mail, teleconferencing combined with e-Meetings, and team rooms. Cultural diversity
influenced selection of the communication media.

ARTICLE (12)-

An empirical study of the impact of e-business technologies on organizational

collaboration and performance

ABSTRACT-
The use of e-business technologies between supply chain organizations has been
thematic in recent literature. Organizational collaboration, the foundation of supply chain
management, has been enabled by the development and use of e-business
technologies. Organizational collaboration and information sharing, in turn, are expected
to improve organizational performance. We propose and test a model of the relationship
between organizational use of e-business technologies, organizational collaboration,
and performance, using empirical data. Our model differs from past studies in that
collaboration is viewed as two unique constructs, differentiating between intra- and inter-
organizational collaboration. Our findings show that use of e-business technologies
impacts performance both directly and indirectly by promoting both measures of
collaboration. Intra-firm collaboration is also found to have a direct impact on
organizational performance. However, the impact of inter-organizational collaboration on
performance is found to be only indirect, through the impact of intra-organizational
collaboration. These findings reveal the complexity of organizational collaboration,
underscore the importance for companies to promote internal collaboration, and invest
in information technologies that facilitate it.

ARTICLE (13)-
Technology's Impact on the Property Management Profession

ABSTRACT-

Technology has given every business the power to increase productivity,

instantaneously transfer data, and communicate globally 24/7. Although the real estate
industry has been labeled "slow to adopt," property management firms have grabbed
hold of the opportunities technology has afforded them in order to provide more value to
clients and increase the efficiency of building operations. Their integration of technology
has had numerous impacts on the industry and the professional. These are: 1. A new
breed of professional is born. 2. Client expectations are higher. 3. Service delivery is
better. 4. Environmentally friendly buildings are possible -- even probable. 5.
Professionals are no longer tethered to their desks.

ARTICLE (14)-

Technology's Impact on Auditing

ABSTRACT-

This is not complicated. Technology has changed auditing. Today's technology audit
tools offer so much more than simply automating the preparation of a working trial
balance from the client's general ledger system that continues to be common practice
among many firms. Technology provides the opportunity for CPAs to analyze
tremendous amounts of data, transforming the act of auditing. The standards coming
out next year will revise the audit process, promises Mike Ramos, VP with the Denver-
based training and consulting firm Audit Watch, not to mention auditors may have to
acquire a greater, perhaps unfamiliar appreciation of technology. Latest tweaking to
these apps include the ability to analyze and test large transaction volumes, improving
audit evidence and the likelihood of error detection. This technology offers users many
advantages, including the ability to organize information in one place, assurance of
compliance, standardizing of workflow, quality control, security, and retention of
documentation. The real value is not in automating processes, but in auditors re-
engineering what they do.

ARTICLE (15)-

Estimating the Risk of Technology Development

ABSTRACT-

A case study is presented on risk management as applied to the development of

advanced technologies. The success of complex projects depends on the parallel
development and integration of diverse technologies. Prior to investing large sums of
money in these technologies, stakeholders want to know the risk in technology
investment that includes the probability of technology development success and the
impact the technology would have on the system. The risk identification process
consists of developing the functional and technology needs of the system; collecting
data on potential technology solutions; assessing the technology development
probability of success for performance, cost, and schedule; determining the impact of
the technology on the programs; and developing decision analysis presentations for the
stakeholders. Based on a modified analytical hierarchical process, the Internet-
Accessible Technology Risk Assessment Collaborative System (ITRACS©) was
developed to solicit opinions from experts across the nation for the technology
probability of success assessment. In addition, the Framework for Advanced Systems
Trade-offs using Probabilistic Analysis of Concepts and Technologies (FASTPACT©)
environment was developed to determine the technology impact on the system as
measured by program Figures of Merit (FOMs)-safety, cost, and weight. The results
from this technology analysis showed that many of the technologies in the present
technology investment portfolio were not very effective in impacting the program FOMs,
and that in some cases, multiple technologies in the same area should be funded to
improve probability of development success.
ARTICLE:- (16)

Supply chain management technology: a review of empirical literature and

research agenda

ABSTRACT-

The interest in Supply Chain Management (SCM) related technologies continues to

garner interest from a variety of research disciplines. However, the varied disciplines
and perspectives from which SCM Technology (SCMT) research arises complicate the
efforts of those seeking to develop a comprehensive understanding of the subject. This
effort provides a multidisciplinary review of the extant literature and assesses the

progress of SCMT research. Using a rigorous content analysis-based approach,

multiple reviewers identified and categorized 82 empirical SCMT-related articles
appearing in highly rated journals from one of three research fields: Operations
Management (OM), logistics and Information Systems (IS). Each of the identified
articles was categorized according to the methodology, stage of theoretical
development and research focus. The progress of SCMT research within each of these
areas is discussed and opportunities for the continued development and extension of
the body of knowledge are presented.

ARTICLE (17)-

International Journal of Integrated Supply Management

ABSTRACT-

Successful organizations never stand still – they always strive to improve their supply
chain performance. Sometimes technology solutions allow for better supply chain
management. One such technology has recently garnered great interest in supply chain
circles: Radio Frequency Identification (RFID). Although RFID technology is not new,
recent technological advances provide new capabilities for improving supply chain
performance. This paper describes the history of RFID, its present use in supply chain
management and future business applications.

ARTICLE (18)-

Improving logistics visibility in a supply chain: an integrated approach with radio

frequency identification technology

ABSTRACT-

Third Party Logistics (3PL) becomes more important nowadays as it aims to improve
supply chain efficiency through reducing cycle time and inventory level for both
upstream suppliers and downstream retailers. However, many small to medium-sized
3PL providers in the Pearl River Delta (PRD) region still highly rely on manual
processes, which make them difficult to achieve the role of supply chain facilitators. In
this study, a logistics information hub named Integrated Logistics Information
Management System (ILIMS) adopting Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
technology is presented to suit this need. With ILIMS, 3PL companies are provided with
unified business processes with enhanced tracking capability. A case study is discussed
in applying ILIMS to a medium-sized 3PL company. Through using this generic system,
the logistics visibility in the supply chain is improved with significant reduction of delivery
time, supply cost, inventory and out-of-stock frequency that lead to increase of revenue
and operations volume.

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