An acid (from the Latin acidus/acere meaning sour) in common usage is a substance that tastes sour,

reacts with metals and carbonates, turns blue litmus paper red, and has a pH less than 7.0 in its standard
state. Examples include acetic acid (in vinegar) and sulfuric acid (used in car batteries). Acid/base
systems are different from redox reactions in that there is no change in oxidation state. Acids can occur
in solid, liquid or gaseous form, depending on the temperature. They can exist as pure substances or in
solution. Chemicals or substances having the property of an acid are said to be acidic.

In chemistry, a base is most commonly thought of as an aqueous substance that can accept
hydronium ions. Bases are also the oxides or hydroxides of metals. A soluble base is also often
referred to as an alkali if hydroxide ions (OH−) are involved. This refers to the Brønsted-Lowry
theory of acids and bases. Alternative definitions of bases include electron pair donors (Lewis)[1],
and as sources of hydroxide anions (Arrhenius).[2] In addition to this, bases can commonly be
thought of as any chemical compound that, when dissolved in water, gives a solution with a
hydrogen ion activity lower than that of pure water, i.e. a pH higher than 7.0 at standard
conditions. Examples of common bases are sodium hydroxide and ammonia.

Bases can be thought of as the chemical opposite of acids. A reaction between an acid and base
is called neutralization. Bases and acids are seen as opposites because the effect of an acid is to
increase the hydronium ion (H3O+) concentration in water, whereas bases reduce this
concentration. Bases react with acids to produce water and salts (or their solutions).

The ideal gas law is the equation of state of a hypothetical ideal gas. It is a good approximation
to the behavior of many gases under many conditions, although it has several limitations. It was
first stated by Émile Clapeyron in 1834 as a combination of Boyle's law and Charles's law.[1] It
can also be derived from kinetic theory, as was achieved (apparently independently) by August
Krönig in 1856[2] and Rudolf Clausius in 1857.[3]

The state of an amount of gas is determined by its pressure, volume, and temperature. The
modern form of the equation is:

where p is the absolute pressure of the gas; V is the volume; n is the amount of substance; R is
the gas constant; and T is the absolute temperature.

In SI units, p is measured in pascals; V in cubic metres; n in moles; and T in kelvin. R has the
value 8.314472 J·K−1·mol−1 in SI units[4]).

Since it neglects both molecular size and intermolecular attractions, the ideal gas law is most
accurate for monatomic gases at high temperatures and low pressures. The neglect of molecular
size becomes less important for lower densities, i.e. for larger volumes at lower pressures,
because the average distance between adjacent molecules becomes much larger than the
molecular size. The relative importance of intermolecular attractions diminishes with increasing
thermal kinetic energy i.e., with increasing temperatures. More detailed equations of state, such
as the van der Waals equation, allow deviations from ideality caused by molecular size and
intermolecular forces to be taken into account.
Boyle's Law
Main article: Boyle's Law

Boyle's Law shows that, at constant temperature, the product of an ideal gas's pressure and
volume is always constant. It was published in 1622. It can be determined experimentally using a
pressure gauge and a variable volume container. It can also be found logically; if a container
with a fixed amount of molecules inside it is reduced in volume, more molecules will hit the
sides of the container per unit time causing a greater pressure.

As a mathematical equation, Boyle's law is:

Where P is the pressure (Pa), V the volume (m3) of a gas, and k1 (measured in joules) is the
constant from this equation—it is not the same as the constants from the other equations below.

[edit] Charles's Law

Main article: Charles's Law

Charles's Law, or the law of volumes, was found in 1787. It says that, for an ideal gas at constant
pressure, the volume is proportional to the absolute temperature (in kelvins). This can be found
using the kinetic theory of gases or a heated container with a variable volume (such as a conical
flask with a balloon).

Where T is the absolute temperature of the gas (in kelvins) and k2 (in m3·K−1) is the constant
produced.

[edit] Gay-Lussac's Law

Main article: Gay-Lussac's Law

The pressure (or Gay-Lussac's) law was found by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1809. It states that
the pressure exerted on a container's sides by an ideal gas is proportional to the absolute
temperature of the gas. This follows from the kinetic theory—by increasing the temperature of
the gas, the molecules' speeds increase meaning an increased amount of collisions with the
container walls.

As a mathematical formula, this is:

[edit] Avogadro's Law
Main article: Avogadro's Law

Avogadro's Law states that the volume occupied by an ideal gas is proportional to the amount of
moles (or molecules) present in the container. This gives rise to the molar volume of a gas,
which at STP is 22.4 dm3 (or liters).

Where n is equal to the number of moles of gas (the number of molecules divided by Avogadro's
Number).

[edit] Combined and ideal gas laws

Main article: Ideal gas law

The combined gas law or general gas equation is formed by the combination of the three laws,
and shows the relationship between the pressure, volume and temperature for a fixed mass of
gas:

With the addition of Avogadro's law, the combined gas law develops into the ideal gas law:

Where the constant, now named R, is the gas constant with a value of 8.314472(15) J·K−1·mol−1

An equivalent formulation of this law is:

where

k is the Boltzmann constant (1.381×10−23J·K−1 in SI units)

N is the number of molecules.

These equations are exact only for an ideal gas, which neglects various intermolecular effects
(see real gas). However, the ideal gas law is a good approximation for most gases under
moderate pressure and temperature.

This law has the following important consequences:

 1. If temperature and pressure are kept constant, then the volume of the gas is directly
proportional to the number of molecules of gas.
2. If the temperature and volume remain constant, then the pressure of the gas changes is
directly proportional to the number of molecules of gas present.
3. If the number of gas molecules and the temperature remain constant, then the pressure is
inversely proportional to the volume.
4. If the temperature changes and the number of gas molecules are kept constant, then either
pressure or volume (or both) will change in direct proportion to the temperature.

[edit] Other gas laws

 Graham's law states that the rate at which gas molecules diffuse is inversely proportional
to the square root of its density. Combined with Avogadro's law (i.e. since equal volumes
have equal number of molecules) this is the same as being inversely proportional to the
root of the molecular weight.

 Dalton's law of partial pressures states that the pressure of a mixture of gases simply is
the sum of the partial pressures of the individual components. Dalton's Law is as follows:

OR

Where PTotal is the total pressure of the atmosphere, PGas is the pressure of the gas mixture in the
atmosphere, and PH2O is the water pressure at that temperature.

 Henry's law states that:

At a constant temperature, the amount of a given gas dissolved in a given type and
volume of liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas in equilibrium
with that liquid.