THE

CHEMISTRY
OF
SOILS / ROCK
 •Ms Taapopi

PRESENTED BY

•Ms. Uiras

•Mr. Nangolo
 SCOPE

1. Introductory Concepts
2. Soil as a Construction Material
3. Types of Soils in Namibia and their use in the
construction industry
4. Environmental chemistry of soils
 2. INTRODUCTION

• Soil and regolith

•Soil-Forming Factors

•Soil Components

•Soil Properties and Chemistry

•Chemical composition

•Soil Profiles

•Soil Classification
Soil and Regolith
Soils are the main,
naturally occurring
materials
Soil is found in the top
layer s of regolith
Regolith = soil +
portions of bedrock
In engineering, soil is
referred to as regolith :
loose rock material or
layer covering
solid/bedrock and is
created by the action of
wind and water
 Soil Forming Factors

 Geologic – parent rock factor:

Rocks are said to be the parent of soil because all soils originate
directly or indirectly from them and are classified according to
their mode of formation. By a combination of physical and
chemical processes rock masses are reduced to particles ranging
in sizes down to 0.001 mm.
Soils result when collections of these particles are re-deposited,
often in bodies of water, and are compressed and consolidated
by further depositions

 Climatic - factor comprises of the meteorological conditions

which surround the soil system such as temperature, rainfall,
humidity ( the agents of weathering)
 Soil Forming Factors

 Topographic factor :

The general shape of the land surface in terms of its slope

and position relative to its geographic coordinates, affect the
moisture and temperature of the soil

Example Steep soils facing the sun are warmer, compared to

the
those that don’t. Steep soils erode and lose their topsoil as they
form and display different soils characters on both top and
bottom layers of the slope.

Precipitation has Significant impact on soil formation as it

determines runoff water. Water erosion is more effective on
steeper, unvegetative slopes
 Soil Forming Factors

 Topographic factor :
 Soil Forming Factors

 Biological factor :

Decomposition of
Plants, animals with the
aid micro organisms
have an effect on the
formation of soil by
speeding up the rate of
dissolution of parent
material
 Soil Forming Factors

 Time factor :

Soil formation is an ongoing process. Over time soils shows

features that reflect the various forming factors.
Soil developmemt

•Soil forms from a

complex interaction
between earth
materials, climate and
organisms acting over
time , by the process of
weathering:
physical/mechanical
break down and
chemical alteration of
earth material
During the early stage of soil
development, soils are dominated by
characteristics inherited from parent
material. Later on they show a change
in their chemical characteristics.
 During the early stage
of soil development,
soils are dominated by
characteristics
inherited from parent
material. Later on they
show a change in their
chemical
characteristics.
 Soil Components

Soils are a complex mixture of:

•Inorganic Materials
•Organic Matter
•Soil Air
•Soil Water
 Soil Components

Inorganic Materials:
 Decomposing high temp silicates, oxides etc
 Fine grained clay minerals – essential for holding water and
organic nutrients

Organic Matter:
 Micro-organisms
 < 5% soil volume
 Decomposed vegetable matter – humus, a dark, complex, non-
defined colloidal material (finely divided solids that do not
settle but which may removed by coagulation)
Organic matter:
 0.5 - 5% of soil volume
 made up of different substances that are
gradually broken down by microorganisms.
 Includes carbohydrates, proteins, lignins, fats,
waxes.
Many of these compounds do not decompose
completely and are transformed to humus,
 Soil Components
Soil Air

Air makes up approximately 25% of total soil volume.

Soil Components
Soil Air
Soil is made up of
approximately 40-60% of
pores. The pore size
influences water holding
capacity and aeration.

Porosity :
Ratio of the volume of voids
(containing air and/or
water) in a soil to the total
volume of the soil expressed
as a percentage

•Void ratio: is the ratio of

the
volume of voids to the
volume of solid particles in
a soil
Soil Components Percolation:
Soil Water Refers to the
downward flow or
movement of water
through the soil
profile

Capillary action :
The movement of a
liquid along the
surface of a solid
caused by the
attraction of
molecules of the
liquid to that of the
solids
Soil Components
Soil Water

•Eluviation: process
of removing
minerals from soil
with water

•Illuviation: process
of depositing the
removed minerals in
underlying layers
 Soil properties
Color

Red color results from leaching – removal of

materials by dissolving them away from solids
Soil properties
Texture
 Soil properties
Texture

Unweathered primary materials:

• have little capacity to hold water and nutrients and are

relatively chemically unreactive.
•Gravel: 2 - 4mm
•Sand: 0.05 - 2.0 mm
•Silt: 0.002 - 0.05 mm

Weathered secondary materials:

•Clay: is a secondary mineral less than 0.002 mm in
diameter.
 Soil properties
Texture

Textural classification:
 Infiltration of water: rapid in sands, slow in clays.
 Drainage: rapid in sands, slow in clays.
 Aeration: sand has rapid gas exchange; clay slow.
 Fertility: sand has low fertility, clay high, depending on type.
Soil properties
Structure
 Soil properties
Moisture

•Porous and Non Porous Soil: the rate of permeability

 Soil properties and Chemistry

Colloids:
 less than 0.1 micrometer
(10-7 meters)
 clays + organic particles
 when mixed with water
form a suspension
 absorb water
 Soil properties and Chemistry

Acidity/Alkalinity:
 Soil properties and Chemistry

Ion Exchange:

Clays: high cation exchange capacity (CEC) because they are

negatively charged and can attract, retain and exchange cations.
Their water holding capacity is very high because of their large
surface area per unit mass:
Three-layer clays: (Si-Al-Si
lattice) montmorillonite and
illite have high CEC.
Two-layer clays: (Si-Al lattice)
like kaolinite have low CEC.
Amorphous clays: are
composed of oxides of Fe and
Al and have very low CEC
 Chemical composition of Soils
 oxygen (46.7%), silicon (27%), aluminium (8.1 %) and iron
(5.0%).
 Ca, Mg, K, Na, P and S are present in the minerals and in the
soil solution.
 Si, and Al occur as constituents of minerals and as oxides.
 Fe occurs mainly in the form of oxides and ferromagnesium
minerals.
 Ca occurs mainly in calcite, gypsum, apatite and dolomite.
 Mg is present mainly in dolomite and hornblende
 K occurs mainly in microcline and mica
 P occurs as aluminium phosphate and calcium phosphate and
in the organic form as phospholipids, inositol, choline, etc.
 N occurs mainly in the organic form as proteins, amino acids,
etc.
 All micronutrients like Mo, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B occur in the
inorganic form.
Soil Profile
Horizons specifically refer to
variations in soil profiles.

Soil Horizons (horizontal

layers)that exist within a vertical
column of soil

A coherent layer of soil, similar

in characteristics such as
composition, texture and color
that define the horizon from
other soil types, unique to
different geologic and climatic
areas
 Soil Classification

In order to understand relationships between different soils and

to determine the usefulness of a soil for a particular use soils are
classified into categories
 Orders are the highest category of soil classification. Order
types end in the letters sol. In Namibia we use the World
Reference Base for soil Resources ( WRB)
2. SOIL AS A CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
 History

Soil is the oldest construction and engineering material

& was used as the main element during construction

 Sumerian civilization : Ur ( 50th century B.C)

 Western civilizations: Rome ( 5th century B.C) and Greek
( 28th century B.C)
 African civilization: Nubian ( 2 nd century B.C ) and
Egyptians ( 3rd century B.C)
 Namibia : San people (7th century B.C)
 Soil as a Construction Material

In engineering soil is mostly used in the following areas:

 As a Bearing capacity for the foundation of structures
 As a mixing agent to form concrete etc
 As a stability slope

soil is one of the most complex fields in civil engineering

to the point that when it comes to the factor of safety in
design whatever has direct contact with soils, e.g.
foundations, or soil based constructions, e.g.
embankments, it has the highest number, i.e. the
uncertainty in soil analysis and design is high. These most
likely come from the way soil originates.
 Soil as a Construction Material

Effect of soil chemistry on structures: Concrete and Steel

 Ideally steels & concrete should be in the passive state in soils,

but presence of water and aggressive chemicals like chloride
ions, sulphates, as well as types of bacteria, can cause localized
corrosion.

Steel:
The risk of corrosion, expressed as low, moderate, or high, is
based on soil drainage class, total acidity, electrical resistivity
near field capacity, and electrical conductivity of the saturation
extract.. Steel installations that intersect soil boundaries or soil
layers is more susceptible to corrosion than steel in installations
that are entirely within one kind of soil or within one soil layer.
 Soil as a Construction Material
Concrete:
The risk of corrosion also is expressed as low, moderate, or high.
It is based on soil texture, acidity, and amount of sulfates in the
saturation extract.

The factors contributing to Corrosion:

Soil Resistivity
 Indicator of soil corrosivity
 Corrosivity is associated with electrochemical reaction in soils,
 highly resistive soils slow down corrosion reactions
 Resistivity decreases with increase in moisture & chemical
concentration
 Well drained soils less corrosive
 Soil as a Construction Material
Acidity of the Soil
 Normal pH range of 4.5 – 8.0.
 As acidity increases so does the risk of corrosion
 Soil acidity is due to: mineral leaching, decomposition of acidic
plants, industrial wastes, acid rain and certain forms of micro-
biological

Presence of Chlorides, Sulphates and Other Dissolved Species:

Most Important Factors
 Cl- ion concentration
Cl- ion participates in pitting iniation of steel
presence decreases soil resitivity
presence due to: brackish groundwater, historical geological
seabeds
 Soil as a Construction Material

 Soil moisture
contains sulphate ions, H+, HCO3-
sulphates less corrosive than Cl-
Risk: sulphates can be converted to highly corrosive sulphides
by reactions in soil

Microbiologically Induced Corrosion (MIC)

 Corrosion induced by activities of microorganisms
 Presence Sulphate Reducing Bacteria increases risk of corrosion
 By product of SRB metabolism = sulphide ions
 Sulphide ions react with metal surface
 Soil as a Construction Material

Oxygen concentration cells

 O2 takes part in cathodic reaction
 Supply of O2 changes with type of soil = creation of O2
concentration cells
 Increase in O2 concentration = increase in redox potential
 Acid chemically reacts with lime in concrete wearing away
at the structure, and exposing the aggregate.
 Acid attacks steel leading to structural weakness and
failure
 When acidic soils are exposed they will shrink and crack.
This can result in subsidence and cracking of foundations
 As concrete surfaces deteriorates this leads to the
corrosion of steel reinforcements
 Acidic soil => lack of vegetation => more rapid soil loss =>
significant long term destruction of road
structureShifting or sinking of foundations may result
in structural cracking, damage or collapse.
 Salt damage to roads and highways includes the
breakdown of concrete, bitumen and asphalt with
associated pot holing, cracking and crumbling of the
road base.
 The major concern is to not allow excessive water
against the foundation. Wet alkaline soil will
damage concrete foundations and stucco siding.
 Soil as a Construction Material

Mechanical properties:

 shear strength :
The internal resistance per unit area that the soil mass can
offer to resist sliding failure along any plane inside it. Stresses
induced along any plane in a soil mass can be converted to
- Normal stress : stresses perpendicular to the plane
- Shear stress : stresses along the plane
 Soil as a Construction Material

SOIL MASS

B
 Soil as a Construction Material
 Consolidation:
The ongoing removal, of water form the pores of saturated
cohesive materials with subsequent change in volume, by
continued pressure.
When a load is applied to saturated clay the load is initially
carried by the pore water, this load is gradually transferred to
the soil particles as the water is removed under pressure.
During these process settlement occurs, known as consolidation
settlement because of the reduction in volume associated with
the removal of water.
Settlement will continue to take place until excess pore
pressure has been dissipated. Depending on the permeability
of clay and adjacent subsoil this process may occur over years.
Before the foundation is constructed the layer carries the
normal overburden load. After completion there is still some
overburden load plus the effect of pressure exerted by the
foundation
 Soil as a Construction Material

 Permeability:
The capacity of a soil to allow water to pass through

 Effective stress :
The intergranular stress which exists between soil particles at
any particular level in a soil mass

 Slope stability :
The assessment of the stability of earth slope against
failure, normally takes the form of a slip along one or more
ruptured surfaces somewhere within the soil mass.
 Atterberg Limits

Liquid Limit, plastic limit, and shrinkage limit, related to

plasticity of a soil.
•L •H

•PI

•LL

•(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

 3. TYPES OF SOILS IN NAMIBIA
“ CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY”

•The most common soil types in Namibia are:

•sandy soils (arenosols)
• young soil on solid rocks (leptosols)
•Fertile fluvisols
The most common soil types used in
construction are shown in table below:
 Dune sands
Coastal sand dune systems are fragile, dynamic resources that
comprise only about two percent of Maine’s overall coastline.
•River sand
•Arenosols
 ENVIRONMENTAL SOIL
CHEMISTRY
 A knowledge of environmental soil chemistry is
paramount to predicting the fate, mobility and potential
toxicity of contaminants in the environment. The vast
majority of environmental contaminants are initially
released to the soil. Once a chemical is exposed to the soil
environment a myriad of chemical reactions can occur
that may increase/decrease a contaminants toxicity. These
reactions include adsorption/desorption, precipitation,
polymerization, dissolution, complexation, and
oxidation/reduction. These reactions are often disregarded
by scientists and engineers involved with environmental
remediation. Understanding these processes will enable us
to better predict the fate and toxicity of contaminants and
will ultimately provide us with the knowledge to develop
sound and cost-effective remediation strategies.
END