Motivation

Why do people do the

things they do?
• Motivation
– Willingness to exert high levels of effort
toward organizational goals,
conditioned by the effort’s ability to
satisfy some individual need.

• Need
– Some internal state that makes certain
outcomes appear attractive.
 Motivation Process
• Unsatisfied need
• Tension
• Drive
• Search Behaviour
• Satisfied need
• Reduction of Tension
Why motivation?
 Hierarchy of Needs Theory
• Maslow
• Physiological- hunger, thrust, shelter, sex, other
bodily needs
• Safety- security and protection from physical
and emotional harm
• Social- affection, belongingness, acceptance and
friendship
• Esteem - internal esteem factors - self respect,
autonomy, achievement
– Status, recognition and attention
• Self Actualization- the drive to become what
one is capable of becoming: growth, achieving
one’s potential and self-fulfillment
• one substantially satisfied, other becomes
dominant
• Recognize the level and satisfy unmet needs
• Lower order and higher order
• Lower order met from outside; higher order
from inside
• Influential, but week empirical support
 Theory X and Theory Y
• Employees inherently dislike work and
whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it.
• Since employees dislike work, they must be
coerced, controlled, or threatened with
punishment to achieve goals.
• Employees avoid responsibilities and seek
formal direction whenever possible.
• Most workers place security above all other
factors associated with work and will display
little ambition.
 Theory Y
• Employees can view work being as natural as
rest or play.
• People will exercise self direction and self
control if they are committed to the objectives.
• The average person can learn to accept, even
seek, responsibility.
• The ability to make innovative decisions is
widely dispersed throughout the population
and is not necessarily the sole province of those
in management positions.
 Implications
• Theory Y - higher order needs dominate
• Theory X- lower order needs dominate
• Theory Y more valid than Theory X-
– participative decision making, responsible
and challenging jobs, good group relations
maximize motivation.
• No empirical support. Situational.
 Motivation-Hygiene Theory
• Frederick Herzberg
• What do people want from their jobs.
– Relation to work basic and determines success or failure.

• When they felt exceptionally good and bad about their

jobs- detailed descriptions.
• Achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility,
advancement, growth
• company policy and administration, supervision,
relationship with supervisor, work conditions, salary,
relationship with peers, personal life, relationship with
subordinates, status, security.
• Feeling good different from feeling
bad.
• Satisfaction’s opposite is not
dissatisfaction
• No satisfaction; no dissatisfaction.
• Intrinsic factors related to
satisfaction; extrinsic related to
dissatisfaction.
• Removing dissatisfiers would placate
not motivate
 Criticism
• Procedure limited by methodology- when things go
well, credit to themselves, when to go wrong, blame
outside things.
• Inter rater reliability
• Theory of job satisfaction and not motivation.
• No overall measure of satisfaction used.
• Inconsistent with previous research by ignoring
situational variables.
• Relationship between satisfaction and productivity-
assumption.
• Vertical expansion of job to allow greater responsibility
in planning and controlling their work.
 ERG Theory
• Clayton Alderfer
• Revised need hierarchy
• Existence- basic material requirements-
physiological and safety
• Relatedness- desire to maintain important
interpersonal relationships- social and
external part of esteem needs
• Growth- intrinsic desire for personal growth-
intrinsic part of esteem and self actualisation
• More than one need may be
operating at one time
• if higher order need not met,
desire to have more of lower
order need
• culture difference
• individual difference- education,
cultural environment, family
background etc.
 McClleland’s Theory of Needs
• Achievement- the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of
standards, to strive to succeed.
• Power- need to make others behave in a way that they would not
have behaved otherwise.
• Affiliation- desire for friendly and close interpersonal
relationships.
• High achievers- differentiate from others by desire to do things
better, seek personal responsibility for problem solving, rapid
feedback and set moderately challenging goals.
• Need for power- to have impact, to be influential, to control
others, being in charge, competitive and status oriented situations
and prestige and influence rather than effective performance.
• Affiliation - to be liked and accepted by others. friendship,
cooperative , relationships with high degree of mutual
understanding.
• Projective tests
• High achievers- personal responsibility,
feedback and intermediate degree of risk- more
successful- highly motivated- own business,
divisional heads
• Not necessarily good managers as it is the need
to achieve for himself/herself
• High need for power and low need for
affiliation - best managers
• Higher you rise, higher the power motive
• Training
 Cognitive Evaluation Theory
• Allocating extrinsic rewards for
behaviors that have been
previously intrinsically rewarded
tends to decrease the overall level
of motivation.
• Whither pay for performance
• dull jobs, interesting jobs
 Goal Setting Theory
• specific and difficult goals lead to higher performance
• Do your best?
• specific goals produce higher level of output.
• if ability and acceptance of goals are constant; more
difficult the goal, higher the output.
• feedback- improved performance
• self generated feedback better than externally generated
feedback.
• participative vs. assigned goals
• mixed performance
• Increases acceptance
• More difficult goals would be agreed to.
• Goal commitment- goals are public, internal
locus of control, national culture, self set
• Self efficacy- belief that she is capable of
performing a task.
• Difficult task, negative feedback
• Reasonably independent, seek challenging goals
and performance is considered important.
• Intentions lead to motivation, but may not lead
to job satisfaction.
 Reinforcement Theory
• Behaviour is a function of its
consequences
– feelings, attitudes, expectations
ignored.
 Equity Theory
• People make comparisons of their job inputs and outcomes
relative to others
• equitable, just
• inequitable- tension- motivation for corrective
• Referent
• Self inside; self outside, other inside, other outside
• information and attractiveness of referent; gender, length of
service, level in the organisation and education or
professionalism
• same sex comparisons; in less segregated jobs- more cross sex
comparisons
• short tenure- self outside
• long tenure- other inside
• educated and professional- other outside
• Under rewarded, equitable , over
rewarded
• Change inputs
• change outcomes
• distort perception of self
• distort perception of others
• choose a different referent
• leave the job.
• efforts, experience, education, competence
• salary levels, raises, recognition.
• given payment by time, over rewarded employees will
produce more than equitably paid employees
• given payment by quantity of production, over rewarded
employees will produce fewer, but higher quality units
than will equitably paid employees.
• Given payment by time, under rewarded employees will
produce less or poorer quality of output.
• given payment by quantity, under rewarded employees
would produce a larger number of low quality units .
• overpayment tolerable
• Open sharing of info on allocation decisions,
consistent and unbiased procedures,
• Conflicting equity signals, definitions,
weightage, over time, additions etc.
• Not all the people equity sensitive- benevolent
types
• Other rewards
• Distributive justice- amount, allocation
-employee satisfaction
• Procedural justice- process- organizational
commitment, trust in boss, intention to quit.
 Expectancy Theory
• Perform strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the
strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome
and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
• Effort-performance relationship
• Performance reward relationship
• Reward-personal goals relationship
• Effort performance relationship- deficient skills, loyalty, initiative, courage
etc. taken into account, boss does not like me.
• Weak performance reward relationship- seniority, cooperative attitude,
ingratiation,
• Reward-personal goals relationship- need based, different for different
employee.
• Same person different circumstances- not done
• Limited use, where the relationships are clearly perceived
• Performance = ability x motivation x opportunity
 Final model
• Motivation happens when opportunity,
individual effort, ability, objective performance
evaluation system leads to performance leads to
organisational rewards high n Ach- internal
rewards, equity comparison, personal goals,
dominant needs met, goal directed behaviour.
 Culture Bound Models

• Security needs, Social needs

• Desire for interesting work,
Growth, Achievement,
responsibility everywhere
 Applications
• Need Theories
– promote a healthy workforce
– provide financial security
– Outplacement services, training etc.
– provide opportunity to socialize
– recognize employee’s accomplishments
• Goal Setting Theory
– assign specific goals
– assign difficult but acceptable performance goals
– provide feedback concerning goal attainment
• Equity Theory
– avoid underpayment
– two tier wage structure- to be avoided
– overpayment should be avoided
– present info about outcomes in a
thorough and socially sensitive manner
• Expectancy Theory
– clarify people’s expectancy that effort
would lead to performance
– problems taken care of
– administer positively valent rewards
• cafeteria style benefit plans
• Clearly link valued Rewards and Performance
– pay for performance plans - differential payments
based on quantity and quality
– piece rate incentive systems
– sales commissions
– bonuses
– based on repairs
– profitability and customer satisfaction vs.. sales
– verbal recognition, ESOP,
• Job Design
– jobs can be created to increase people’s interest in doing
them.
• Job Enlargement
– expanding content to include more variety and a greater
number of tasks at the same level.
– Horizontal job loading, same skills, same responsibility
– may not be long lasting
• Job Enrichment
– giving employees a high degree of control over their work,
planning and organization, implementing and evaluating
– more jobs, more tasks at higher skill level and responsibility,
vertical job loading
– not for everyone
• Job characteristics model
– skill variety, task identity, task significance- experienced
meaningfulness of the work
– autonomy- experienced responsibility for outcome of the
work
– feedback-knowledge of actual results
– employee growth need strength
– high internal work motivation, high quality work
performance, high satisfaction with the work, low
absenteeism and turnover
– Motivating potential score- skill variety + task identity +
task significance / 3 x autonomy x feedback
– combine tasks, open feedback channels, establish client
relationship, load jobs vertically
– autonomy- hire better employees and performance is
expected
Motivation Techniques and
Programmes
 MBO
• Management By Objectives
• a programme that encompasses specific goals,
participatively set, for an explicit time period,
with feedback on goal progress.
• participatively set goals - tangible, verifiable,
measurable (SMART - GOALS)
• Peter Drucker, in 1950s goals to motivate rather
than control.