Consumer Behavior,

Eighth Edition

SCHIFFMAN & KANUK

Chapter 7

Consumer Learning

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 The Importance of Consumer
Learning to New Product Success
• Why did these products fail?
– Listerine Toothpaste
– Ben-Gay Aspirin
– Oreo Little Fudgies
• Why did PocketPaks succeed?

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 Importance of Learning

• Marketers must teach consumers:

– where to buy
– how to use
– how to maintain
– how to dispose of products

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 Learning Theories
• Behavioral Theories: • Cognitive Theories:
Theories based on the A theory of learning
premise that learning based on mental
takes place as the information
result of observable processing, often in
responses to external response to problem
stimuli. Also known solving.
as stimulus response
theory.

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 A process by which
individuals acquire the
purchase and
Consumer consumption
Learning knowledge
and experience
that they apply to
future related behavior.

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 Learning Processes

• Intentional: • Incidental:
learning acquired as learning acquired
a result of a careful by accident or
search for without much effort
information

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 Elements of Learning Theories
• Motivation
• Cues
• Response
• Reinforcement

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 A positive or
negative outcome
that influences the
likelihood that a
specific behavior
Reinforcement
will be repeated in
the future in
response to a
particular cue or
stimulus.

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 Figure 7.1 Product Usage Leads to
Reinforcement

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 Behavioral Learning Theories
• Classical Conditioning
• Instrumental Conditioning
• Modeling or Observational Learning

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 A behavioral
learning theory
according to which a
stimulus is paired
Classical with another stimulus
Conditioning that elicits a known
response that serves
to produce the same
response when used
alone.

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 A behavioral theory of
learning based on a
trial-and-error process,
with habits forced as
Instrumental
the result of positive
(Operant)
experiences
Conditioning
(reinforcement)
resulting from certain
responses or
behaviors.

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 Figure 7.2A Pavlovian Model of
Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned Stimulus
Meat paste
Unconditioned Response
Salivation
Conditioned Stimulus
Bell

AFTER REPEATED PAIRINGS

Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned Response
Bell Salivation

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 Figure 7.2B Analogous Model of
Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned Stimulus
Dinner aroma
Unconditioned Response
Salivation
Conditioned Stimulus
6 o’clock news

AFTER REPEATED PAIRINGS

Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned Response
6 o’clock news Salivation

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 Cognitive Associative Learning

• Classical conditioning is viewed as the

learning of associations among events that
allows the organism to anticipate and
represent its environment.
• From this viewpoint, classical conditioning
is not reflexive action, but rather the
acquisition of new knowledge

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 Neo-Pavlovian Conditioning
• Forward Conditioning (CS Precedes US)
• Repeated Pairings of CS and US
• A CS and US that Logically Belong to Each
Other
• A CS that is Novel and Unfamiliar
• A US that is Biologically or Symbolically
Salient

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 Strategic Applications of Classical
Conditioning
• Repetition
• Stimulus Generalization
• Stimulus Discrimination

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 Repetition
• Repetition increases
strength of Figure 7.3 Cosmetic
associations and slows Variations in Ads
forgetting but over
time may result in
advertising wearout.
• Cosmetic variations
reduce satiation.

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 Figure 7.4
Substantive
Variations

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 Three-Hit Theory
• Repetition is the basis for the idea that three
exposures to an ad are necessary for the ad
to be effective
• The number of actual repetitions to equal
three exposures is in question.

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 The inability to
Stimulus perceive differences
Generalization between slightly
dissimilar stimuli.

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 Stimulus Generalization and
Marketing

• Product Line, Form and Category

Extensions
• Family Branding
• Licensing
• Generalizing Usage Situations

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 Figure 7.5
Product Line
Extension

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 Figure 7.6 Product Form
Extensions

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 Figure 7.7
Product
Category
Extensions

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 Figure 7-8
Shoe
Manufacturer
Licenses
Its Name

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 The ability to select
a specific stimulus
Stimulus from among similar
Discrimination stimuli because of
perceived
differences.

Positioning

Differentiation

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 Figure 7.9
Stimulus
Discrimination

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 Figure 7.10 A Model of Instrumental
Conditioning
Try Unrewarded
Brand A Legs too tight

Try Unrewarded
Brand B Tight in seat
Stimulus
Situation
Try Unrewarded
(Need good-
looking jeans) Brand C Baggy in seat

Try Reward
Brand D Perfect fit
Repeat Behavior

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 Instrumental Conditioning

• Consumers learn by means of trial and error

process in which some purchase behaviors
result in more favorable outcomes (rewards)
than other purchase behaviors.
• A favorable experience is instrumental in
teaching the individual to repeat a specific
behavior.

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 Instrumental Conditioning and
Marketing
• Customer Satisfaction (Reinforcement)
• Reinforcement Schedules
– Shaping
• Massed versus Distributed Learning

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 Reinforcement
• Positive • Negative
Reinforcement: Reinforcement:
Positive outcomes that Unpleasant or negative
strengthen the outcomes that serve to
likelihood of a specific encourage a specific
response behavior
• Example: Ad showing • Example: Ad showing
beautiful hair as a wrinkled skin as
reinforcement to buy reinforcement to buy
shampoo skin cream
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 Other Concepts in Reinforcement

• Punishment
– Choose reinforcement rather than punishment
• Extinction
– Combat with consumer satisfaction
• Forgetting
– Combat with repetition

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 A process by which
individuals observe
the behavior of
others, and
Observational
consequences of
Learning
such behavior. Also
known as modeling
or vicarious
learning.

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 Figure 7.11
Consumers
Learn by
Modeling

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 Holds that the kind
of learning most
characteristic of
Cognitive human beings is
Learning problem solving,
Theory which enables
individuals to gain
some control over
their environment.

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 Figure 7.12
Appeal to
Cognitive
Processing

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 A cognitive theory of
human learning
patterned after
computer information
Information processing that
Processing focuses on how
information is stored
in human memory
and how it is
retrieved.

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 Figure 7.13 Information Processing and
Memory Stores

Working
Working
Memory
Memory Long-
Long-
Sensory Sensory
Sensory (Short-
(Short- term
term
Input Store
Store Rehearsal Encoding Retrieval
term
term Store
Store
Store)
Store)

Forgotten; Forgotten; Forgotten;

lost lost unavailable

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 Retention
• Information is stored in
long-term memory
– Episodically: by the order
in which it is acquired
– Semantically: according
to significant concepts

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 Table 7.1 Models of Cognitive Learning

Decision- Innovation Innovation

Promotional Tricompetent Making Adoption Decision
Model Model Model Model Process
Attention Cognitive Awareness Awareness
Sequential
Knowledge Knowledge
Stages
of Interest Affective Interest
Processing Desire Evaluation Evaluation Persuasion
Action Conative Purchase Trial Decision
Postpurchase Adoption Confirmation
Evaluation

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 A theory of consumer
learning which
postulates that
consumers engage in a
range of information
Involvement
processing activity
Theory
from extensive to
limited problem
solving, depending on
the relevance of the
purchase.
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 Figure 7.14
Split Brain
Figure 7.14
Theory

• Right/ Left Brain

Hemispheres
specialize in certain
functions

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 Figure 7.15
Encouraging
Right and
Left Brain
Processing

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 Issues in Involvement Theory
• Involvement Theory and Media Strategy
• Involvement Theory and Consumer
Relevance
• Central and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion
• Measures of Involvement

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 A theory that proposes that
highly involved consumers
are best reached through ads
Central and that focus on the specific
Peripheral attributes of the product (the
central route) while
Routes to uninvolved consumers can
Persuasion be attracted through
peripheral advertising cues
such as the model or the
setting (the peripheral route).

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 A theory that suggests
that a person’s level of
Elaboration involvement during
Likelihood message processing is
Model a critical factor in
(ELM) determining which
route to persuasion is
likely to be effective.

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 Figure 7.16
Peripheral
Route to
Persuasion

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 Figure 7.17 Unexpected Headline
Metaphor Increases Impact

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 The Elaboration Likelihood Model
Involvement
HIGH LOW

Central Peripheral
Route Route

Message Peripheral
Arguments Cues
Influence Influence
Attitudes Attitudes

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 Measures of Consumer Learning
• Recognition and Recall Measures
– Aided and Unaided Recall
• Cognitive Responses to Advertising
• Copytesting Measures
• Attitudinal and Behavioral Measures of
Brand Loyalty

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 Figure 7.18
Starch
Readership
Scores Measure
Learning

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 Phases of Brand Loyalty
• Cognitive
• Affective
• Conative
• Action

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 Figure 7.19
Brand Loyalty As A Function of
Relative Attitude and Patronage
Behavior

Repeat Patronage
High Low
Latent
High Loyalty
Relative Loyalty
Attitude Spurious No
Low
Loyalty Loyalty

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