Alternators

• In order to supply the power required

- for the starter motor,
- for ignition and fuel-injection systems,
- for the ECUs to control the electronic equipment,
- for lighting, and
- for safety and convenience electronics,
• motor vehicles need an alternator to act as their
own efficient and highly reliable source of energy
.
1. Generation of electrical energy in the motor vehi
cle
1.1 Onboard electrical energy
1.1.1 Assignments and operating conditions
• with the engine stopped, the battery is the vehicl
e's energy store
• the alternator becomes the on-board "electricity
generating plant" when the engine is running.
• to supply energy to all the vehicle's current-cons
uming loads and systems
• the alternator output, battery capacity, and start
er power requirements, together with all other el
ectrical loads, are matched to each other
• the battery must always still have sufficient charge so
that the vehicle can be started again without any trouble
no matter what the temperature.
• a number of electrical loads should continue to operate
for a reasonable period without discharging the battery
so far that the vehicle cannot be started again.
 1.1.2 Electrical loads
• The various electrical loads have differing duty c
ycles
• permanent loads (ignition, fuel injection, etc.),
• long-time loads (lighting, car radio, vehicle heate
r, etc.), and
• short-time loads (turn signals, stop lamps, etc.)
• Some electrical loads are only switched on accor
ding to season (air-conditioner in summer, seat
heater in winter).
• And the operation of electrical radiator fans depe
nds on temperature and driving conditions.
1.1.3 Charge-balance calculation
• a computer program is used to determine the sta
te of battery charge at the end of a typical driving
cycle,
• influences as battery size, alternator size, and lo
ad input powers must be taken into account.
• Rush-hour driving (low engine speeds) combine
d with winter operation (low charging-current inp
ut to the battery) is regarded as a normal passen
ger-car driving cycle.
• In the case of vehicles equipped with an air cond
itioner, summer operation can be even more unf
avorable than winter.
1.1.4 Vehicle electrical system
• The nature of the wiring between alternator, battery, and
electrical equipment also influences the voltage level and
the state of battery charge.
• If all electrical loads are connected at the battery, the tot
al current (sum of battery charging current and load curr
ent) flows through the charging line, and the resulting hig
h voltage drop causes a reduction in the charging voltag
e.
• if all electrical devices are connected at the alternator sid
e, the voltage drop is less and the charging voltage is hig
her.
• connect voltage-insensitive equipment with high power in
puts to the alternator, and voltage-sensitive equipment w
ith low power inputs to the battery.
1.2 Electrical power generation u
sing alternators
• the alternator has far higher electromagnetic efficiency th
an the DC generator
• The expected power re­quirements up to the year 2010
• The rise in traffic density leads to frequent traffic jams, and together
with long stops at traffic lights this means that the alternator also op
erates for much of the time at low speeds which correspond to engin
e idle.
• longer journeys at higher speeds have become less common
• At engine idle, an alternator already delivers at least a third of its rat
ed power
 1.2.1 Design factors

• 1.2.1.1 Rotational speed

• An alternator's efficiency (energy generated per kg mas
s) increases with rotational speed
• 1.2.1.2 Temperature
• The losses in the alternator lead to heating up of its com
ponents.
• 1.2.1.3 Vibration
• vibration accelerations of between 500...800 m/s2 can oc
cur at the alternator. Critical resonances must be avoide
d.
• 1.2.1.4 Further influences
• detrimental influences as spray water, dirt, oil, fuel mist,
and road salt
1.3 Electrical power generation u
sing DC generators
• the conventional lead-acid battery custom
arily fitted in motor vehicles led to the deve
lopment of the DC generator
• The alternating current generated by the m
achine is then rectified relatively simply by
mechanical means using a commutator, a
nd the resulting direct current supplied to t
he vehicle electrical system or the battery.
 1.4 Requirements to be met by a
utomotive generators
• The demands made upon an automotive generator are :
- Supplying all connected loads with DC.
- Providing power reserves for rapidly charging the battery and keepin
g it charged, even when permanent loads are swiched on.
- Maintaining the voltage output as constant as possible across the co
mplete engine speed range independent of the generator's loading.
- Rugged construction to withstand the under-hood stresses (e.g. vibr
ation, high ambient temperatures, temperature changes, dirt, dampn
ess, etc.).
- Low weight.
- Compact dimensions for ease of installation.
- Long service life.
- Low noise level.
- A high level of efficiency.
1.5 Characteristics (summary)
• It generates power even at engine idle.
• Rectification of the AC uses power diodes in a three-pha
se bridge circuit.
• The diodes separate alternator and battery from the vehi
cle electrical system when the alternator voltage drops b
elow the battery voltage.
• The alternator's higher level of electrical efficiency mean
s that for the same power output, they are far lighter than
DC generators.
• Alternators feature a long service life. The passenger-car
alternator's service life cor­responds roughly to that of the
engine. It can last for as much as 200,000 km.
1.5 Characteristics (summary)
• On vehicles designed for high mileages (trucks a
nd commercial vehicles in general), brushless alt
ernator versions are used which permit regreasi
ng. Or bearings with grease-reserve chambers a
re fitted.
• Alternators are able to withstand such external in
fluences as vibration, high temperatures, dirt, an
d dampness.
• operation is possible in either direction of rotatio
n without special mea­sures being necessary, wh
en the fan shape is adapted to the direction of ro
tation.
 2. Basic physical principles
2.1 Electrodynamic principle
2.1.1 Induction
• When an electric conductor (wire or wire loop) cuts throu
gh the lines of force of a DC magnetic field, a voltage is
generated (induced) in the conductor.
• A wire loop is rotated between the North and South poles
of a permanent magnet, and its ends are connected thro
ugh collector rings and carbon brushes to a voltmeter.
• The continuously varying relationship of the wire loop to t
he poles is reflected in the varying voltage shown by the
voltmeter.
• If the wire loop rotates uniformly, a sinusoidal voltage cur
ve is generated whose maximum values occur at interval
s of 180°.
•發電機係由引擎傳動，負責轉動磁場中的導線，
或轉動固定導線中的磁場，使導線與磁場發生相
對運動，而在導線中產生電動勢（電 壓）
Alternating current (AC) flows
2.1.2 How is the magnetic field g
enerated?
• The magnetic field can be generated by perman
ent magnets. They are used for small generators
(e.g. bicycle dynamos).
• magnetic field: DC current flows permit consider
ably higher voltages and are controllable.
• when an electric current flows through wires or w
indings, it generates a magnetic field around the
m.
• The number of turns in the winding and the mag
nitude of the current flowing through it determine
the magnetic field's strength.
2.1.2 How is the magnetic field g
enerated?
• Advantage: the induced voltage, can be strengthene
d or weakened by increasing or decreasing the (exci
tation) current flowing in the (excitation) winding.
• If an external source of energy (e.g. battery) provide
s the excitation current, this is termed "external excit
ation".
• If the excitation current is taken from the machine's
own elec­tric circuit this is termed "self-excitation".
• In electric machines, the complete rotating system c
omprising winding and iron core is referred to as the
rotor.
2.2 Principle of operation of the a
lternator
• 3-phase current is generated by rotating the roto
r in a magnetic field
• its armature comprises three identical windings
which are offset from each other by 120°.
• The start points of the three windings are usually
designated u, v, w, and the end points x, y, z
• sinusoidal voltages are generated in each of its t
hree windings
• These voltages are of identical magnitude and
frequency, the only difference being that their
120° offset results in the induced voltages also
being 120° out-of-phase with each other,
• by interconnecting the 3 circuits the number of wires can
be reduced from 6 to 3.
• This joint use of the conductors is achieved by the "star"
connection (Fig. 3b) or "delta" connection (Fig. 3c)
2.2 Principle of operation of the a
lternator
• For automotive alternators though, the 3-phase
(star or delta connected) winding system is in th
e stator (the stationary part of the alternator hou
sing) so that the winding is often referred to as th
e stator winding.
• The poles of the magnet together with the excitat
ion winding are situated on the rotor.
• The rotors magnetic field builds up as soon as c
urrent flows through the excitation winding.
2.3 Rectification of the AC voltag
e
• Rectifier diodes have a reverse and a forward dir
ection, the latter being indicated by the arrow in t
he symbol.
• The rectifier diode suppresses the negative half
waves and allows only positive half-waves to pa
ss
• So-called full-wave rectification is applied in orde
r to make full use of all the half-waves, including
those that have been suppressed
2.3.1 Bridge circuit for the rectifi
cation of the 3-phase AC
• Two power diodes are connected into eac
h phase, one diode to the positive side (Te
rm. B+) and one to the negative side (Ter
m. B-). The six power diodes are con­necte
d to form a full-wave rectification circuit.
• The positive half-waves pass through the
positive-side diodes, and the negative half-
waves through the negative-side diodes.
2.3.1 Bridge circuit for the rectifi
cation of the 3-phase AC
• With full-wave rectification using a bridge circuit,
the positive and negative half-wave envelopes ar
e added to form a rectified alternator voltage wit
h a slight ripple
• This means that the direct current (DC) which is
taken from the alternator at Terminals B+ and B-
to supply the vehicle electrical system is not idea
lly "smooth" but has a slight ripple.
• This ripple is further smoothed by the battery, an
d by any capacitors.
 2.3.2 Reverse-current block
• The rectifier diodes in the alternator not only rect
ify the alternator and excitation voltage, but also
prevent the battery discharging through the 3-ph
ase winding in the stator
• With the engine stopped, or with it turning too slo
wly for self-excitation to take place (e.g. during c
ranking), without the diodes battery current woul
d flow through the stator winding
• Current flow can only take place from the alterna
tor to the battery.
 2.3.3 Rectifier diodes
• the power diodes on the plus and negative sides
are identical.
• The diode wire terminations are connected to th
e ends of the stator winding.
• The positive and negative plates also function as
heat sinks for cooling the diodes.
• The power diodes can be in the form of Zener di
odes which also serve to limit the voltage peaks
which occur in the alternator due to extreme load
changes (load-dump protection).
•朋程 是國內唯一汽車發電機整流二極體廠商，全
球市佔率約二 ○ ％
•二 ○○ 二年，朋程剛開始做沒多久，就被客戶
停掉生產線半年。原因是生產線的良率從九九．
九％變九九．八％，「他不是這樣看，他說你一
千 PPM （百萬分之一），變二千 PPM ，他就
shut down （停線），」
•一輛汽車的引擎需要用到六個整流二極體，朋程
出的材料，到客戶那邊還需加工，一組用六百公
斤的力量沖壓。所以六個裡面只要壞一個，就算
不良品，被六百公斤的力量壓壞的也算不良品
•從二 ○○ 二年到二 ○○ 六年，朋程營收成長
四．五倍，同時毛利率從二一％，攀升到三九％。
 2.4 The alternator's circuits
• Standard-version alternators have the follo
wing three circuits:
- Pre-excitation circuit (separate excitation u
sing battery current)
- Excitation circuit (self-excitation)
- Generator or main circuit
 2.4.1 Pre-excitation circuit
• When the ignition or driving switch (Item 4) is operated, t
he battery current IB first of all flows through the charge-i
ndicator lamp (3), through the excitation winding (Id) in th
e stator, and through the voltage regulator (2) to ground.
2.4.1.1 Why is pre-excitation nec
essary?
• the residual magnetism in the excitation windin
g's iron core is very weak at the instant of startin
g and at low speeds, and does not suffice to pro
vide the self-excitation needed for building up th
e magnetic field.
• Self-excitation can only take place when the alte
rnator voltage exceeds the voltage drop across t
he two diodes (2 x 0.7 = 1.4 V).
• It generates a field in the rotor which in turn
induces a voltage in the stator proportional to the
rotor speed.
2.4.1.2 Charge-indicator lamp
• When the ignition or driving switch (3) is operated, the ch
arge-indicator lamp (3) in the pre-excitation circuit functio
ns as a resistor and determines the magnitude of the pr
e-excitation current.
• The lamp remains on as long as the alternator voltage is
below battery voltage.
• The lamp goes out the first time the speed is reached at
which maximum alternator voltage is generated and the
alternator starts to feed power into system.
• Typical ratings for charge-indicator lamps are:
• 2 W for 12 V systems,
• 3 W for 24 V systems.
 2.4.1.3 Pre-excitation on alternators with
multifunctional voltage regulator
• Alternators with multifunctional regulators draw their excit
ation current directly from Term. B+.
• excitation diodes can be dispensed with (Fig. 8).
• the multi­functional regulator has been fitted as standard.
• When it receives the information "Ignition on" from the L
connection, the multifunctional regulator switches on the
pre-excitation current.
• A switch-on speed is set in the regulator, and as soon as
this is reached, the regulator switches through the final st
age so that the alternator starts to deliver current to the v
ehicle's electrical system.
2.4.1.3 Pre-excitation on alternators with
multifunctional voltage regulator
 2.4.2 Excitation circuit
• alternators are "self-excited", the excitation current must
take grom 3-phase winding.
• Depending on the type of regulator, the excitation current
takes the following path:
- Either through the excitation diodes (Fig. 9), carbon brus
hes, collector rings, and exci­tation winding to Term. DF o
f the mono­lithic or hybrid voltage regulator, and from Ter
m. D- of the regulator to ground (B-) or
- Through the positive power diodes (Fig. 8), multifunction
al regulator, carbon brushes, collector rings, and excitati
on winding to ground (B-)
• the excitation current flows from B- back to the stator win
ding through the negative power diodes.
 2.4.3 Generator circuit
• The alternator current IG, flows from the three windings
and through the respective power diodes to the battery a
nd to the loads in the vehicle electrical system.
• the alternator current is divided into battery-charging curr
ent and load current.
• Taking a rotor with six pole pairs, for instance, and an an
gle of rotation of 30°, the voltage referred to the star poin
t at the end of winding v is positive, for winding w it is ne
gative, and for winding u it is zero.
• For current to flow from the alternator to the battery, the
alternator voltage must be slightly higher than that of the
battery.
~ END ~