1

Ol
:
>
Bohr,
Planck.
>
, de Broglie,
Heisenberg Schrodinger.
>
.
, .
>
.
>
(
Pauli, , Hund). ,
.
>

. ,
, s, p, d, f.
>
Na Ar (3 ) .
>

.
>
: ,
' .
>
Lewis ( ).
>
VSEPR .

1.1 -

1.2
1.3
( s,p,d,f)-

1.4

1.5 (
VSEPR)
-
H
,
..
-
'


-

, , ,
,

C.A. Coulson


, ,

.
,

,

.




, ,
, -

.
, , .

KH

. Bohr , . ,
. ( Pauli, Hund)
.

.
( .. ) .
. , . Lewis
.
.
.
,
. H VSEPR
.

1.1 -

To A' Bohr. To Bohr (1913)

Rutherford,
Bohr
To Bohr
:
1 ( )
> . ,
.

Niels Bohr (1885-1962). .

Rutherford (
Manchester) Thomson
( Cambridge).


.

Nobel,
Heisenberg
Pauli.
O Bohr


(
),



.


,
Bohr
, ( ).

Nobel
1922,
'
107
Ns (nielsbohrium).

, = 1, 2, 3, .. ,
.
To
, . ,
, .
(E = 0),
. ' , .
,
. ,
, .. .

Bohr.To e-
. e-

,
.

2 ( )
> To
,
.
, ,
.
Planck (1900),
( ), :
> H
().
.
Planck , ,
, . ,

H

(10 -10 -10 -8 s).
To
.
.

E= h
, h : Planck, 6,63 10-34 J s
Planck, Bohr
:
, , (E i ), (Ef),
, v. To
Bohr .

H

.


( 1.1).

().
().

H Bohr, ,
, , ( .. He, Li .),
.

1.1
.
( ),

.
. ,
,

,

( ).
'
.

. , , , , , '

.

 De Broglie (1924):
> To , ,
.. , ,
() ( ) .
, ( ) , , , , ,
. ,
.
To , , , m, , u, :

. .. , 65 km h-1
< 10-33 m,
. ,

( ~
10-10 m).

Max Planck (1858-1947)

.
,
:
, . , Planck
.



.
Planck
.

1918.

()
Heisenberg (1927):
>
(p= m u) .. .
, (.. ), , , , . , .. , . ,
, . , , ..
, ,
. H
,
Bohr.
,
, .

(),
(), .

 Schrodinger ,
. , .
. ,
.
Sehrodinger , En,
,
Bohr ( ). ,
Bohr
( ). ,
Sehrodinger ,
(En) . H Bohr.
.. (x, y, z), x, y, z

. To . ,
, ,
( =0 #0 ). , 2 ,

L . d e Broglie (1892-1977)
, (
).
1929
. H

.

> To 2 .
:
A: = 0,1
B: = -0,3

= 0,01
2

= 0,09

W. Heisenberg (1901-1976)
Bohr,
32 , .

, B .
,
> To 2 ( -e2, -e )

.
, Schrodinger
.
,
, ,
'
. , , .

. Schrodinger (1887-1961)
. H ,

.

1933.
Planck .

 ,
( 2) , .

TO

....
. (
)


....
...

Schrodinger
,
Schrodinger ....
... Bohr ,

...
(
A')

1.2 : ) )
) ().

().

( .) ,
, . H
. ' ,
. ,
, .
,
(2), .. 9099% .
,
(2)
(), ( ).

V, ,

V.

V , . O


V..
(K. 1.
)

... .

, 2 (
)

,
...
(J. McMurry
1)


Bohr (n), , .
(
).
Schrodinger
(n),
(l) (mi). (n,l,mi) Sehrodinger,
. ,
(.
He+, Li2+). , ,
spin (ms),

.
O (n) 1, 2, 3 ...
Bohr
. :
> O
( ).
n
, , .
( Bohr).
> (n) .
O , :
,
n

O (l) , , 0,1,2,. ..(n-1).

> O l (). n l
.
.
,
:

, .

O

- .
O

.

 , 1

...

l.

f
f

....

O (ml) 1 -l, (-l+ 1), ..., 0,...l, (l-1), +l

> O ml
x, y, z.
To ,
, .

s: sharp ()
p:principal)
d: diffuse ()
f: fundamental ().

>
.
l (2l+ 1) . ,
l = 0 ( s), (2 0 + 1) = 1 s
l= 1 ( p), (2 1 + 1) = 3 p
p :
,

ml

+1

-1

Px

Pz

Py

To
, , l, ml.

O spin (ms) +1/2 -1/2,

.
> O spin (spin).
, ms = +1/2, spin spin

ms = -1/2, spin spin

.
,
(spin). spin
, .
,
. ,
(n, l, ml, ms) , :

()

()

spin

To
(spin ),
, .

ms=-1/2 ms= + 1/2.


,

. H ( 2)
. ,
90-99% .
s (l = 0) ,

. s
,
n, s, .

.

. To

. To
, ' , '

.
(Morrison Boyd
"

1)

1.3 1s, 2s 3s ( s2)

H .

, p ,
1.4. To , ..
.
p , s, .
,

p , . To ' ,
px,py pz, , x, y z,

s ( 2s)

1s, 2s , 3s .

 1.4. , s, p
. , n
p,
.
, d (l = 2) (wl: -2, -1, 0, +1, +2)
,
. To f (l = 3)
7 (ml: -3, -2, -2, 0, +1, +2, +3).

.


,

.


,

,



(90-95%).
(J. McMurry
1 )

1.4 . , px, py pz ( p2) . 2pz 3pz.

p .

p ( p2).

1.2
,
ls. . H .
. H
, ,
() . , , ' .

Pauli
> Pauli
(n, l, ml, ms). ,


, :
1.1 , ,

n
1

ml

ms

+ 1/2,-1/2

-1
0
+1

+ 1/2,-1/2
+ 1/2,-1/2
+1/2,-1/2

+ 1/2-1/2

-1

+ 1/2, -1/2

+ 1/2, -1/2

+1

+ 1/2, -1/2

-2

+1/2, -1/2

-1

+ 1/2, -1/2

+ 1/2, -1/2

+1

+ 1/2, -1/2

+2

+ 1/2, -1/2

3
2

+ 1/2-1/2

H K (n =1), s (l = 0),
s,

: (1, 0, 0, +1/2)
(1,0, 0,-1/2)
H L (n=2), (l = 0, 1) s .
s
, p
3 2 = 6 .

H M (n = 3), (l = 0, 1, 2) s, p d . s ,
p 3 2 = 6 ( ) d
5 2 = 10 (
).

W. Pauli (1900-1958).
.

Einstein.

.

 N (n = 4), 4 (l = 0, 1,2, 3) s, p, d,f, (f)

7 (ml = -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3) 2 7 = 14.
1.2
. 5g 6f .

1.2

' Schrodinger
( .. He+, Li2+ ).
'
. , . , '
, - ( ),
- ( ). ,
.
> ,
, ,
.

, , . ,
- , ,
. ' .

: . ,
,
, .

 1.3
.

:
1. ,


(n+l)
2.
(n+l)
,

.

, 26 , .
ls, ls2, 2s (ls 2 2s2), 2p (ls 2 2s2 2p 6 ), 3s (ls 2 2s2 2p6 3s2), 3p (ls 2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6)
4s (ls 2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2).
3d, .
, :

3d 4s, 4s , .
3d 4s. 4d 5s .
Fe Fe2+ 4s
3d . , Fe +
:

Av :

,
, . .. 24Cr (2-8-13-1) (2-812-2). .

3d

4s.
4d 5s.

 Hund
,

Fe, 6 3d
. 3d 10 , d .
'
Hund :
> (
) spin.
7
:
, :

,
,

1.3 ( s,p, d,f)

A'
Moseley
.

H (aufbau) :
1. ,
2.
Pauli
3. Hund.

To 2 ( ) . VA
5 .
,
> .
> ( ) .
, A
( ) .

(
, )
s, p, d, f,
1.5.
,
, (
) p.
d, ,
( aufbau), d. ,
>
( ,
aufbau)
.. s, p, d f.
H

.
s: O s (
) , (Na, K
.) (Ca, Mg .).
. H s ' s . :
:

s1

IA

IIA

s2

p: H '
p . , , , ,
:

H
,
. ,
,

(
) .

2
1
5
P
P3
P
P6
: IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIA 0

13

p4

14

15

16

17

18

,

p3, VA 15.
d: O d
, , d. O . H d 10 ' d
10 ( ). :
:

d1

d2
IVB

d3 ...

d10

VB ... IIB

5 ... 12
, d,
(1s2 2S2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2) d. ,
d 6
(VIIIB) 8.
f: O f ,
f. / 14
, f 14 . , 6 58-71 ,
7 90-103.
s p
, d
f .

1.5

 1.6 .
s s , p p ...

,
. ,
, . ,
2 3 ( ).

 1.4 2 (Li- Ne) 3

(Na-Ar).

Li

Be

LiCl

BeCl2

BCl3

CCl4

NCl3

Cl2O

FCl

( 20 C)

/ C

1350

487

12

77

71

-101

Na

Mg

Al

Si

Cl

NaCl

MgCl2

Al2Cl6

SiCl4

PCl 3 PCl 5

SCl2,
S2Cl2

Cl2

(20 C)

/ 0C

1465

1418

423

57

74, 164

59,138

-35

Ne
-

Ar

1.5 2 (Li- Ne) 3

(Na-Ar).

Li

Be

Li2O

BeO

B2O3

CO2, CO

N2O1 NO...

O2

OF2

( 20 C )

Na

Mg

Al

Si

Cl

Na2O

MgO

Al2O3

SiO2

P 4 O 10 P 4 O 6

SO2, SO3

Cl2O

()

(20 C)

Ne
-

Ar
-



2 3 .
s p . 4, , S p d . Av
d, . ,
,
, 3d,
4 2 .
. ,
>
d .

d
f.
d
f

(57La) f 7

(89Ac).

, ,
,
.
1n : 4
2 : 5
3 : 6
1 (4 ) 3d ( 4s ). , 2 4d , 5s . 3 5d , 6s

1.7
s p '

.

 , ,
, :
-
-
-
-
-

.


() .

-
1
.
1.6 1 .
,
Cr
Cu . ,
4s
.
3d ( 5 ) ( 10
),

.

1.7 1 .

Sc

Ti

Cr

Mn

Fe

Co

Ni

Cu

Zn

+1

+3

+2

+2

+2

+2

+2

+2

+3

+3

+3

+3

+3

+3

+3

+4

+4

+4

+5
+6

+6
+7

+2

+2

Sc
Zn ,



.

1.4
,
. H ( ) .
, , . '
' .

- -

1.8 54
. To
. ,

H


, .

> .
,
(
). ,
, .
>- .

( ),
- , -
. ,
.
, , d, .

. ,

.

 1.8 H ,

.

> H
,
,
Ei 1.
H kJ mol-1
, .
, , Ei 2, :

, ' . , :
Ei 2 > Ei 1. : Ei 3 > Ei 2. ...
:
1. H
,
(

H I.

IUPAC Ei.

 ) . -
.
2. To
(Z) , - ,
.
3.
-
( ), ,
To
.

. ,



.

1.9 H
,

.

.
. H . H
1.9.

> H , ,
.

> (Eea)

. '.
H kJ mol-1.
H .
, .
, , . , , :
, , ,
.
( )
, ,
.
. H
H
, ,
> H
.
.
, , . , (.. Cs, Rb). ,

, , , (.. F, O). , .
1/4
,
, % .
, ' ,
, .

H

EA.
IUPAC E ea .

H

. ,

,

.

.
.

 1.10 H .
: B, Be, Bi At.

1.5 -
Lewis
, . ,
. (Kossel, Lewis). :
.
Lewis, Lewis ( Lewis),
( ) ,
( 1.8).
:
> , ( ) ( ),
, ,
. K, .
, Lewis A'
, .

Lewis (1875-1946)
.
1912

. To

.

Lewis.

-

D2O
2
H2O.
H
-
.
1908 Ramsay

Kossel Lewis. H
Lewis (1916)

,
. H Lewis
,

. ,



.


, 5
.

 1.8 Lewis .

H NaCl :

H Al2O3 :

Lewis
(NH4Cl) NH3 HCl:
Lewis
,
.. .

O N > H . ,
. , , ,

. H . -

, (
). , ,


.

, 4 .

Lewis
Lewis
:
>
. Av , ,
, , .
.. SO2 : 6 + 2 6 = 1 8
, SO42-: 6 + 4 6 + 2 = 32
4+: 5 + 4 1 - 1 = 8
> .
1 . Av 1, .
. .. 3 N.
>
( ). , .
> T (
) ,
8 ( H ). , .
> Av 8 ,
.
,
.

O S ,
,
. ,
Av N :

 1.1
Lewis HCN

. : 1 + 4 + 5 = 10
. C, N.
. ( ):
: C: N
, 4 1 0 - 4 = 6, , 3 .
. 3 N, . To H
. O , C
.

. C N.
1n

To

2
,
.

1.2
Lewis HClO

. Cl
. O : 1 + 7 + 6 = 14
. : H - O - C l
. 1 4 - 4 = 1 0 ( 5 )
. To 3 , 2 . , :

1.3
Lewis BF3


. To B
. O : 3 + 3 7 = 24
. :

BF3 B

(


).

. 18 .
, :

1.4
Lewis PCl5

. To P
. : 5 + 5 7 = 40
. :
. 30 .
. :

1.5
Lewis SO2

. To S.
. O : 6 + 2 6 = 18
. : O - S - O
. 14

PCl5
P 10 .

' 6 O, . To (S). ,
' . , Lewis SO2 :

Lewis : HBrO,

- VSEPR ()
O Lewis H2O :

, Lewis , . H , ,

VSEPR (Valence, Shell, Electron, Pair, Repulsion). H

,
. ' , . VSEPR,
:
,
, ,

BeCl2. Be
180.
, BeCl2 .

, ,
.

.. B BF3 3 ,
' 120.

,
, , .

.. C CH4 . H 109,5.
() ,
BF3
.

, ,
.
, ,
' . ,
.
H 2 O NH3 CH4,
.

1.11

,
.

 ,
, ,
, ' . '
..

1.12

, VSEPR :
1. Lewis
2.
3. VSEPR,

4. , , '
, .

Lewis VSEPR.

Lewis
:
. BeI2

. BBr3

. CCl4

. CS2

. PH3.

: .
( ),

 1.9 VSEPR

 ...
(STM)

(STM)
H De Broglie, Heisenberg
Schrodinger 1924 - 1927.
, , .
. To , .
' . ,
, , .... H
, . . , . To
, ' , , . ,
.
'
. , . - , ,
, .
,
. , ' ' ,
. ' 1998
, . 1981
Binnig Rohrer IBM ( 1986)
(STM-Seanning Tunneling Microscope). , . H STM . - . A B . A ( ) ,
, B. ,
. To (STM),
, (probe) .

H , 1 - 2
,
(10 -8 cm).

,
,
.
H
- . , - , - ,

. '

. ,


, ,
.
O . Crommie IBM STM
: .. .

,
, .
. .
,
( ), , , .
,

14 nm ,

. !

.
. (STM).
. H
.
. (STM)

 ...
O
.
,
Heisnenberg. To
. , ,
. ,
, De Broglie, .
O . To 1944 M.Born . , ,
, , . , ' .
, .
O ,
( ) . , ,
. , , , . ,
.
H . , , .
,
. Av
....

Heisenberg

;
,
Steven Hawking


1.

,
. ,
.

2.

H Schrodinger ,
.
To 2 , . H 2
. To (90-99%).

3.

4 .
O , n =1, 2, 3.., () - .
.

O . l =0, 1, 2,...(n-1). () . n 1 .
O , ml, = -l, ..., 0,...,+l, x, y, z.
.
O spin ms= +1/2, -1/2,
. O spin .

.

4.

s
p , . ' px, py pz, x, y z. , 5 d 7 f .

5.

Pauli: . : s2 p6
d10 f14

6.

,
, .
.

7.

Hund:
( )
spin. ' spin .

8.

H (aufbau) '
, , Pauli Hund.

9.

( ) ,
.. s, p, d, f. O s . O p . O d 10 (). O f
.

10.
( Z ), . '
.

11.
( Z ), . ' .

12. Lewis
. Lewis , ( ) .
, ,
K
.

13. H , , VSEPR. H
( )
, .

-
Bohr

Heisenberg

De Broglie

Schrodinger

Lewis

Pauli

Hund

VSEPR

 - -

1.
2.
3.

4.
5.

6.

Schrodinger ;

7.
8.

Bohr;
Bohr
;

de Broglie Heisenberg ;

) (n), )
(l), ) (ml) )
spin (ms); ' ;

9. s, p, d f N ;
10. s p ;
11. (aufbau)
( Pauli,
, Hund).

12.

) ) ' ;

13.
;

14. ;
15. ;

16. ;

17. ;

18.

19.

,

;

20.

Lewis;

21. ;
22. VSEPR;
23. : BeH2, BF3, CH4, NH3, H2O.
-
. -

24.
n = 4 n = 2
. Planck, h = 6,63 10-34 J s

25.

, n = 1 n = 4.
;
. H n = 4 .
.
.
. To

. H n = 4 n =1 n = 4 n = 2
. H n = 4 n =1
n = 4 n = 2.

26.

.
, ,
, .
AgCl
:

O Ag(s) . . H
310 kJ mol-1. ,
. Planck, h = 6,63 10 34 J s
NA =6,02 1023mol-1.

27. , 6 106 m s-1

9 10-28 g Planck,
h=6,63 1 0 - 3 4 J s

=486,6nm

28. ;
' H;

29. ( )
,
.
Bohr

de Broglie

Heisenberg

Schrodinger

30. :
O ....,

.
O


.
O ....,

.
O spin ....,

.

31.

. 4
.
.
.
. , .
. 1s (1,1,1,+1/2)

32.

.
1s
(2,0)
2s

(3,2)

2p

(1,0)

3d

(4,3)

4f

(2,1)

3p

(3,1)

33. 1s, 2s, 2pz,3px 3s

34. 3 .
.(3, 0, 0, +1/2 ) .(3, 2,-1,-1/2)

35.

.(3, 3,-1, +1/2)

.(3, 1, 1, +1/2)

;
. (1,0, 0, +1/2 )
. (2, 0, 0, +1/2 )
. (1,1, 1,-1/2)
. (2, 1,-1,+1/2)
. (2,0, 1, +1/2)
. (3,2, -2,-1/2)

36.

:
. N = 2, l = 1, ML = -1
. N =3, l =0, Ml=0
. N = 4, l =1, ml=1

37.
. 4s

:
.4p
. 6d
. 5f

38.

3p .

39.

. K2 L8 M8 N8
. K2 L 8 M9 N5
. K2 L 8 M 14 N2
. K2 L 8 M 16

26Fe

40.

,
(aufbau): 4d, 4f, 5s, 5d, 6s.

41.

;
2
6
2
6
7
. 1s2 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d
2
6
6
2
5
. 1s2 2s 2p 3s2 3p 4s 4p
6
2
5 2
b
2
2
. 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 4p
2
6
2
6
5
. 1s2 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s2

25n

42.

43.

: 5, 11 Na, 18Ar,16S.

44.

:
;

20Ca

2+

, 19+, 35r- .

45.
. .
. 1s1 2s1
.1s22s22p23d1
. 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 4s 1
. [Ar]4s13d10 4p4
. [Ne] 3s2 3p4 3d1

46. 6C
.

47.

Pauli Hund;

48.

(1 )
(2 ) .
IA

IlIB

VB

18

VIIIA

49. (1 )
.
IA
IIA
VIIA

VIIIA

50. :
.
.

.
.

.
.

51.

17Cl, 22i (), 36Kr () 58Ce ().

52.

23 V, 27CO, 31Ga, 3 5 Br, 4 0 Zr .

53. 17, 24, 35, 56

16X,36, 41, 53 ;

54.

N2

..

Al

, ,

F2

Fe

Na

55.
.

11Na

2,27

17Cl

1,54

19

2,48

37Rb

0,99

56. .
.



.
.



.


.

. ,

57.
.
.
.

58.
:
. H 9F 3Li.
. H 11Na
3Li.
. H 19
3Li.
. H 9F
3Li.

59. Rb (Z= 37) Na (Z=11)

(). ,
;

60.

Li (Z= 3)
Be (Z=4);

61.

F , Ne .

. Lewis -

62. Lewis : O, Cl, Al, Na,

Ca, P, Ne.

63.

Lewis : Na2O, MgCl2, CaO, AlN K2S.

64.

Lewis
: NH3, CO2, AlCl3, CH3-CH3, SBr6.

65. Lewis : HNO2, H2SO4, HClO4, NH4ClO4, NH4NO3.

66. Lewis
:
1. Mg+ N

2. Al+ Br

3. Na+ S

4. + Cl

67. Lewis
BeH2 .

68. Lewis HC=CH

.

69. Lewis CF4 .

70. ;
. CH4

. BeCl2

. NH3

. BCl3

71. ;
. CH4

. H2O

. NH3

. BCl3

72. ;
. CBr4

. HCl

73. O

,
. H
.

. , . Fe14+ .

Fe11+ Fe14+ 3,5 104 kJ mol-1 1 mol
3/2 RT R = 8,314 J K-1 mol-1. .

74. 4 :
. n = 4, l=0, ml = 0, ms=+1/2
. n = 3, l = 2, ml = 1, ms = +1/2
. n = 3, l=2, ml = - 2 , ms = - 1 / 2
. n = 3, l = 1, ml = 1, m s = - 1 / 2
.

75.

:
Ei 1 = 738 kJ mol-1, Ei 2 = 1450 kJ mol-1, Ei 3 = 7,7 103 kJ mol-1
Ei 4 = 1,1 104 kJ mol-1.
.

76. :
. [He] 2s1 2p5
. [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p5

. [Ne] 3s23p24sl
. [Kr] 5s24d105p1

.

77. ;
. 73- 9F. Mg2+ Ca2+
. Fe2+ Fe3+

78. 8 6,B :
.
;
. Av BA2, Lewis ;
. BA2;

2,8106 K

79. To

,
A K.

A
K.
. .
. .
. .
. .
. XO.
.
3.
. .

80. 4 , :
: 1,2,3
B: 1,2
:
: .
O BF3 :
1. To BF3 .
2. H
F 120.
3. To BF3 .
4. BF3 .
*

81. 11X 16.

. ,
X .
. X ;
. X
3.
. X HCl;
. O3 ( H2O4) NaOH;
. ;


.
, .
.
.

25. , , , ,
31. . . . .
33. .1s (1, 0, 0)
.3px (3,1,1)
.2pz(2,1,0)
.2s (2,0,0)
.3s (3,0,0)
34.
35. , , ,
36. 2p y , 3s, 4px
37. 1,3,5,7
38.

39.
40. 5s , 4d, 6s , 4f,, 5d
41.
42.
45. .1s2, .1s2 2s22p3
.1s22s22p6 3s1
. [Ar] 3d104s24p3
. [Ne] 3s23p5
46. 1s2 2s22p2

(1,0, 0, +1/2)
(1,0, 0,-1/2)
(2, 0, 0, +1/2)
(2, 0, 0,-1/2)
(2, 1, 1,-1/2)
(2, 1,0,-1/2)
47. , Pauli
, , Hund.
51. 17Cl (3 ,
p)

22 (4 ., . d)
n
36Kr(4 ., . p)

58Ce (6 ., . f)
52. V, Co, Zr
53. 24, 41
58. . . . .
59. Na, Rb, Rb
60.

1 s e- 2s e-.

61. 1 e F

1 e Ne


70.
71.

72.
74. 3p < 3d < 4s
75. IIA
76. O , Br
, P ,
In .
77. . 73- . Ca2+
. Fe 2+
78.
79. . , . , . ,
. , . , . , . K
80. A