BASICS OF PROTECTION SYSTEMS Important considerations when design protection system

Important considerations when design protection system. 1. Types of fault and abnormal Conditions to be protected against 2. Quantities available for measurement 3. Types of protection available 4. Speed 5. Fault position discrimination 6. Dependability / reliability 7. Security / stability 8. Overlap of protections 9. Phase discrimination / selectivity 10. CTs and VTs ratio required 11. Auxiliary supplies 12. Back-up protection 13. Cost 14. Duplication of protection Types of protection A - Fuses For LV Systems, Distribution Feeders and Transformers, VTs, Auxiliary Supplies B - Over current and earth fault Widely used in All Power Systems 1. Non-Directional 2. Directional. C - DIFFERENTIAL For feeders, Bus-bars, Transformers, Generators etc 1. High Impedance 2. Low Impedance 3. Restricted E/F 4. Biased 5. Pilot Wire

D - Distance For transmission and sub-transmission lines and distribution feeders, also used as back-up protection for transformers and generators without signaling with signaling to provide unit protection e.g.:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Time-stepped distance protection Permissive underreach protection (PUP) Permissive overreach protection (POP) Unblocking overreach protection (UOP) Blocking overreach protection (BOP) Power swing blocking Phase comparison for transmission lines Directional comparison for transmission lines

E - Miscellaneous: 1. Under and over voltage 2. Under and over frequency 3. A special relay for generators, transformers, motors etc. 4. Control relays: auto-reclose, tap change control, etc. 5. tripping and auxiliary relays Speed Fast operation: minimizes damage and danger Very fast operation: minimizes system instability discrimination and security can be costly to achieve. Examples: 1. differential protection 2. differential protection with digital signaling 3. distance protection with signaling 4. directional comparison with signaling Fault position discrimination Power system divided into protected zones must isolate only the faulty equipment or section Dependability / reliability Protection must operate when required to Failure to operate can be extremely damaging and disruptive Faults are rare. Protection must operate even after years of inactivity Improved by use of: 1. Back-up Protection and 2. duplicate Protection Security / Stability Protection must not operate when not required to e.g. due to: 1. Load Switching 2. Faults on other parts of the system 3. Recoverable Power Swings Overlap of protections 1. No blind spots 2. Where possible use overlapping CTs Phase discrimination / selectivity

Correct indication of phases involved in the fault Important for Single Phase Tripping and auto-Reclosing applications Current and voltage transformers These are an essential part of the Protection Scheme. They must be suitably specified to meet the requirements of the protective relays. 1A and 5A secondary current ratings, Saturation of current transformers during heavy fault conditions should not exceed the limits laid down by the relay manufacturer. Current transformers for fast operating protections must allow for any offset in the current waveform. Output rating under fault conditions must allow for maximum transient offset. This is a function of the system X/R ratio. Current Transformer Standards/Classes: British Standards: 10P, 5P, X IEC: 10P, SP, TPX, TPY, TPZ American: C, T. Location of CTs should, if possible, provide for overlap of protections. Correct connection of CTs to the protection is important. In particular for directional, distance, phase comparison and differential protections. VTs may be Electromagnetic or Capacitor types. Busbar VTs: Special consideration needed when used for Line Protection. Auxiliary supplies Required for: 1. Tripping circuit breakers 2. Closing circuit breakers 3. Protection and trip relays AC. auxiliary supplies are only used on LV and MV systems. DC. auxiliary supplies are more secure than ac supplies. Separately fused supplies used for each protection. Duplicate batteries are occasionally provided for extra security. Modern protection relays need a continuous auxiliary supply. During operation, they draw a large current which increases due to operation of output elements. Relays are given a rated auxiliary voltage and an operative auxiliary voltage range. the rated value is marked on the relay. Refer to relay documentation for details of operative range. it is important to make sure that the range of voltages which can appear at the relay auxiliary supply terminals is within the operative range. IEC recommended values (IEC 255-6): Rated battery voltages: 12, 24, 48, 60, 11 0, 125, 220, 250, 440 Preferred operative range of relays: 80 to 10% of voltage rated AC. component ripple in the dc supply: <10% of voltage rated

COST The cost of protection is equivalent to insurance policy against damage to plant, and loss of supply and customer goodwill. Acceptable cost is based on a balance of economics and technical factors. Cost of protection should be balanced against the cost of potential hazards there is an economic limit on what can be spent. Minimum cost: Must ensure that all faulty equipment is isolated by protection Other factors: 1. Speed 2. Security/Stability 3. Sensitivity: Degree of risk in allowing a low level fault to develop into a more severe fault 4. Reliability Total cost should take account of: 1. Relays, schemes and associated panels and panel wiring 2. Setting studies 3. Commissioning 4. CTs and VTs 5. Maintenance and repairs to relays 6. Damage repair if protection fails to operate 7. Lost revenue if protection operates unnecessarily Distribution systems 1. Large number of switching and distribution points, transformers and feeders. 2. Economics often overrides technical issues 3. Protection may be the minimum consistent with - statutory safety regulations 4. Speed less important than on transmission systems 5. Back-up protection can be simple and is often inherent in the main protection. 6. Although important, the consequences of maloperation or failure to operate are less serious than for transmission systems. Transmission systems 1. Emphasis is on technical considerations rather than economics 2. Economics cannot be ignored but is of secondary importance compared with the need for highly reliable, fully discriminative high speed protection 3. Higher protection costs justifiable by high capital cost of power system elements protected. 4. Risk of security of supply should be reduced to the lowest practical levels 5. High speed protection requires unit protection 6. Duplicate protections used to improve reliability 7. Single phase tripping and auto-reclose may be required to maintain system stability

Basic of protection system Introduction The purpose of an electrical power generation system is to distribute energy to a multiplicity of points for diverse applications. The system should be designed and managed to deliver this energy to the utilization points with both reliability and economy. As these two requirements are largely opposed, it is instructive to look at the relationship between the reliability of a system and its cost and value to the consumer, which is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Relationship between reliability of supply, its cost and value to the consumer. It is important to realize that the system is viable only between the cross-over points A and B. The diagram illustrates the significance of reliability in system design, and the necessity of achieving sufficient reliability. On the other hand, high reliability should not be pursued as an end in itself, regardless of cost, but should rather be balanced against economy, taking all factors into account. Security of supply can be bettered by improving plant design, increasing the spare capacity margin and arranging alternative circuits to supply loads. Sub-division of the system into zones, each controlled by switchgear in association with protective gear, provides flexibility during normal operation and ensures a minimum of dislocation following a breakdown. The greatest threat to a secure supply is the shunt fault or short circuit, which imposes a sudden and sometimes violent change on system operation. The large current which then flows, accompanied by the localized release of a considerable quantity of energy, can cause fire at the fault location, and mechanical damage throughout the system, particularly to machine and transformer windings. Rapid isolation of the fault by the nearest switch-gear will minimize the damage and disruption caused to the system. A power system represents a very large capital investment. To maximize the return on this outlay, the system must be loaded as much as possible. For this reason it is necessary not only

to provide a supply of energy which is attractive to prospective users by operating the system within the range AB (Figure 1.1), but also to keep the system in full operation as far as possible continuously, so that it may give the best service to the consumer, and earn the most. Revenue for the supply authority. Absolute freedom from failure of the plant and system network cannot be guaranteed. The risk of a fault occurring, however slight for each item, is multiplied by the number of such items which are closely associated in an extensive system, as any fault produces repercussions throughout the net-work. When the system is large, the chance of a fault occurring and the disturbance that a fault would bring are both so great that without equipment to remove faults the system will become, in practical terms, inoperable. The object of the system will be defeated if adequate provision for fault clearance is not made. Nor is the installation of switchgear alone sufficient; discriminative protective gear, designed according to the characteristics and requirements of the power system, must be provided to control the switchgear. A system is not properly designed and managed if it is not adequately protected. This is the measure of the importance of protective systems in modern practice and of the responsibility vested in the protection engineer.

Fundamentals of protection practice This is a collective term which covers all the equipment used for detecting, locating and initiating the removal of a fault from the power system. Relays are extensively used for major protective functions, But the term also covers direct-acting A.C. trips and fuses. In addition to relays the term includes all accessories such as current and voltage transformers, shunts, D.C. and A.C. wiring and any other devices relating to the protective relays. In general, the main switchgear, although fundamentally protective in its function, is excluded from the term 'protective gear', as are also common services, such as the station battery and any other equipment required to secure operation of the circuit breaker. In order to fulfil the requirements of discriminative protection with the optimum speed for the many different configurations, operating conditions and construction features of power systems, it has been necessary to develop many types of relay which respond to various functions of the power system quantities. For example, observation simply of the magnitude of the fault current suffices in some cases but measurement of power or impedance may be necessary in others. Relays frequently measure complex functions of the system quantities, which are only readily expressible by mathematical or graphical means. In many cases it is not feasible to protect against all hazards with any one relay. Use

is then made of a combination of different types of relay which individually protect against different risks. Each individual protective arrangement is known as a 'protection system'; while the whole coordinated combination of relays is called a 'protection scheme'. Reliability The need for a high degree of reliability is discussed in Section 1. Incorrect operation can be attributed to one of the following classifications: a. b. c. d. Incorrect design. Incorrect installation. Deterioration. Protection performance

1. Design This is of the highest importance. The nature of the power system condition which is being guarded against must be thoroughly understood in order to make an adequate design. Comprehensive testing is just as important, and this testing should cover all aspects of the protection, as well as reproducing operational and environmental conditions as closely as possible. For many protective systems, it is necessary to test the complete assembly of relays, current transformers and other ancillary items, and the tests must simulate fault conditions realistically. Installation. The need for correct installation of protective equipment is obvious, but the complexity of the interconnections of many systems and their relation-ship to the remainder of the station may make. Difficult the checking of such correctness. Testing is therefore necessary; since it will be difficult to reproduce all fault conditions correctly, these tests must be directed to proving the installation. This is the function of site testing, which should be limited to such simple and direct tests as will prove the correctness of the connections and freedom from damage of the equipment. No attempt should be made to 'type test' the equipment or to establish complex aspects of its technical performance; 3. Deterioration in service. After a piece of equipment has been installed in perfect condition, deterioration may take place which, in time, could interfere with correct functioning. For example, contacts may become rough or burnt owing to frequent operation, or tarnished owing to atmospheric contamination; coils and other circuits may be open-circuited, auxiliary components may fail, and mechanical parts may become clogged with dirt or corroded to an extent that may interfere with movement. One of the particular difficulties of protective relays is that the time between operations may be measured in years, during which period defects may have developed 2.

unnoticed until revealed by the failure of the protection to respond to a power system fault. For this reason, relays should be given simple basic tests at suitable intervals in order to check that their ability to operate has not deteriorated. Testing should be carried out without disturbing permanent connections. This can be achieved by the provision of test blocks or switches. Draw-out relays inherently provide this facility; a test plug can be inserted between the relay and case contacts giving access to all relay input circuits for injection. When temporary disconnection of panel wiring is necessary, mistakes in correct restoration of connections can be avoided by using identity tags on leads and terminals, clip-on leads for injection supplies, and easily visible double-ended clip-on leads where 'jumper connections' are required. The quality of testing personnel is an essential feature when assessing reliability and considering means for improvement. Staff must be technically competent and adequately trained, as well as self-disciplined to proceed in a deliberate manner, in which each step taken and quantity measured is checked before final acceptance. Important circuits which are especially vulnerable can be provided with continuous electrical super-vision; such arrangements are commonly applied to circuit breaker trip circuits and to pilot circuits. 4. Protection performance The performance of the protection applied to large power systems is frequently assessed numerically. For this purpose each system fault is classed as an incident and those which are cleared by the tripping of the correct circuit breakers and only those are classed as 'correct'. The percentage of correct clearances can then be determined. This principle of assessment gives an accurate evaluation of the protection of the system as a whole, but it is severe in its judgment of relay performance, in that many relays are called into operation for each system fault, and all must behave correctly for a correct clearance to be recorded. On this basis, a performance of 94 % is obtainable by standard techniques. Complete reliability is unlikely ever to be achieved by further improvements in construction. A very big step, however, can be taken by providing duplication of equipment or 'redundancy'. Two complete sets of equipment are provided, and arranged so that either by itself can carry out the required function. If the risk of an equipment failing is x/unit, the resultant risk, allowing for redundancy, is x2. Where x is small the resultant risk (x2) may be negligible. It has long been the practice to apply duplicate protective systems to bus-bars, both being required to operate to complete a tripping operation, that is, a 'two-out-of-two' arrangement. In other cases, important circuits have been provided with duplicate main protection schemes, either being able to trip independently, that is, a 'one-out-of-two' arrangement. The former arrangement guards against unwanted operation, the latter against failure to operate. These two features can be obtained together by adopting a 'two-out-of-three'

arrangement in which three basic systems are used and are interconnected so that the operation of any two will complete the tripping function. Such schemes have already been used to a limited extent and application of the principle will undoubtedly increase. Probability theory suggests that if a power network were protected throughout on this basis, a protection performance of 99.98 % should be attainable. This performance figure requires that the separate protection systems be completely independent; any common factors, such as, for instance, common current transformers or tripping batteries, will reduce the overall performance to a certain extent. Selectivity. Protection is arranged in zones, which should cover the power system completely, leaving no part unprotected. When a fault occurs the protection is required to select and trip only the nearest circuit breakers. This property of selective tripping is also called 'discrimination' and is achieved by two general methods: 1. Time graded systems. Protective systems in successive zones are arranged to operate in times which are graded through the sequence of equipments so that upon the occurrence of a fault, although a number of protective equipments respond, only those relevant to the faulty zone complete the tripping function. The others make incomplete operations and then reset. 2. Unit systems. It is possible to design protective systems which respond only to fault conditions lying within a clearly defined zone. This 'unit protection' or 'restricted Protection' can be applied throughout a power system and, since it does not involve time grading, can be relatively fast in operation. Unit protection is usually achieved by means of a comparison of quantities at the boundaries of the zone. Certain protective systems derive their 'restricted' property from the configuration of the power system and may also be classed as unit protection. Whichever method is used, it must be kept in mind that selectivity is not merely a matter of relay design. It is a function of the correct co-ordination of current transformers and relays with a suitable choice of relay settings, taking into account the possible range of such variables as fault currents, maximum load current, system impedances and so on, where appropriate. Zones of protection Ideally, the zones of protection should overlap across the circuit breaker as shown in Figure 2, the circuit breaker being included in both zones.

Figure 2. Location of current transformers on both sides of the circuit breaker. For practical physical reasons, this ideal is not always achieved, accommodation for current trans-formers being in some cases available only on one side of the circuit breakers, as in Figure 3. This leaves a section between the current transformers and the circuit breaker A within which a fault is not cleared by the operation of the protection that responds. In Figure 3 a fault at F would cause the bus-bar protection to operate and open the circuit breaker but the fault would continue to be fed through the feeder.

Figure 3 Location of current transformers on circuit side of the circuit breaker. The feeder protection, if of the unit type, would not operate, since the fault is outside its zone. This problem is dealt. With by some form of zone extension, to operate when opening the circuit breaker does not fully interrupt the flow of fault current. A time delay is incurred in fault clearance, although by restricting this operation to occasions when the bus-bar protection is operated the time delay can be reduced.

Figure 4 Overlapping zones of protection systems. The point of connection of the protection with the power system usually defines the zone and corresponds to the location of the current transformers. The protection may be of the unit type, in which case the boundary will be a clearly defined and closed loop. Figure 4 illustrates a typical arrangement of overlapping zones. Alternatively, the zone may be unrestricted; the start will be defined but the extent will depend on measurement of the system quantities and will therefore be subject to variation, owing to changes in system conditions and measurement errors. Stability. This term, applied to protection as distinct from power networks, refers to the ability of the system to remain inert to all load conditions and faults external to the relevant zone. It is essentially a term which is applicable to unit systems; the term 'discrimination' is the equivalent expression applicable to non-unit systems. Speed. The function of automatic protection is to isolate faults from the power system in a very much shorter time than could be achieved manually, even with a great deal of personal supervision. The object is to safeguard continuity of supply by removing each disturbance before it leads to widespread loss of synchronism, which would necessitate the shutting down of plant.

Loading the system produces phase displacements between the voltages at different points and therefore increases the probability that synchronism will be lost when the system is disturbed by a fault. The shorter the time a fault is allowed to remain in the system, the greater can be the loading of the system. Figure 1.5 shows typical relations between system loading and fault clearance times for various types of fault. It will be noted that phase faults have a more marked effect on the stability of the system than does a simple earth fault and therefore require faster clearance. It is not enough to maintain stability; unnecessary consequential damage must also be avoided. The destructive power of a fault arc carrying a high current is very great; it can burn through copper conductors or weld together core laminations in a transformer or machine in a very short time. Even away from the fault arc itself, heavy fault currents can cause damage to plant if they continue for more than a few seconds

Figure 5 Typical values of power that can be transmitted as a function of fault clearance time. It will be seen that protective gear must operate as quickly as possible; speed, however, must be weighed against economy. For this reason, distribution circuits for which the requirements for fast operation are not very severe are usually protected by time-graded systems, but generating plant and EHV systems require protective gear of the highest attainable speed; the only limiting factor will be the necessity for correct operation. Sensitivity Sensitivity is a term frequently used when referring to the minimum operating current of a complete protective system. A protective system is said to be sensitive if the primary operating current is low. When the term is applied to an individual relay, it does not refer to a current or voltage setting but to the volt-ampere consumption at the minimum operating current. A given type of relay element can usually be wound for a wide range of setting currents; the coil will have an impedance which is inversely proportional to the square of

the setting current value, so that the volt-ampere product at any setting is constant. This is the true measure of the input requirements of the relay, and so also of the sensitivity. Relay power factor has some significance in the matter of transient performance. For D.C. relays the VA input also represents power consumption, and the burden is therefore frequently quoted in watts.

Primary and back-up protection The reliability of a power system has been discussed in earlier sections. Many factors may cause protection failure and there is always some possibility of a circuit breaker failure. For this reason, it is usual to supplement primary protection with other systems to 'backup' the operation of the main system and ensure that nothing can prevent the clearance of a fault from the system. Back-up protection may be obtained automatically as an inherent feature of the main protection scheme, or separately by means of additional equipment. Time graded schemes such as over current or distance protection schemes are examples of those providing inherent back-up protection; the faulty section is normally isolated discriminatively by the time grading, but if the appropriate relay fails or the circuit breaker fails to trip, the next relay in the grading sequence will complete its operation and trip the associated circuit breaker, thereby interrupting the fault circuit one section further back. In this way complete back-up cover is obtained; one more section is isolated than is desirable but this is inevitable in the event of the failure of a circuit breaker. Where the system interconnection is more complex, the above operation will be repeated so that all parallel infeeds are tripped. If the power system is protected mainly by unit schemes, automatic back-up protection is not obtained, and it is then normal to supplement the main protection with time graded over current protection, which will provide local back-up cover if the main protective relays have failed, and will trip further back in the event of circuit breaker failure. Such back-up protection is inherently slower than the main protection and, depending on the power system configuration, may be less discriminative. For the most important circuits the performance may not be good enough, even as a back-up protection, or, in some cases, not even possible, owing to the effect of multiple infeeds. In these cases duplicate high speed protective systems may be installed. These provide excellent mutual back-up cover against failure of the protective equipment, but either no remote back-up protection against circuit breaker failure or, at best, time delayed cover. Breaker fail protection can be obtained by checking that fault current ceases within

a brief time interval from the operation of the main protection. If this does not occur, all other connections to the bus bar section are interrupted, the condition being necessarily treated as a bus bar fault. This provides the required back-up protection with the minimum of time delay, and confines the tripping operation to the one station, as compared with the alternative of tripping the remote ends of all the relevant circuits. The extent and type of back-up protection which is applied will naturally be related to the failure risks and relative economic importance of the system. For distribution systems where fault clearance Times are not critical, time delayed remote back-up protection is adequate but for EHV systems, where system stability is at risk unless a fault is cleared quickly, local backup, as described above, should be chosen. Ideal back-up protection would be completely independent of the main protection. Current trans-formers, voltage transformers, auxiliary tripping relays, trip coils and D.C. supplies would be duplicated. This ideal is rarely attained in practice. The following compromises are typical: a. Separate current transformers (cores and secondary windings only) are used for each protective system, as this involves little extra cost or accommodation compared with the use of common current transformers which would have to be larger because of the combined burden. b. Common voltage transformers are used because duplication would involve a considerable increase in cost, because of the voltage transformers them-selves, and also because of the increased accommodation which would have to be provided. Since security of the VT output is vital, it is desirable that the supply to each protection should be separately fused and also continuously supervised by a relay which will give an alarm on failure of the supply and, where appropriate, prevent an unwanted operation of the protection. c. Trip supplies to the two protections should be separately fused. Duplication of tripping batteries and of tripping coils on circuit breakers is sometimes provided. Trip circuits should be continuously supervised. d. It is desirable that the main and back-up protections (or duplicate main protections) should operate on different principles, so that unusual events that may cause failure of the one will be less likely to affect the other.

Definitions and Terminology 1.All-or-nothingrelay A relay which is not designed to have any specified accuracy as to its operating value. 2. Auxiliaryrelay. An all-or-nothing relay used to supplement the performance of another relay, by modifying

contact

performance

for

example,

or

by

introducing

time

delays.

3.Back-upprotection. A protective system intended to supplement the main protection in case the latter should be in-effective, or to deal with faults in those parts of the power system that are not readily included in the operating zones of the main protection. 4.Biasedrelay. A relay in which the characteristics are modified by the introduction of some quantity other than the actuating quantity, and which is usually in opposition to the actuating quantity. 5.Burden. The loading imposed by the circuits of the relay on the energizing power source or sources, expressed as the product of voltage and current (volt-amperes, or watts if D.C) for a given condition, which may be either at 'setting' or at rated current or voltage. The rated output of measuring transformers, expressed in VA, is always at rated current or voltage and it is important, in assessing the burden imposed by a relay, to ensure that the value of burden at rated current is used. 6. Characteristic angle. The phase angle at which the performance of the relay is declared. It is usually the angle at which maximum sensitivity occurs. 7. Characteristic curve. The curve showing the operating value of the characteristic quantity corresponding to various values or combinations of the energizing quantities. 8. Characteristic quantity. A quantity, the value of which characterizes the operation of the relay, e.g. current for an over current relay, voltage for a voltage relay, phase angle for a directional relay, time for an independent time delay relay, impedance for an impedance relay. 9. Characteristic impedance ratio (C.I. R.) The maximum value of the System Impedance Ratio up to which the relay performance remains within the prescribed limits of accuracy. 10. Check protective system. An auxiliary protective system intended to prevent tripping due to inadvertent operation of the main protective system. 11. Conjunctive test. A test on a protective system including all relevant components and ancillary equipment appropriately interconnected. The test may be parametric or specific.

a. Parametric conjunctive test. A test to ascertain the range of values that may be assigned to each parameter when considered in combination with other parameters, while still complying with the relevant performance requirements. b. Specific conjunctive test. A test to prove the performance for a particular application, for which definite values are assigned to each of the parameters. 12. Dependent time delay relay. A time delay relay in which the time delay varies with the value of the energizing quantity. 13. Discrimination. The quality whereby a protective system distinguishes between those conditions for which it is intended to operate and those for which it shall not operate. 14. Drop-out. A relay drops out when it moves from the energized position to the un-energized position. 15. Drop-out / pick ratio. The ratio of the limiting values of the characteristic quantity at which the relay resets and operates. This value is sometimes called the differential of the relay. 16. Earth fault protective system. A protective system which is designed to respond only to faults to earth. 17. Earthing transformer. A three-phase transformer intended essentially to provide a neutral point to a power system for the purpose of Earthing. 18. Effective range The range of values of the characteristic quantity or quantities, or of the energizing quantities to which the relay will respond and satisfy the requirements concerning it, in particular those concerning precision. 19. Effective setting The 'setting' of a protective system including the effects of current transformers. The effective setting can be expressed in terms of primary current or secondary current from the current transformers and is so designated as appropriate. 20. Electrical relay A device designed to produce sudden predetermined changes in one or more electrical circuits after the appearance of certain conditions in the electrical circuit or circuits controlling it.

NOTE: The term 'relay' includes all the ancillary equipment calibrated with the device. 21. Energizing quantity. The electrical quantity, either current or voltage, which alone or in combination with other energizing quantities, must be applied to the relay to cause it to function. 22. Independent time delay relay. A time delay relay in which the time delay is independent of the energizing quantity. 21. Instantaneous relay. A relay which operates and resets with no intentional time delay. NOTE: All relays require some time to operate; it is possible, within the above definition, to discuss the operating time characteristics of an instantaneous relay. 22. Inverse time delay relay. A dependent time delay relay having an operating time which is an inverse function of the electrical characteristic quantity. 23. Inverse time delay relay with definite minimum (I.D. M . T.) A relay in which the time delay varies inversely with the characteristic quantity up to a certain value, after which the time delay becomes substantially independent. 24. Knee-point e.m.f. That sinusoidal e.m.f. applied to the secondary terminals of a current transformer, which, when increased by 10 %, causes the exciting current to increase by 50%. 25. Main protection. The protective system which is normally expected to operate in response to a fault in the protected zone. 26. Measuring relay. A relay intended to operate with a specified accuracy at one or more values of its characteristic quantity. 27. Notching relay. A relay which switches in response to a specific number of applied impulses. 28. Operating time. With a relay de-energized and in its initial condition, the time which elapses between the application of a characteristic quantity and the instant when the relay operates. 29. Operating time characteristic. The curve depicting the relationship between different values of the characteristic quantity applied to a relay and the corresponding values of operating time. 30. Operating value.

The limiting value of the characteristic quantity at which the relay actually operates. 31. Overshoot time. The extent to which the condition that leads to final operation is advanced after the removal of the energizing quantity, expressed as time at the rate of progress of the said condition appropriate to the value of the energizing quantity that was initially applied. 32. Pick-up. A relay is said to 'pick-up' when it changes from the un-energized position to the energized position. 33. Pilot channel. A means of interconnection between relaying points for the purpose of protection. 34. Protected zone. The portion of a power system protected by a given protective system or a part of that protective system. 35. Protective gear. The apparatus, including protective relays, trans-formers and ancillary equipment, for use in a protective system. 36. Protective relay. A relay designed to initiate disconnection of a part of an electrical installation or to operate a warning signal, in the case of a fault or other abnormal condition in the installation. A protective relay may include more than one unit electrical relay and accessories. 37. Protective scheme. The coordinated arrangements for the protection of one or more elements of a power system. A protective scheme may comprise several protective systems. 38. Protective system. A combination of protective gear designed to secure, under predetermined conditions, usually abnormal, the disconnection of an element of a power system, or to give an alarm signal, or both. 39. Rating. The nominal value of an energizing quantity which appears in the designation of a relay. The nominal value usually corresponds to the CT and VT secondary ratings. 40. Resetting value. The limiting value of the characteristic quantity at which the relay returns to its initial position. 41. Residua/ current. The algebraic sum, in a multi-phase system, of all the line currents.

42. Residua/ voltage. The algebraic sum, in a multi-phase system, of all the line-to-earth voltages. 43. Setting. The limiting value of a 'characteristic' or 'energizing' quantity at which the relay is designed to operate under specified conditions. Such values are usually marked on the relay and may be expressed as direct values, percentages of rated values, or multiples. 44. Stability. The quality whereby a protective system remains inoperative under all conditions other than those for which it is specifically designed to operate. 45. Stability limits. The R.M.S. value of the symmetrical component of the through fault current up to which the protective system remains stable. 46. Starting relay. A unit relay which responds to abnormal conditions and initiates the operation of other elements of the protective system. 47. System impedance ratio (S./.R.). The ratio of the power system source impedance to the impedance of the protected zone. 48. Through fault current. The current flowing through a protected zone to a fault beyond that zone. 49. Time delay. A delay intentionally introduced into the operation of a relay system. 50. Time delay relay. A relay having an intentional delaying device. 51. Unit electrical relay. A single relay which can be used alone or in combinations with others. 52. Unit protection. A protection system which is designed to operate only for abnormal conditions within a clearly defined zone of the power system. 53. Unrestricted protection. A protection system which has no clearly defined zone of operation and which achieves selective operation only by time grading.

Fault Definitions and: For the purpose of this International Standard, the following definitions, some of them based on IEC 60050(191), IEC 60050(212) and IEC 60050(604) apply: 1- Fault An unplanned occurrence or defect in an item which may result in one or more failures of the item itself or of other associated equipment [IEC 604-02-011 NOTE - In electrical equipment, a fault may or may not result in damage to the insulation and failure of the equipment. 2- Non-damage fault A fault which does not involve repair or replacement action at the point of the fault NOTE - Typical examples are self-extinguishing arcs in switching equipment or general overheating without paper carbonization. [IEC 604-02-091 3- Damage fault A fault which involves repair or replacement action at the point of the fault [IEC 604-02-08, modified] 4- Incident An event related to an internal fault which temporarily or permanently disturbs the normal operation of an equipment [IEV 604-02-03, modified] NOTE - Typical examples are gas alarms, equipment tripping or equipment leakage. 5- Failure The termination of the ability of an item to perform a required function [IEC 191-04-01] NOTE - In the electrical equipment, failure will result from a damage fault or incident necessitating outage, repair or replacement of the equipment, such as internal breakdown, rupture of tank, fire or explosion. 6- Electrical fault a partial or disruptive discharge through the insulation. 7- Partial discharge A discharge which only partially bridges the insulation between conductors. It may occur inside the insulation or adjacent to a conductor [IEC 212-01-34, modified] NOTE 1 - Corona is a form of partial discharge that occurs in gaseous media around conductors which are remote from solid or liquid insulation. This term is not to be used as a general term for all forms of partial discharges.

NOTE 2 - X-wax is a solid material which is formed from mineral insulating oil as a result of electrical discharges and which consists of polymerized fragments of the molecules of the original liquid [IEV 212-07-24, modified]. Comparable products may be formed from other liquids under similar conditions. NOTE 3 - Sparking of low energy, for example because of metals or floating potentials, is sometimes described as Partial discharge but should rather be considered as a discharge of low energy. 8- Discharge (disruptive) . The passage of an arc following the breakdown of the insulation [IEC 604-03-38, modified] NOTE 1 - Discharges are often described as arcing, breakdown or short circuits. The more specific following terms are also used: - spark over (discharge through the oil); - puncture (discharge through the solid insulation); - Flashover (discharge at the surface of the solid insulation); - tracking (the progressive degradation of the surface of solid insulation by local Discharges to form conducting or partially conducting paths); - sparking discharges which, in the conventions of physics, are local Dielectric breakdowns of high ionization density or small arcs. NOTE 2 - Depending on the amount of energy contained in the discharge, it will be described as a discharge of low or high energy, based on the extent of damage observed on the equipment . 9- Thermal fault Excessive temperature rise in the insulation NOTE - Typical causes are - Insufficient cooling, - Excessive currents circulating in adjacent metal parts (as a result of bad Contacts, eddy currents, stray losses or leakage flux), - Excessive currents circulating through the insulation (as a result of high Dielectric losses), leading to a thermal runaway, - overheating of internal winding or bushing connection lead. 10- Typical values of gas concentrations. gas concentrations normally found in the equipment in service which have no symptoms of failure, and which are over passed by only an arbitrary percentage of higher gas contents, for example 10 % .

NOTE 1 - Typical values will differ in different types of equipment and in different networks, depending on operating practices (load levels, climate, etc.). NOTE 2 - Typical values, in many countries and by many users, are quoted as "normal values", but this term has not been used here to avoid possible misinterpretations.

LIST OF DEVICE NUMBERS 2 Time delay starting or closing relay. 3 Checking or interlocking relay 21 Distance relay 25 Synchronizing or synchronism check relay 27 Under voltage relay 30 Annunciator relay 32 Directional power relay 37 Undercurrent or under power relay 40 Field failure relay 46 Reverse phase or phase balance current relay 49 Machine or transformer thermal relay 50 Instantaneous over current or rate-of-rise relay 51 A.c. time over current relay 52 A.c. circuit breaker 52a Circuit breaker auxiliary switchnormally open 52b Circuit breaker auxiliary switchnormally closed 55 Power factor relay 56 Field_application relay 59 Over voltage relay 60 Voltage or current balance relay 64 Earth fault protective relay 67 A.c. directional over current relay 68 Blocking relay 74 Alarm relay 76 D.c. over current relay 78 Phase angle measuring or out-of-step protective relay 79 A.c. reclosing relay

81 Frequency relay 83 Automatic selective control or transfer relay 85 Carrier or pilot wire receive relay 86 Locking-out relay 87 Differential protective relay 94 auxiliary tripping relay

IEEE device numbers and functions for switchgear apparatus The devices in switching equipments are referred to by numbers, with appropriate suffix letters when necessary, according to the functions they perform. These numbers are based on a system adopted as standard for automatic switchgear by IEEE, and incorporated in American Standard C37.2-1979. This system is used in connection diagrams, in instruction books, and in specifications. Device Number Definition and function 1- 1 Master element is the initiating device, such as a control switch, voltage relay, float switch etc., that serves either irectly, or through such permissive devices as protective and time-delay relays, to place an equipment in or out of operation. 2- 2 Time-delay starting or closing relay is a device that functions to give a desired amount of time delay before or after any point of operation in a switching sequence or protective relay system, except as specifically provided by device functions 48, 62 and 79 described later. 3- 3 Checking or interlocking relay is a device that operates in response to the position of a number of other devices, (or to a number of predetermined conditions), in an equipment to allow an operating sequence to proceed, to stop, or to provide a check of the position of these devices or of these conditions for any purpose. 4- 4 Master contactor is a device, generally controlled by device No. 1 or equivalent, and the required permissive and protective devices, that serve to make and break the necessary control circuits to place an equipment into operation under the desired conditions and to take it out of

operation under other or abnormal conditions. 5- 5 Stopping device is a control device used primarily to shut down an equipment and hold it out of operation. [This device may be manually or electrically actuated, but excludes the function of electrical lockout (see device function 86) on abnormal conditions.] 6- 6 Starting circuit breaker is a device whose principal function is to connect a machine to its source of starting voltage. 7- 7 Rate-of-rise relay is a relay that functions on an excessive rate of rise of current. 8- 8 Control power disconnecting device is a disconnecting device, such as a knife switch, circuit breaker, or pull-out fuse block, used for the purpose of respectively connecting and disconnecting the source of control power to and from the control bus or equipment. 9- 9 Reversing device is used for the purpose of reversing a machine field or for performing any other reversing functions. 10- 10 Unit sequence switch is used to change the sequence in which units may be placed in and out of service in multiple-unit equipment. 11- 11 Multifunction device is a device that performs three or more comparatively important functions that could only be designated by combining several of these device function numbers. All of the functions performed by device 11 shall be defined in the drawing legend or device function list. 12- 12 Over speed device is usually a direct connected speed switch that functions on machine over speed. 13- 13 Synchronous-speed device such as a centrifugal speed switch, a slip frequency relay, a voltage relay, an undercurrent relay, or any other type of device that operates at approximately the synchronous speed of a machine. 14- 14 Under speed device

functions when the speed of a machine falls below a pre-determined value. 15- 15 Speed or frequency matching device functions to match and hold the speed or the frequency of a machine or of a system equal to, or approximately equal to, that of another machine, source, or system. 16- 16 Reserved for future application 17- 17 Shunting or discharge switch serves to open or to close a shunting circuit around any piece of apparatus (except a resistor), such as a machine field, a machine armature, a capacitor, or a reactor. Note: This excludes devices that perform such shunting operations as may be necessary in the process of starting a machine by devices 6 or 42, or their equivalent, and also excludes device 73 function that serves for the switching of resistors. 18- 18 Accelerating or decelerating device is used to close or to cause the closing of circuits that are used to increase or decrease the speed of a machine. 19- 19 Starting-to-running transition contactor is a device that operates to initiate or cause the automatic transfer of a machine from the starting to the running power connection. 20- 20 Electrically operated valve is an electrically operated, controlled, or monitored valve used in a fluid, air, gas, or vacuum line. Note: The function of the valve may be indicated by the use of the suffixes, see page 11. 21- 21 Distance relay is a relay that functions when the circuit admittance, impedance, or reactance increases or decreases beyond a predetermined value. 22- 22 Equalizer circuit breaker is a breaker that serves to control or to make and break the equalizer or the current balancing connections for a machine field, or for regulating equipment, in a multiple unit installation. 23- 23 Temperature control device Functions to raise or to lower the temperature of a machine or other apparatus, or of any medium, when its temperature falls below or rises above a predetermined value. Note: An example is a thermostat that switches on a space heater in a switchgear assembly when the temperature falls to a desired value as distinguished from a device

that is used to provide automatic temperature regulation between close limits and would be designated as 90T. 24- 24 Volts per hertz relay is a relay that functions when the ratio of voltage to frequency exceeds a preset value. The relay may have an instantaneous or a time characteristic. 25- 25 Synchronizing or synchronism check device operates when two ac circuits are within the desired limits of frequency, phase angle, or voltage to permit or to cause the paralleling of these two circuits. 26- 26 Apparatus thermal device Functions when the temperature of the protected apparatus (other than the loadcarrying windings of machines and transformers as covered by device function number 49) or of a liquid or other medium exceeds a predetermined value; or when the temperature of the protected apparatus or of any medium decreases below a predetermined value. 27- 27 Under voltage relay is a relay that operates when its input voltage is less than a predetermined value. 28- 28 Flame detector is a device that monitors the presence of the pilot or main flame in such apparatus as a gas turbine or a steam boiler. 29- 29 Isolating contactor is used expressly for disconnecting one circuit from another for the purposes of emergency operation, maintenance, or test. 30 Annunciator relay is a nonautomatically reset device that gives a number of separate visual indications upon the functioning of protective devices and that may also be arranged to perform a lock-out function. 31- 31 Separate excitation device connects a circuit, such as the shunt field of a synchronous converter, to a source of separate excitation during the starting sequence; or one which energizes the excitation and ignition circuits of a power rectifier. 32- 32 Directional power relay is a relay that operates on a predetermined value of power flow in a given direction or upon reverse power flow such as that resulting from the motoring of a generator upon loss of its prime mover.

33- 33 Position switch makes or breaks contact when the main device or piece of apparatus that has no device function number reaches a given position. 34- 34 Master sequence device is a device such as a motor operated multi contact switch, or the equivalent, or a programming device, such as a computer, that establishes or determines the operating sequence of the major devices in an equipment during starting and stopping or during other sequential switching operations. 35- 35 Brush-operating or slip-ring short circuiting device is used for raising, lowering or shifting the brushes of a machine; short-circuiting its slip rings; or engaging or disengaging the contacts of a mechanical rectifier. 36- 36 Polarity or polarizing voltage device operates, or permits the operation of, another device on a predetermined polarity only or that verifies the presence of a polarizing voltage in an equipment. 37- 37 Undercurrent or under power relay functions when the current or power flow decreases below a predetermined value. 38- 38 Bearing protective device Functions on excessive bearing temperature or on other abnormal mechanical conditions associated with the bearing, such as undue wear, which may eventually result in excessive bearing temperature or failure. 39- 39 Mechanical condition monitor is a device that functions upon the occurrence of an abnormal mechanical condition (except that associated with bearings as covered under device function 38), such as excessive vibration, eccentricity, expansion, shock, tilting, or seal failure. 40- 40 Field relay functions on a given or abnormally low value or failure of machine field current, or on an excessive value of the reactive component of armature current in an ac machine indicating abnormally low field excitation. 41- 41 Field circuit breaker is a device that functions to apply or remove the field excitation of a machine. 42- 42 Running circuit breaker is a device whose principal function is to connect a machine to its source of running or operating voltage. This function may also be used for a device, such as a contactor, that is used in series with a circuit breaker or other fault protecting means, primarily for frequent opening and closing of the circuit. 43- 43 Manual transfer or selector device

is a manually operated device that transfers the control circuits in order to modify the plan of operation of the switching equipment or of some of the devices. 44- 44 Unit sequence starting relay is a relay that functions to start the next available unit in multiple unit equipment upon the failure or nonavailability of the normally preceding unit. 45- 45 Atmospheric condition monitor is a device that functions upon the occurrence of an abnormal atmospheric condition, such as damaging fumes, explosive mixtures, smoke, or fire. 46- 46 Reverse-phase or phase-balance current relay is a relay that functions when the polyphase currents are of reverse phase sequence or when the polyphase currents are unbalanced or contain negative phasesequence components above a given amount. 47- 47 Phase-sequence or phase-balance voltage relay functions upon a predetermined value of polyphase voltage in the desired phase sequence, or when the polyphase voltages are unbalanced, or when the negative phase-sequence voltage exceeds a given amount. 48- 48 Incomplete sequence relay is a relay that generally returns the equipment to the normal, or off, position and locks it out if the normal starting, operating, or stopping sequence is not properly completed within a predetermined time. If the device is used for alarm purposes only, it should preferably be designated as 48A (alarm). 49- 49 Machine or transformer thermal relay is a relay that functions when the temperature of a machine armature winding or other load-carrying winding or element of a machine or power transformer exceeds a redetermined value. 50- 50 Instantaneous over current relay is a relay that functions instantaneously on an excessive value of current. 51- 51 Ac time over current relay is a relay with either a definite or inverse time characteristic that functions when the ac input current exceeds a predetermined value, and in which the input current and operating time are independently related or inversely related through a substantial portion of the performance range. 52- 52 Ac circuit breaker is a device that is used to close and interrupt an ac power circuit under normal

conditions or to interrupt this circuit under fault or emergency conditions. 53- 53 Exciter or dc generator relay is a relay that forces the dc machine field excitation to build up during starting or that functions when the machine voltage has built up to a given value. 54- 54 Turning gear engaging device is an electrically operated, controlled, or monitored device that functions to cause the turning gear to engage (or disengage) the machine shaft. 55- 55 Power factor relay is a relay that operates when the power factor in an ac circuit rises above or falls below a predetermined value. 56- 56 Field application relay is a relay that automatically controls the application of the field excitation to an ac motor at some predetermined point in the slip cycle. 57- 57 Short-circuiting or grounding device is a primary circuit switching device that functions to short circuit or ground a circuit in response to automatic or manual means. 58- 58 Rectification failure relay is a device that functions if a power recitifier fails to conduct or block properly. 59- 59 Over voltage relay is a relay that operates when its input voltage is higher than a predetermined value. 60- 60 Voltage or current balance relay is a relay that operates on a given difference in voltage, or current input or output, of two circuits. 61- 61 Density switch or sensor is a device that operates on a given value, or a given rate of change, of gas density. 62- 62 Time-delay stopping or opening relay is a time-delay relay that serves in conjunction with the device that initiates the shutdown, stopping, or opening operation in an automatic sequence or protective relay system. 63- 63 Pressure switch is a switch that operates on given values, or on a given rate of change, of pressure.

64- 64 Ground detector relay is a relay that operates upon failure of machine or other apparatus insulation to ground, or on flashover of a dc machine to ground. Note: This function is assigned only to a relay which detects the flow of current from the frame of a machine or enclosing case or structure of a piece of apparatus to ground, or detects a ground on a normally ungrounded winding or circuit. It is not applied to a device connected in the secondary neutral of a current transformer, or in the secondary neutral of current transformers, connected in the power circuit of a normally grounded system. 65- 65 Governor is the assembly of fluid, electrical, or mechanical control equipment used for regulating the flow of water, steam, or other media to the prime mover for such purposes as starting, holding speed or load, or stopping. 66- 66 Notching or jogging device Functions to allow only a specified number of operations of a given device or equipment, or a specified number of successive operations within a given time of each other. It is also a device that functions to energize a circuit periodically or for fractions of specified time intervals, or that is used to permit intermittent acceleration or jogging of a machine at low speeds for mechanical positioning. 67- 67 Ac directional over current relay is a relay that functions on a desired value of ac over current flowing in a predetermined direction. 68- 68 Blocking relay is a relay that initiates a pilot signal for blocking of tripping on external faults in a transmission line or in other apparatus under predetermined conditions, or that cooperates with other devices to block tripping or to block reclosing on an out-of-step condition or on power swings. 69- 69 Permissive control device is generally, a two-position device that in one position permits the closing of a circuit breaker, or the placing of an equipment into operation, and in the other position prevents the circuit breaker or the equipment from being operated. 70- 70 Rheostat is a variable resistance device used in an electric circuit which is electrically operated or has other electrical accessories, such as auxiliary, position, or limit switches. 71- 71 Level switch is a switch that operates on given values, or on a given rate of change, of level.

72- 72 Dc circuit breaker is used to close and interrupt a dc power circuit under normal conditions or to interrupt this circuit under fault or emergency conditions. 73- 73 Load-resistor contactor is used to shunt or insert a step of load limiting, shifting, or indicating resistance in a power circuit, or to switch a space heater in circuit, or to switch a light, or regenerative load resistor of a power rectifier or other machine in and out of circuit. 74- 74 Alarm relay is a relay other than an annunciator, as covered under device function 30, that is used to operate, or that operates in connection with, a visual or audible alarm. 75- 75 Position changing mechanism is a mechanism that is used for moving a main device from one position to another in an equipment; for example, shifting a removable circuit breaker unit to and from the connected, disconnected, and test positions. 76-76 Dc over current relay is a relay that functions when the current in a dc circuit exceeds a given value. 77- 77 Telemetering device is a transmitter used to generate and transmit to a remote location an electrical signal representing a measured quantity, or a receiver used to receive the electrical signal from a remote transmitter and convert the signal to represent the original measured quantity. 78- 78 Phase-angle measuring or out-of step protective relay is a relay that functions at a predetermined phase angle between two voltages, or between two currents, or between voltage and current. 79- 79 Ac reclosing relay is a relay that controls the automatic reclosing and locking out of an ac circuit interrupter. 80- 80 Flow switch is a switch that operates on given values, or on a given rate of change, of flow. 81- 81 Frequency relay is a relay that responds to the frequency of an electrical quantity, operating when the frequency or rate of change of frequency exceeds or is less than a predetermined value. 82 82 Dc load-measuring reclosing relay is a relay that controls the automatic closing and reclosing of a dc circuit interrupter, generally in response to load circuit conditions.

83- 83 Automatic selective control or transfer relay is a relay that operates to select automatically between certain sources or conditions in an equipment or that performs a transfer operation automatically. 84- 84 Operating mechanism is the complete electrical mechanism or servomechanism, including the operating motor, solenoids, position switches, etc., for a tap changer, induction regulator, or any similar piece of apparatus that otherwise has no device function number. 85 Carrier or pilot-wire receiver relay Is a relay that is operated or restrained by a signal used in connection with carriercurrent or dc pilot-wire fault directional relaying. 86- 86 Lockout relay is an electrically operated hand or electrically reset auxiliary relay that is operated upon the occurrence of abnormal conditions to maintain associated equipment or devices out of service until it is reset. 87- 87 Differential protective relay is a protective relay that functions on a percentage, or phase angle, or other quantitative difference between two currents or some other electrical quantities. 88- 88 Auxiliary motor or motor generator is a device used for operating auxiliary equipment, such as pumps, blowers, exciters, rotating magnetic amplifiers, etc. 89- 89 Line switch is used as a disconnecting, load interrupter, or isolating switch in an ac or dc power circuit. (Thisdevice function number is normally not necessary unless the switch is electrically operated or has electrical accessories, such as an auxiliary switch, a magnetic lock, etc.) 90- 90 Regulating device functions to regulate a quantity or quantities, such as voltage, current, power, speed, frequency, temperature, and load, at a certain value or between certain (generally close) limits for machines, tie lines, or other apparatus. 91- 91 Voltage directional relay is a relay that operates when the voltage across an open circuit breaker or contactor exceeds a given value in a given direction.

92- 92 Voltage and power directional relay is a relay that permits or causes the connection of two circuits when the voltage difference between them exceeds a given value in a predetermined direction and causes these two circuits to be disconnected from each other when the power flowing between them exceeds a given value in the opposite direction. 93- 93 Field-changing contactor Functions to increase or decrease, in one step, the value of field excitation on a machine. 94- 94 Tripping or trip-free relay Functions to trip a circuit breaker, contactor, or equipment, or to permit immediate tripping by other devices; or to prevent immediate reclosing of a circuit interrupter if it should open automatically, even though its closing circuit is maintained closed. 95- 95 96- 96 97- 97 98- 98 99- 99 Used only for specific applications on individual installations where none of the assigned numbered functions from 1 to 94 is suitable. IEEE device numbers Supervisory control and indication. A similar series of numbers, prefixed by the letters RE (for remote) shall be used for the interposing relays performing functions that are controlled directly from the supervisory system. Typical examples of such device functions are: RE1, RE5 and RE94. Note: The user of the RE prefix for this purpose in place of the former 200 series of numbers now makes it possible to obtain increased flexibility of the device function numbering system. For example, in pipeline pump stations, the numbers 1 through 99 are applied to device functions that are associated with the over-all station operation. A similar series of numbers, starting with 101 instead of 1, are used for those device functions that are associated with unit 1; a similar series starting with 201 for device functions that are associated with unit 2; and so on, for each unit in these installations. Devices performing more than one function If one device performs two relatively important functions in an equipment so that it is desirable to identify both of these functions, this may be done by using a double function

number and name such as: 50/51 Instantaneous and Time Over current relay. Suffix numbers If two or more devices with the same function number and suffix letter (if used) are present in the same equipment, they may be distinguished by numbered suffixes as for example, 52X-1, 52X-2 and 52X-3, when necessary. Suffix letters Suffix letters are used with device function numbers for various purposes. In order to prevent possible conflict each suffix letter should have only one meaning in an individual equipment. All other words should use the abbreviations as contained in American Standard Z32.13-1950, or latest revision thereof, or should use some other distinctive abbreviation, or be written out in full each time they are used. The meaning of each single suffix letter, or combination of letters, should be clearly designated in the legend on the drawings or publications applying to the equipment. In cases where the same suffix (consisting of one letter or a combination of letters) has different meanings in the same equipment, depending upon the device function number with which is used, then the complete device function number with which it is used, the complete device function number with its suffix letter or letters and its corresponding function name should be listed in the legend in each case, as follows: 90V, Voltage regulator. Lower case (small) suffix letters are used in practically all instances on electrical diagrams for the auxiliary, position, and limit switches. Capital letters are generally used for all other suffix letters. The letters should generally form part of the device function designation, are usually written directly after the device function number, as for example, 52CS, 71W, or 49D. When it is necessary to use two types of suffix letters in connection with one function number, it is often desirable for clarity to separate them by a slanted line or dash, as for example, 20D/CS or 20D-CS. The suffix letters which denote parts of the main device, and those which cannot or need not form part of the device function designation, are generally written directly below the device function number on drawings, as for example, or . 52/CC or 43/A Auxiliary devices Separate auxiliary devices Actuating quantities These letters indicate the condition or electrical quantity to which the device responds, or the medium in which it is located, such as:

Main devices These letters denote the location of the main device in the circuit, or the type of circuit in which the device is used or the type of circuit or apparatus with which it is associated, when this is necessary, such as: X Y Auxiliary relay 1) Z R Raising relay L Lowering relay O Opening relay or contactor C Closing relay or contactor CS Control switch CL Auxiliary relay, open (energized when main device is in open position) OP Auxiliary relay, open (energized when main device is in open position) U Up position-switch relay D Down position-switch relay PB Push button 1) In the control of a circuit breaker with so-called X-Y relay control scheme, the X relay is the device whose main contacts are used to energize the closing coil or the device which in some other manner, such as by the release of stored energy, causes the breaker to close. The contacts of the Y relay provide the antipump feature for the circuit breaker. A Air or Amperes or Alternating C Current D Direct or Discharge E Electrolyte F Frequency, or Flow, or Fault H Explosive J Differential L Level, or Liquid P Power, or Pressure PF Power factor Q Oil S Speed, or Suction, or Smoke T Temperature V Voltage, Volts, or Vacuum VAR Reactive power VB Vibration W Water, or Watts A Alarm or Auxiliary power AN Anode B Battery, or Blower, or Bus

BK Brake BL Block (Valve) BP Bypass BT Bus tie C Capacitor, or Condenser, or Compensator, or Carrier current, or Case, or Compressor CA Cathode CH Check (Valve) D Discharge (Valve) E Exciter F Feeder, or Field, or Filament, or Filter, or Fan G Generator, or Ground2) H Heater, or Housing L Line, or Logic M Motor, or Metering N Network, or Neutral 2) P Pump, or Phase comparison R Reactor, or Rectifier, or Room S Synchronizing, or Secondary, or Strainer, or Sump, or Suction (Valve) T Transformer, or Thyratron TH Transformer (high-voltage side) TL Transformer (low-voltage side) TM Telemeter U Unit 2) Suffix N is generally used in preference to G for devices connected in the secondary neutral of current transformers, or in the secondary of a current transformer whose primary winding is located in the neutral of a machine or power transformer, except in the case of transmission line relaying, where the suffix G is more commonly used for those relays which operate on ground faults. Main device parts These letters denote parts of the main device, divided in the two following categories: 1. All parts, except auxiliary contacts, position switches, limit switches, and torque limit switches. 2. All auxiliary contacts and positioning and limit switches for such devices and equipment as circuit breakers, contactors, valves and rheostats and contacts of relays. These are designated as follows: Standard reference positions of some typical devices are as follows: BK Brake C Coil, or Condenser, or Capacitor

CC Closing coil HC Holding coil M Operating motor MF Fly-ball motor ML Load-limit motor MS Speed adjusting, or Synchronizing motor S Solenoid SI Seal-in TC Trip coil V Valve a Contact that is open when the main device is in the standard reference position, commonly referred to as the nonoperated or reenergized position and that closes when the device assumes the opposite position. b Contact that is closed when the main device is in the standard reference position, commonly referred to as the nonoperated or deenergized position, and that opens when the device assumes the opposite position. aa Contact that is open when the operating mechanism of the main device is in the nonoperated position and that closes when the operating mechanism assumes the opposite position. bb Contact that is closed when the operating mechanism of the main device is in the nonoperated position and that opens when the operating mechanism assumes the opposite position. Device Standard reference position Power circuit breaker Main contacts open Disconnecting switch Main contacts open Load-break switch Main contacts open Valve Closed position Gate Closed position Clutch Disengaged position Turning gear Disengaged position Power electrodes Maximum gap position Rheostat Maximum resistance position Adjusting means 1) Low or Down position Relay 2) Deenergized position Contactor 2) Deenergized position Relay (latched-in type) Non-latched-in position Contactor (latched-in type) Main contacts open Temperature relay 3) Lowest temperature Level detector 3) Lowest level Flow detector 3) Lowest flow

Speed switch 3) Lowest speed Vibration detector 3) Minimum vibration Pressure switch 3) Lowest pressure Vacuum switch 3) Lowest pressure, i.e., highest vacuum The simple designation a or b is used in all cases where there is no need to adjust the contacts to change position at any particular point in the travel of the main device or where the part of the travel where the contacts change position is of no significance in the control or operating scheme. Hence the a and b designations usually are sufficient for circuit breaker auxiliary switches. Note: If several similar auxiliary switches are present on the same device, they should be designated numerically 1, 2, 3, etc. when necessary. Other switches These letters cover all other distinguishing features or characteristics or conditions, which serve to describe the use of the device or its contacts in the equipment such as: Device Standard reference position 1) These may be speed, voltage, current, load, or similar adjusting devices comprising rheostats, springs, levers, or other components for the purpose. 2) These electrically operated devices are of the non-latched-in type, whose contact position is dependent only upon the degree of energization of the operating or restraining or holding coil or coils which may or may not be suitable for continuous energization. The deenergized position of the device is that with all coils deenergized. 3) The energizing influences for these devices are considered to be, respectively, rising temperature, rising level, increasing flow, rising speed, increasing vibration, and increasing pressure. A Accelerating, or Automatic B Blocking, or Back-up C Close, or Cold D Decelerating, or Detonate, or Down, or Disengaged E Emergency, or Engaged F Failure, or Forward H Hot, or High

HR Hand reset HS High speed L Left, or Local, or Low, or Lower, or Leading M Manual OFF Off ON On P Polarizing R Right, or Raise, or Reclosing, or Receiving, or Remote, or Reverse S Sending, or Swing T Test, or Trip, or Trailing TDC Time-delay closing TDO Time-delay opening

Relay contact systems Relay contact systems Self-reset. The contacts remain operated only while the controlling quantity is applied, returning to their original condition when it is removed. Hand or electrical reset. These contacts remain in the operated position after the controlling quantity is removed. They can be reset either by hand or by an auxiliary electromagnetic element. The majority of protective relay elements have self-reset contact systems, which, if it is so desired, can be made to give hand reset output contacts by the use of auxiliary elements. Hand or electrically reset relays are used when it is necessary to maintain a signal or a lock-out condition. Contacts are shown on diagrams in the position corresponding to the un-operated or de-energized condition regardless of the continuous service condition of the equipment. For example, a voltage supervising relay, which is continually pickedup, would still be shown in the de-energized condition. A 'make' contact is one that closes when the relay picks up, whereas a 'break' contact is one that is closed when the relay is un-energized and opens when the relay picks up. Examples of these conventions and variations are shown in Figure 6. b. a.

Figure 6 indications of contacts on diagrams. A protective relay is usually required to trip a circuit breaker, the tripping mechanism of which may be a solenoid with a plunger acting directly on the mechanism latch or, in the case of air-blast or pneumatically operated breakers, an electrically operated valve. The relay may energize the tripping coil directly, or, according to the coil rating, and the number of circuits to be energized, may do so through the agency of another multichannel auxiliary relay. The power required by the trip coil of the circuit breaker may range from up to 50 watts, for a small 'distribution' circuit breaker, to 3000 watts for a large extra-high-voltage circuit breaker. The basic trip circuit is simple, being made up of a hand-trip control switch and the contacts of the protective relays in parallel to energize the trip coil from a battery, through a normally open auxiliary switch operated by the circuit breaker. This auxiliary switch is needed to open the trip circuit when the circuit breaker opens, since the protective relay contacts will usually be quite incapable of performing the interrupting duty. The auxiliary switch will be adjusted to close as early as possible in the closing stroke, to make the protection effective in case the breaker is being closed on to a fault. Protective relays are precise measuring devices, the contacts of which should not be expected to perform large making and breaking duties. Attracted armature relays, which combine many of the characteristics of measuring devices and contactors, Occupy an intermediate position and according to their design and consequent closeness to one or other category, may have an appreciable contact capacity. Most other types of relay develop an effort which is independent of the position of the moving system. At setting, the electromechanical effort is absorbed by the controlling force, the margin for operating the contacts being negligibly small. Not only does this limit the 'making' capacity of the contacts, but if more than one contact pair is fitted any slight misalignment may result in only one contact being closed at the minimum operating value, there being insufficient force to compress the spring of the first contact to make, by the small amount required to permit closure of the second.

For this reason, the provision of multiple contacts on such elements is undesirable. Although two contacts can be fitted, care must be taken in their alignment, and a small tolerance in the closing value of operating current may have to be allowed between them. These effects can be reduced by providing a small amount of 'run-in' to contact make in the relay behavior, by special shaping of the active parts. For the above reasons it is often better to use inter-posing contactor type elements which do not have the same limitations, although some measuring relay elements are capable of tripping the smaller types of circuit breaker directly. These may be small attracted armature type elements fitted in the same case as the measuring relay. In general, static relays have discrete measuring and tripping circuits, or modules. The functioning of the measuring modules will not react on the tripping modules. Such a relay is equivalent to a sensitive electromechanical relay with a tripping contactor, so that the number or rating of outputs has no more significance than the fact that they have been provided. For larger switchgear installations the tripping power requirement of each circuit breaker is considerable, and, further, two or more breakers may have to be tripped by one protective system. There may also be remote signaling requirements, interlocking with other functions (for example auto-reclosing arrangements), and other control functions to be performed. These various operations are carried out by multi-contact tripping relays, which are energized by the protection relays and provide the necessary number of adequately rated output contacts. Operation indicators. As a guide for power system operation staff, protective systems are invariably provided with indicating devices. In British practice these are called 'flags', whereas in America they are known as 'targets'. Not every component relay will have one, as indicators are arranged to operate only if a trip operation is initiated. Indicators, with very few exceptions, are bi-stable devices, and may be either mechanically or electrically operated. A mechanical indicator consists of a small shutter which is Released by the protective relay movement to expose the indicator pattern, which, on GEC Measurements relays, consists of a red diagonal stripe on a white background. Electrical indicators may be simple attracted armature elements either with or without contacts. Operation of the armature releases a shutter to expose an indicator as above. An alternative type consists of a small cylindrical permanent magnet magnetized across a diameter, and lying between the poles of an electromagnet. The magnet, which is free to rotate, lines up its magnetic axis with the electromagnet poles, but can be made to reverse its orientation by the application of a field. The edge of the magnet is colored to give the indication. Relay tripping circuits. Auxiliary contactors can be used to supplement protective relays in a number of ways: a. Series sealing. b. Shunt reinforcing. c. Shunt reinforcement with sealing. These are illustrated in Figure 7.

When such auxiliary elements are fitted, they can conveniently carry the operation indicator, avoiding the need for indicators on the measuring elements. Electrically operated indicators avoid imposing an additional friction load on the measuring element, which would be a serious handicap for certain types. Another advantage is that the indicator can operate only after the main contacts have closed.

Figure 7 Typical relay tripping circuits.

With indicators operated directly by the measuring elements, care must be taken to line up their operation with the closure of the main contacts. The indicator must have operated by the time the contacts make, but must not have done so more than marginally earlier. This is to stop indication occurring when the tripping operation has not been completed. Series sealing. The coil of the series contactor carries the trip current initiated by the protective relay, and the contactor closes a contact in parallel with the protective relay contact. This closure relieves the protective relay contact of further duty and keeps the tripping circuit securely closed, even if chatter occurs at the main contact. Nothing is added to the total tripping time, and the indicator does not operate until current is actually flowing through the trip coil. The main disadvantage of this method is that such series elements must have their coils matched with the trip circuit with which they are associated. The coils of these contactors must be of low impedance, with about 5 % of the trip supply voltage being dropped across them. When used in association with high speed trip relays, which usually interrupt their own Ta.

coil current, the auxiliary elements must be fast enough to operate and release the flag before their coil current is cut off. This may pose a problem in design if a variable number of auxiliary elements (for different phases and so on) may be required to operate in parallel to energize a common tripping relay. Shunt reinforcing. Here the sensitive contacts are arranged to trip the circuit breaker and simultaneously to energize the auxiliary unit, which then reinforces the contact which is energizing the trip coil. It should be noted that two contacts are required on the protective relay, since it is not permissible to energize the trip coil and the reinforcing contactor in parallel. If this were done, and more than one protective relay were connected to trip the same circuit breaker, all the auxiliary relays would be energized in parallel for each relay operation and the indication would be confused. The duplicate main contacts are frequently provided As a three point arrangement to reduce the number of contact fingers. b.

Figure 8 Examples of trip circuit supervision. Shunt reinforcement with sealing. This is a development of the shunt reinforcing circuit to make it applicable to relays with low torque movements or where there is a possibility of contact bounce for any other reason. Using the shunt reinforcing system under these circumstances would result in chattering on the auxiliary unit, and the possible burning out of the contacts not only of the sensitive element but also of the auxiliary unit. The chattering would only end when the circuit breaker had finally tripped. It will be seen that the effect of bounce is countered by means of a further contact on the auxiliary unit connected as a retaining contact. This means that provision must be made for releasing the sealing circuit when tripping is complete; this is a disadvantage, because it is sometimes in-convenient to find a suitable contact to use for this purpose. Supervision of trip circuits. The trip circuit extends beyond the relay enclosure and passes through more components, such as fuses, links, relay contacts, auxiliary switch contacts and so on, and in some cases through a considerable amount of circuit wiring with intermediate terminal boards. These complications, coupled with the importance of the circuit, have directed attention to its supervision. The simplest arrangement contains a healthy trip lamp, as shown in Figure 8(a). The resistance in series with the lamp prevents the breaker being tripped by an internal short circuit caused by failure of the lamp. This provides super-vision while the circuit breaker is closed; a simple extension gives pre-closing supervision. Figure 1.8(b) shows how, by the addition of a normally closed auxiliary switch and a resistance unit, supervision can be obtained while the breaker is both open and closed. I n either case, the addition of a normally open push-button contact in series with the lamp will make the supervision indication available only when required. Schemes using a lamp to indicate continuity are suitable for locally controlled installations, but when control is exercised from a distance it is necessary to use a relay system. Figure 8(c) illustrates such a scheme, which is applicable wherever a remote signal is required. With the circuit healthy either or both of relays A and B are operated and energize relay C. Both A and B must reset to allow C to drop-off. Relays A and C are time-delayed by copper slugs to prevent spurious alarms during tripping or closing operations. The resistors are mounted separately from the relays and their values are chosen such that if any one component is inadvertently short-circuited, a tripping operation will not take place. The alarm supply should be independent of the tripping supply so that indication will be obtained in the event of the failure of the tripping battery. c.

Classification and function of relays A protection relay is a device that senses any change in the signal which it is receiving, usually from a current and/or voltage source. If the magnitude of the incoming signal is outside a preset range, the relay will operate, generally to close or open electrical contacts to initiate some further operation, for example the tripping of a circuit breaker. 3.1 Classification: Protection relays can be classified in accordance with the function which they carry out, their construction, the incoming signal and the type of functioning. 3.1.1 General function: Auxiliary. Protection. Monitoring. Control. 3.1.2 Construction: Electromagnetic. Solid state. Microprocessor. Computerized. Nonelectric (thermal, pressure ......etc.). 3.1.3 Incoming signal: Current. Voltage. Frequency. Temperature. Pressure. Velocity. Others. 3.1.4 Type of protection Over current. Directional over current. Distance. Over voltage. Differential. Reverse power. Other.

Figure 1 Armature-type relay In some cases a letter is added to the number associated with the protection in order to specify its place of location, for example G for generator, for transformer etc. Nonelectric relays are outside the scope of this book and therefore are not referred to. 3.2 Electromagnetic relays Electromagnetic relays are constructed with electrical, magnetic and mechanical components, have an operating coil and various contacts and are very robust and reliable. The construction characteristics can be classified in three groups, as detailed below. 3 . 2 . 1 Attraction relays Attraction relays can be supplied by AC or DC, and operate by the movement of a piece of metal when it is attracted by the magnetic field produced by a coil. There are two main types of relay in this class. The attracted armature relay, which is shown in figure 1, consists of a bar or plate of metal which pivots when it is attracted towards the coil. The armature carries the moving part of the contact, which is closed or opened according to the design when the armature is attracted to the coil. The other type is the piston or solenoid relay, illustrated in Figure 2, in which bar or piston is attracted axially within the field of the solenoid. In this case, the piston also carries the operating contacts. It can be shown that the force of attraction is equal to K1I2 - K2, where 1 depends upon the number of turns on the operating solenoid, the air gap, the effective area and the reluctance of the magnetic circuit, among other factors. K2 is the restraining force, usually produced by a spring. When the relay is balanced, the resultant force is zero and therefore 112 = K2, So that

I = K 2 / K1 =constant.

In order to control the value at which the relay starts to operate, the restraining tension of the spring or the resistance of the solenoid circuit can be varied, thus modifying the restricting force. Attraction relays effectively have no time delay and, for that reason, are widely used when instantaneous operations are required. 3 . 2 . 2 Relays with moveable coils This type of relay consists of a rotating movement with a small coil suspended or pivoted with the freedom to rotate between the poles of a permanent magnet. The coil is restrained by two springs which also serve as connections to carry the current to the coil. The torque produced in the coil is given by: T = B.l.a.N.i Where: T= torque B = flux density L =length of the coil a = diameter of the coil N = number of turns on the coil i = current flowing through the coil

Figure 2 Solenoid-type relay

Figure 3 Inverse time characteristic From the above equation it will be noted that the torque developed is proportional to the current. The speed of movement is controlled by the damping action, which is proportional to the torque. It thus follows that the relay has an inverse time characteristic similar to that illustrated in Figure 3. The relay can be designed so that the coil makes a large angular movement, for example 80. 3 . 2 . 3 Induction relays An induction relay works only with alternating current. It consists of an electromagnetic system which operates on a moving conductor, generally in the form of a disc or cup, and functions through the interaction of electromagnetic fluxes with the parasitic Fault currents which are induced in the rotor by these fluxes. These two fluxes, which are mutually displaced both in angle and in position, produce a torque that can be expressed by T= 1.1.2 .sin , Where 1 and 2 are the interacting fluxes and is the phase angle between 1 and 2. It should be noted that the torque is a maximum when the fluxes are out of phase by 90, and zero when they are in phase.

Figure 4 Electromagnetic forces in induction relays It can be shown that 1= 1sin t, and 2= 2 sin (t+ ) , where is the angle by

which 2 leads 1. Then:

i1
And

d1 1 cost dt

i 1

d 1 1 cos ( t + ) dt
F = ( F 1 - F 2 ) (2 i1+ 1 i2 )

Figure 4 shows the interrelationship between the currents and the opposing forces. Thus:

F 2 1 sin T
Induction relays can be grouped into three classes as set out below. Shaded-pole relay In this case a portion of the electromagnetic section is short-circuited by means of a copper ring or coil. This creates a flux in the area influenced by the short circuited section (the socalled shaded section) which lags the flux in the nonshaded section, see Figure 5. igure 5 Shaded-pole relay

Figure 6 Wattmetric-type relay

with the upper and lower coils fed by different values or, in some cases, with just one supply for the top coil, which induces an out-of-phase flux in the lower coil because of the air gap. Figure 6 illust r ates a typical arrangement. Cup-type relay This type of relay has a cylinder similar to a cu which can rotate in the annular air gap between the poles of the coils, and has a fixed central core, see Figure 7. The operation of this relay is very similar to that

Figure 7Cup-type relay Of an induction motor with salient poles for the windings of the stator. Configurations with four or eight poles spaced symmetrically around the circumference of the cup are often used. The movement of the cylinder is limited to a small amount by the contact and the stops. special spring provides the restraining torque. The torque is a function of the product of the two currents through the coils and the cosine of the angle between them. The torque equation is T= ( KI1I2 cos (12 ) Ks ), Where K, .s and are design constants, 1 and I2 are the currents through the two coils and 12 is the angle between I1 and I2. In the first two types of relay mentioned above, which are provided with a disc, the inertia of the disc provides the time-delay characteristic. The time delay can be increased by the addition of a permanent magnet. The cup-type relay has a small inertia and is therefore principally used when high speed operation is required, for example in instantaneous units.

2.Calculation of short circuit current The current that flows through an element of a power system is a parameter which can be used to detect faults, given the large increase in current flow when a short circuit occurs. For this reason a review of the concepts and procedures for calculating fault currents will be made in this chapter, together with some calculations illustrating the methods used. Although the use of these short-circuit calculations in relation to protection settings will beconsidered in detail, it is important to bear in mind that these calculations are also required for other applications, for example calculating the substation Earthing grid, the selection of conductor sizes and for the specifications of equipment such as power-circuit breakers. 1 Mathematical derivation of fault currents The treatment of electrical faults should be carried out as a function of time, from the start of the event at time t = 0 until stable conditions are reached, and therefore it is necessary to use differential equations when calculating these currents. In order to illustrate the transient nature of the current, consider an RL circuit as a simplified equivalent of the circuits in electricity-distribution networks. This simplification is important because all the system equipment must be modeled in some way in order to quantify the transient values which can occur during the fault condition. For the circuit shown in Figure 1, the mathematical expression which defines the behaviour of the current is: e(t) = L di + Ri(t) 2.1
+

V max Sin ( t + )
R

Figure 1 RL, circuit for transient analysis study This is a differential equation with constant coefficients, of which the solution is in two parts:

ia (t ) : ih (t ) + ip (t )

Where: ih(t) Is the solution of the homogeneous equation corresponding to the transient period and ip(t) is the solution to the particular equation corresponding to the steady-state period. By the use of differential equation theory, which will not be discussed in detail here, the complete solution can be determined and expressed iii the following form:

i(t ) =

Vmax (Sin ( t + ) Sin( ).e ( R / L) ) Z

2.2

Where:

Z = R 2 + 2 L2
= the closing angle which defines the point on the source sinusoidal voltage when the fault occurs and

= tan 1 (L / R )
It can be seen that, in eqn. 2.2, the first term varies sinusoidally, while the second term decreases exponentially with a time constant of L/R. The latter term can be recognised as the DC component of the current, and has an initial maximum value when = / 2 , and zero value when =, see Figure 2. It is impossible to predict at what point the fault will be applied on the sinusoidal cycle and therefore what magnitude the DC component will reach. If the tripping of the circuit, owing to a fault, takes place when the sinusoidal component is at its negative peak, the DC component reaches its theoretical maximum value half a cycle later.

Figure 2 Variation of fault current with time

a () =0 b ()=/2 An approximate formula for calculating the effective value of the total asymmetric current, including the AC and DC components, with acceptable accuracy can be obtained from the following expression:

I rms . asym =

2 2 I rms + I DC

2 .3

The fault current which results when an alternator is short circuited can easily be analysed since this is similar to the case which has already been analysed, i.e. when voltage is, applied to an RL circuit. The reduction in current from its value at the onset, owing to the gradual decrease in the magnetic flux caused by the reduction of the e.m.f. of the induction current, can be seen in Figure 3. This effect is known as armature reaction. The physical situation that is presented to a generator, and which makes the calculations quite difficult, can be interpreted as a reactance which varies with time. Notwithstanding this, in the majority of practical applications it is possible to take account of the variation of reactance in only three stages without producing significant errors. In Figure 4 it will be noted that the variation of current with time, 1(t), comes close to the three

discrete levels of current, I", 1 ' and I, the subtransient, transient and steady-state currents, " ' respectively. The corresponding values of direct axis reactance are denoted by X d , X d and Xd,

Figure 3 Transient short-circuit currents in a synchronous generator

Figure 4 Variation of current with time during a fault

Figure 5 Variation of generator reactance with time during a fault And the typical variation with, time for each of these is illustrated in Figure 5. To sum up, when calculating short-circuit currents it is necessary to take into account two factors which could result in the currents varying with time: the presence of the DC component; the behaviour of the generator under short circuit conditions. In studies of electrical protection some adjustment has to be made to the values of instantaneous short circuit current calculated using subtransient reactance's which result in higher values of current. Time delay units can be set using the same values but, in some cases, short-circuit values based on the transient reactance are used, depending on the operating speed of the protection relays. Transient reactance values are generally used in stability studies. Of necessity, switchgear specifications require reliable calculations of the shortcircuit levels which can be present on the electrical network. Taking into account the rapid drop of the short-circuit current due to the armature reaction of the synchronous machines, and the fact that extinction of an electrical arc is never achieved instantaneously, ANSI Standards C37.010 and C37.5 recommend using different values of subtransient reactance when calculating the so-called momentary and interrupting duties of switchgear. Asymmetrical or symmetrical r.m.s. values can be defined depending on whether or not the DC component is included. The peak values are obtained by multiplying the R.M.S. values by 2 . The asymmetrical values are calculated as the square root of the sum of the squares of the DC component and the r.m.s. value of the AC current, i.e.:
" " = (0.9 2V / X d ) 2 + (0.9V / X d ) 2
2 2 I rms = I DC + I AC

2.4

The momentary current is used when specifying the closing current of switchgear. Typically, the AC and DC components decay to 90% of their initial values after the first half cycle. From this, the value of the r.m.s. current would then be:
2 2 I rms .asym.clo sin g = I DC + I AC .rms .sys

" " = (0.9 2V / X d ) 2 + (0.9V / X d ) 2

" = 1.56V / X d = 1.56 I rms.sym

2.5

Usually, a factor of 1.6 is used by manufacturers and in international standards so that, in general, this value should be used when carrying out similar calculations. The peak value is obtained by arithmetically adding together the AC and DC components. It should be noted that, in this case, the AC component is multiplied by a factor of 2 Thus:

I peak = I Dc + I AC
" " = (0.9 2V / Xd ) + (0.9 2V / Xd )

= 2.55 Irms.sym

2.6

When considering the specification for the switchgear-opening cur-rent, the so-called r.m.s. value of interrupting current is used in which, again, the AC and DC components are taken into account, and therefore: Replacing the DC component by its exponential expression gives:
2 2 I rms .asym . int = I DC + I Ac.rms . int
2 I rms . sym .int = ( 2 I rms . sym .int e ( R / L ) ) 2 + I rms .sym .int

= I rms.sym.int 2e 2( r / l )t + 1
I /I

2.7

rms . sys . int The expression ( rms.asym. int ) has been drawn for different Values of X/R, and for different switchgear contact-separation times, in ANSI Standard C37.51979. The multiplying factor graphs are reproduced in Figure 6

Figure 6 Multiplying factors for three-p hase and line-to-earth faults (total current rating basis) (from. IEEE Standard C37.5-1979; reproduced by permission of the IEEE)

NOTE: Fed predominantly through two or more transformations or with external reactance in series equal to or above 1.5 times generator subtransient reactance As an illust r ation of the validity of the curves for any situation,

Consider a circuit breaker with a total contact-separation time of two c y c l e s o n e cycle due to the relay and one related to the operation of the breaker mechanism. If the frequency, f is 60 Hz and the ratio X/R With this arrangement, voltage values of any three-phase system, Va Vb and Vc can be represented thus: Va =Vao + Va1 + Va2 Vb =Vbo + Vb1 + Vb2 Vc =Vco + Vc1 + Vc2 It can be demonstrated that: V b= V ao+a 2V a1+aV a2 V c= V ao+aV a1+ a 2V a2 where a is a so called operator which gives a phase shift of 120 clockwise and a multiplication of unit magnitude, i.e. a=1 120 , and a 2 similarly gives a phase shift of 240, i.e. a 2=1 240 Therefore, the following matrix relationship can be established:

Va 1 1 1 Va 0 V = 1 a a 2 V a1 b 2 Vc 1 a a Va 2
Inverting the matrix of coefficients:

1 1 1 V a Va 0 V = 1 1 a a 2 V b a1 3 1 a 2 a Vc Va 2
From the above matrix it can be deduced that:

1 (Va + Vb + Vc ) 3 1 Va1 = (Va + aVb + a 2Vc ) 3 1 Va 2 = (Va + a 2Vb + aVc ) 3 Va 0 =

The foregoing procedure can also be applied directly to currents, and gives:

I a = I a 0 + I a1 + I a 2 I b = I a 0 + a 2 I a1 + aI a 2 I b = I a 0 + a I a1 + a 2 I a 2
Therefore:

1 (Ia + Ib + Ic ) 3 1 I a1 = ( I a + aI b + a 2 I c ) 3 1 I a 2 = ( I a + a 2 I b + aI c ) 3 Ia0 =
In three-phase systems, the neutral current is equal to In = (Ia + Ib + Ic) and, therefore, l n= 3 I 0 By way of illustration, a three-phase unbalanced system is shown in Figure 8 together with the associated symmetrical components.

2.1 Importance and construction of sequence networks The impedance of a circuit in which only positive-sequence currents are circulating is called the positive-sequence impedance and, similarly, those in which only negative and zero-sequence currents flow are called the negative and zero-sequence impedances. These sequence impedances are designated Z1, Z2 and Z0, respectively, and are used in calculations involving symmetrical components. Since generators are designed to supply balanced voltages, the generated voltages are of positive sequence only. Therefore, the positive-sequence network is composed of an e.m.f source in series with the positive-sequence impedance. The negative and zero-sequence net-works do not contain e.m.f but only include impedances to the flow of negative and zero-sequence currents, respectively. The positive- and negative-sequence impedances of overhead-line circuits are identical, as are those of cables, being independent of the phase if the applied voltages are balanced. The zero-sequence impedances of lines different from the positive and negative-sequence impedances since the magnetic field creating the positive and negative-sequence currents is different from that for the zero-sequence currents. The following ratios may be used in the absence of detailed information. For a single-circuit line, Zo/Z1 = 2 when no earth wire is present and 3.5 with an earth wire. For a double-circuit line Zo/Z1 = 5.5. For underground cables Zo/Z1 can be taken as 1 to 1.25 for single core, and 3 to 5 for three-core cables: For transformers, the positive and negative-sequence impedances are equal because in static circuits these impedances are independent of the phase order, provided that the applied voltages are balanced. The zero-sequence impedance is either the same as the other two impedances, or infinite, depending on the transformer connections. The resistance of the windings is much smaller and can generally be neglected in short-circuit calculations. When modelling small generators and motors it may be necessary to take resistance into account. However, for most studies only the reactance's of synchronous machines are used. Three values of positive reactance are normally quoted-subt r ansient, transient and synchronous reactance, denoted by X", Xd' and Xd. In fault studies the subtransient and transient reactance of generators grid motors must be included as appropriate, depending on the machine characteristics and fault clearance time.

Table 1 Typical per-unit reactance for three -phase synchronous machines Type of machine Turbine generator Salient pole generator 2 pole 4 pole with dampers without dampers
" Xd ' Xd

Xd
1.20 1.70 1.25 1.20

X2
0.09 0.14 0.20 0.35

X0
0.03 0.07 0.18 0.12

0.09 0.14 0.20 0.28

0.15 0.22 0.30 0.30

X"= subtransient reactance; X'd =transient reactance; Xd=synchronous reactance X.2=negative sequence reactance; X0=zero sequence reactance

The subtransient reactance is the reactance applicable at the onset of the fault occurrence. Within 0.1 sec. the fault level falls to a value determined by the transient reactance and then decays exponentially to a steady-state value determined by the synchronous reactance. Typical per-unit reactance's for three phase synchronous machines are given in Table 1. In connecting sequence networks together, the reference busbar for the positive- and negative-sequence networks is the generator neutral which, in these networks, is at earth potential so that only zero-sequence currents flow through the impedances between neutral and earth. The reference busbar for zero-sequence networks is the earth point of the generator. The current which flows in the impedance between the neutral and earth are three times the zero-sequence current. Figure 2.9 illustrates the sequence networks for a generator. The zero sequence networks carries only zero-sequence current in one phase which has an impedance of Zo = 3n + Zeo The voltage and current components for each phase are obtained from the equations given for the sequence networks. The equations for the components of voltage, corresponding to the phase of the system, are obtained from the point an on phase a relative to the reference bus bar, and can be deduced from Figure 2.9 as follows:

Va1 = E a I a1 Z 1 Va 2 = I a 2 Z 2 Va 0 = I a 0 Z 0
Where a = no load voltage to earth of the positive-sequence network Z1 = positive-sequence impedance of the generator

Z2 = negative-sequence impedance of the generator Zo= zero-sequence impedance of the generator (Zeo) plus three times the impedance to earth The above equations can be applied to any generator which carries unbalanced currents and are the starting point for calculations for any type of fault. The same approach can be used with equivalent power systems or applied to loaded generators, Ea then being the voltage behind the reactance before the fault occurs. 2.2.2 Calculation of asymmetrical faults using symmetrical components The positive, negative and zero-sequence network, carrying currents I1, I2 and Io respectively, are connected together in a particular arrangement to represent a given unbalanced fault condition. Consequently, in order to calculate fault 1 levels using the method of symmetrical components, it is essential to determine the individual sequence impedances and combine these to make up the correct sequence networks. Then, for each .type of fault, the appropriate combination of sequence networks is formed in order to obtain the relationships between fault currents and voltages.

Phase-to-earth fault The conditions for a solid fault from line a to earth are represented by the equations Ib=0, Ic =0 and V a =0,
Single phase fault connected to earth

As in the previous equations, it can easily be deduced that I a1 = I a2 = I ao = Ea / (Z1 +Z 2 + Zo ). Therefore, the sequence networks will be connected in series,

as indicated in Figure 2.10a. The current and voltage conditions are the same when considering an open-circuit fault in phases b and c, and thus the treatment and connection of the sequence networks will be similar. Phase-to-Phase fault The conditions for a solid fault between lines h and c are represented by the equations

I a = 0, I b = I c and Vb = V c . Equally, it can be shown that I ao = 0 and I a1 = Ea /(Z 1 +Z 2 ) = I a2 . For this case, with no zero-sequence current, the zero-sequence network is not involved and the overall sequence network is composed of the positive- and negative-sequence networks in parallel as indicated in Figure 2.10b. Phase-to-Phase-to-earth fault

The conditions for a fault between lines b and c and earth are represented by the equations 1a = 0 and Vb=Vc =0. From these equations it can be proved that:

I a1

Ea = ZoZ2 Z1 + Zo + Z2

The three sequence networks are connected in parallel as shown in Figure 2.10c. 2.3 Equivalent impedances for a power system.

When it is necessary to study the the power system, the system must by its corresponding The equivalent positiveand can be calculated directly from: Z= V2/P

effect of any change on first of all be represented sequence impedances. negative-sequence impedances

Where: Z = Equivalent positive and negative-sequence impedances V =nominal phase-to-phase voltage P = three-phase short circuit power The equivalent zero-sequence of a system can be derived from the expressions of sequence components referred to for a single-phase fault, i.e. Ia1=Ia2=Ia3 = VLN/ (Z1 + Z2 + Z0) Where: VLN = the line-to-neutral voltage. For lines and cables the positive and negative mpedances are equal. Thus, on the basis that the generator mpedances are not significant in most distribution-network fault studies, it may be assumed that overall 2 = Z1 which simplifies the calculations. Thus, the above formula reduces to Ia = 3I0 = 3 VLN / (2Z1 + Zo), Where VLN = line-to-neutral voltage and Zo= (3VLN / Ia) - 2Z1 3 Supplying the current and voltage signals to protection systems In the presence of a fault the current transformers (CTs) circulate current proportional to the fault current to the protection equipment without distinguishing between the vectorial magnitudes of the Sequence components.

Figure 10 Connection of sequence networks for a3ymmetrical faults a Phase-to-earth fault b Phase-to-phase fault c Double phase-to-earth fault Therefore, in the majority of cases, the relays operate on the basis of the corresponding values of fault current and / or voltages, regardless of the values of the sequence components. It is very important to emphasise that, given this, the advantage of using symmetrical components is that they facilitate the calculation of fault levels even though the relays in the majority of cases do not distinguish between the various values of the symmetrical components.

Figure 11a Currents and voltages for various types of faults

Figure 11b Currents and voltages for various types of faults a Sequence currents for different types of fault b Sequence voltages for different types of fault In Figure 11a & b the positive and negative sequence values of current and voltage for different faults are shown together with the summated values of current and voltage. Relays usually only operate using the summated values in the right-hand columns. However, relays are available which can operate with specific values of some of the

sequence components. In these cases there must be methods for obtaining these components, and this is achieved by using filters which produce the mathematical operations of the resultant equations to resolve the matrix for voltages and for currents. Although these filters can be constructed for electromagnetic elements, the growth of electronics has led to their being used increasingly in logic circuits. Among the relays which require this type of filter in order to operate are those used n negative-sequence and earthfault protection.

3.Current and voltage transformers Current or voltage instrument transformers are necessary for isolating the protection, control and measurement equipment from the high voltages of a power system, and for supplying the equipment with the appropriate values of current and voltage - generally these are 1A or 5 for the current coils, and 120 V for the voltage coils. The behavior of current and voltage transformers during and after the occurrence of a fault is critical in electrical protection since errors in the signal from a transformer can cause maloperation of the relays. In addition, factors such as the transient period and saturation must be taken into account when selecting the appropriate transformer. When only voltage or current magnitudes are required to operate a relay then the relative direction of the current flow in the transformer windings is not important. However, the polarity must be kept in mind when the relays compare the sum or difference of the currents.

1- Voltage transformers: With voltage transformers (VTs) it is essential that the voltage from the secondary winding should be as near as possible proportional to the primary voltage. In order to achieve this, VTs are designed in such a way that the voltage drops in the windings are small and the flux density in the core is well below the saturation value so that the magnetization current is small; in this way magnetization impedance is obtained which is practically constant over the required voltage range. The secondary voltage of a VT is usually 110 or 120 V with corresponding line-to-neutral values. The majority of protection relays have nominal voltages of 110 or 63.5 V, depending on whether their connection is line-to-line or line-to-neutral.

Figure 1 Voltage transformer equivalent circuits

Figure 2 Vector diagram for voltage transformer 1.1 Equivalent circuits VTs can be considered as small power transformers so that their equivalent circuit is the same as that for power transformers, as shown in Figure 1a. The magnetization branch can be ignored and the equivalent circuit then reduces to that shown in Fig 1b. The vector diagram for a VT is given in Figure.2, with the length of the voltage drops increased for clarity. The secondary voltage Vs lags the voltage Vp/n and is smaller in magnitude. In spite of this, the nominal maximum errors are relatively small. VTs have an excellent transient behaviour and accurately reproduce abrupt changes in. the primary voltage.

1.2 Errors When used for measurement instruments, for example for billing and control purposes, the accuracy of a VT is important, especially for those values close to the nominal system voltage. Notwithstanding this, although the precision requirements of a VT for protection applications are not so high at nominal voltages, owing to the problems of having to cope with a variety of different relays, secondary wiring burdens and the uncertainty of system parameters, errors should he contained within narrow limits over a wide range of possible voltages under fault conditions. This range should be between 5 and 173% of the nominal primary voltage for VTs connected between line and earth. Referring to the circuit in Figure 1a, errors in a VT are clue to differences in magnitude and phase between Vp/n, and Vs. These consist of the errors under open-circuit conditions when the load impedance B is infinite, caused by the drop in voltage from the circulation of the magnetization current through the primary winding, and errors due to voltage drops as a result of the load current IL flowing through both windings. Errors in magnitude can be calculated from Error V T = {(n Vs - Vp) / Vp} x 100%. If the error is positive, then the secondary voltage exceeds the nominal value. 1.3 Burden The standard burden for voltage transformer is usually expressed in volt-amperes (V) at a specified power factor. Table 1 gives standard burdens based on ANSI Standard C57.1 3. Voltage transformers are specified in IEC publication 1 8 6 by the precision class, and the value of voltamperes (V). The allowable error limits corresponding to different class values are shown in Table 2, where Vn is the nominal voltage. The phase error is considered positive when the secondary voltage leads the primary voltage. The voltage error is the percentage difference between the voltage at the secondary terminals, V2, multiplied by the nominal transformation ratio, and the primary voltages V1. 1.4 Selection of VTs Voltage transformers are connected between phases, or between phase and earth. The connection between phase and earth is normally used with groups of three singlephase units connected in star at substations operating with voltages at about 34.5 kV or higher, or when it is necessary to measure the voltage and power factor of each phase separately. The nominal primary voltage of a VT is generally chosen with the higher nominal insulation voltage (kV) and the nearest service voltage in mind. The nominal secondary voltages are generally standardized at 110 and 120 V. In order to select the nominal power of a VT, it is usual to acid together all the nominal V loadings of the apparatus connected to

Table 1 Standard burdens for voltage Transformer Standard burden Characteristics for 120 V and 60 Hz desig Volt- powe resistance( n ampere r ) s facto r W 12.5 0.10 115.2 25.0 0.70 403.2 75.0 0.85 163.2 200.0 0.85 61.2 400.0 0.85 31.2 35.0 0.20 82.3

Characteristics for 69.3 V and 60 Hz

inductanc impedanc resistanc inductanc impedanc e e e e e (H) () () (H) () 3.040 1.090 0.268 0.101 0.0403 1.070 1152 575 192 72 36 411 38.4 134.4 54.4 20.4 10.2 27.4 1.010 0.364 0.089 0.034 0.0168 0.356 384 192 64 24 12 137

Table 2 Voltage transformers error limits Class Primary Voltage Phase error voltage error (min) (%) 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.2 0.2 10.0 0.5 0.5 20.0 1.0 1.0 40.0 0.8 Vn , 1.0 Vn and 1.2 Vn 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 80.0

0.5 Vn

0.1 0.2 80.0 0.2 2.0 80.0 Vn 0.5 2.0 80.0 1.0 3.0 120.0 Vn = nominal voltage The VT secondary winding. In addition, it is important to take account of the voltage drops in the secondary wiring, especially if the distance between the transformers and the relays is large.

1.5 C a p a c i t o r v o l t a g e t r a n s f o r m e r s In general, the size of an inductive VT is proportional to its nominal voltage and, for this reason, the cost increases in a similar manner to that of a high voltage transformer. One alternative, and a more economic solution, is to use a capacitor voltage transformer. This device is effectively a capacitance voltage divider, and is similar to a resistive divider in that the output voltage at the point of connection is affected by the load - in fact the two parts of the divider taken together can be considered as the source impedance which produces a drop in voltage when the load is connected.

Figure 4 Capacitor VT equivalent circuit The capacitor divider differs from the inductive divider in that the equivalent impedance of the source is capacitive and the .fact that this impedance can be compensated for by connecting a reactance in series at the point of connection. With an ideal reactance there are no regulation problems - however, in an actual situation on a network, some resistance is always present. The divider can reduce the voltage to a value which enables errors to be kept within normally acceptable limits. For improved accuracy a high voltage capacitor is used in order to obtain a bigger voltage at the point of connection, which can be reduced to a standard voltage using a relatively inexpensive trans-former as shown in Figure 3. simplified equivalent circuit of a capacitor VT is shown in Figure 4 in which Vi is equal to the nominal primary voltage, C is the numerically equivalent impedance equal to ( C1 + C2 ), L is the resonance inductance, Ri represents the resistance of the primary winding of transformer plus the losses in C and L, and Ze is the magnetization impedance of

transformer . Referred to the inter-mediate voltage, the resistance of the secondary circuit and the load impedance are represented by secondary voltage and current.

Rs'

and

' ZB respectively, while Vs' and

I s'

represent the

Figure 5 Capacitor VT vector diagram It can be seen that, with the exception of C, the circuit in Figure 4.4 is the same as the equivalent circuit of a power transformer. Therefore, at the system frequency when C and L are resonating and canceling out each other, under stable system conditions the capacitor VT acts like a conventional transformer. Ri and R's are not large and, in addition, Ie is small compared to I' s , so that the vector difference between Vi and V's which constitutes the error in the capacitor VT, is very small. This is illustrated in the vector diagram shown in Figure 4.5 which is drawn for a power factor close to unity. The voltage error is the difference in magnitude between Vi and V's, whereas the phase error is indicated by the angle . From the diagram it can be seen that, for frequencies different from the resonant frequency, the values of EL and EC predominate, causing serious errors in magnitude and phase. Capacitor VTs display better transient behaviour than electro-magnetic VTs as the inductive and capacitive reactance in series are large in relation to the load impedance referred to the secondary voltage, and thus, when the primary voltage collapses, the secondary voltage is maintained for some milliseconds because of the combination of the series and parallel resonant circuits represented by L, C and the transformer T.

2 Current transformers Although the performance required from a current transformer (CT) varies with the type of protection, high grade CTs must always be used. Good quality CTs are more reliable and result in less application problems and, in general, provide better protection.

Figure 6 Current transformer equivalent circuits The quality of CTs is very important for differential protection schemes where the operation of the relays is directly related to the accuracy of the CTs under fault conditions as well as under normal load conditions. CTs can become saturated at high current values caused by nearby faults; to avoid this, care should be taken to ensure that under the most critical faults the CT operates on the linear portion of the magnetization curve. In all these cases the CT should be a ble to supply sufficient current so that the relay operates satisfactorily. 2.1 Equivalent circuit An approximate equivalent circuit for a CT is given in Figure 4.6a, Where n2ZH represents the primary impedance ZH referred to the secondary side, and the secondary impedance is, ZL, Rm and Xm represent the losses and the excitation of the core. The circuit in Figure 4.6a can be reduced to the arrangement shown in figure 4.6b where ZH can be ignored, since it does not influence either the current IH/n or the voltage across Xm. The current flowing through Xm is the excitation current e. The vector diagram, with the voltage drops exaggerated for clarity, is shown in Figure 4.7. In general, ZL, is resistive and e lags Vs by 90, so that Ie is the principal source of error. Note that the net effect of Ie is to make I lag and be much smaller than H /n, the primary current referred to the secondary side.

Figure 7 Vector diagram for the CT equivalent circuit 2.2 Errors The causes of errors in a CT are quite different to those associated with VTs. In effect, the primary impedance of a CT does not have the same influence On the accuracy of the equipment it only adds an impedance in series with the line, which can be ignored. The errors are principally due to the current which circulates through the magnetizing branch. The magnitude error is the difference in magnitude between H / n and IL and is equal to Ir the component of Ie in line with k (see Figure 7). The phase error, represented by , is related to Iq the component of Ie which is in quadrature with IL. The values of the magnitude and phase errors depend on the relative displacement between Ie and IL, but neither of them can exceed the vectorial error it should be noted that a moderate inductive load, with Ie and IL approximately in phase, has a small phase error and the excitation component results almost entirely in an error in the magnitude. 2.3 AC saturation C errors result from excitation current, so much so that, in order to check if a CT is functioning correctly, it is essential to measure or calculate the excitation curve. The magnetization current of a CT depends on the cross section and length of the magnetic circuit, the number of turns in the windings, and the magnetic characteristics of the material. Thus, for a given CT, and referring to the equivalent circuit of Figure 4.6b, it can be seen that the voltage across the magnetization impedance, Es, is directly proportional to the secondary current. From this it can be concluded that, when the primary current and therefore the secondary current is increased, these currents reach a point where the core commences to saturate and the magnetization current becomes sufficiently high to produce an excessive error. When investigating the behaviour of a CT, the excitation current should he measured at various values of voltage the so-called secondary injection test. Usually, it is more convenient to apply a variable voltage to the secondary winding, leaving the primary winding open-circuited. Figure 4.8a shows the typical relationship between the secondary voltage and the excitation current determined in this way. In European standards the point p on the curve is called the saturation or knee point and is defined as the point at which an increase in the excitation voltage of ten per cent produces an increase of 50 % in the excitation current. This point is referred to in the ANSI / IEEE standards

as the intersection of the excitation curves with a 45 tangent line, as indicated in Figure 4.8b. The European knee point is at a higher voltage than the ANSI/IEEE Knee point. 2.4 Burden The burden of a CT is the value in ohms-of the impedance on the secondary side of the CT due to the relays and the connections between the CT and the relays. By way of example, the standard burdens for CTs with a nominal secondary current of 5 A are shown in Table 3, based on ANSI Standard C57.13. IEC Standard Publication 185(1987) specifies CTs by the class of accuracy followed by the letter or P, which denotes whether the transformer is suitable for measurement or protection purposes, respectively. The current and phase-error limits for measurement and protection CTs are given in Tables 4a and 4.4b. The phase error is considered positive when the secondary current leads the primary current. The current error is the percentage deviation of the secondary current, multiplied by the nominal transformation ratio, from the primary current, i.e. {(CTR x 2) I1} I1 (%), where I1 = primary current (A), I2 = secondary current (A) and CTR = current transformer transformation ratio. Those CT classes marked with `ext' denote wide range (extended) current transformers with a rated continuous current of 1.2 or 2 times the nameplate current rating. 2.5 Selection of CTs When selecting a CT, it is important to ensure that the fault level and normal load conditions do not result in saturation of the core and that CT magnetization curves

Figure 8a CT magnetization curves

Figure 8b CT magnetization curves a Defining the knee point in a CT excitation curve according to European standards b Typical excitation curves for a multi ratio class C CT (From IEEE Standard C57.13-1978; reproduced by permission of the IEEE).

Table 4.3 Standard burdens for protection CTs with 5 secondary current Designation Resista nce Inductance Impedance Voltamps () (mH) () (at 5 A) B-1 B-2 B-4 B-8 0.5 1.0 2.0 4.0 2.3 4.6 9.2 18.4 1.0 2.0 4.0 8.0 25 50 100 200 Power factor 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

The errors do not exceed acceptable limits. These factors can be assessed from: formulae; CT magnetization curves; CT classes of accuracy. The first two meth ods provide precise facts for the selection of the CT. The third only provides a qualitative estimation. The secondary voltage in Figure 4.6U has to be determined for all three methods. If the impedance of the magnetic circuit, Xm is high, this can be removed from the equivalent circuit with little error' giving Es=Vs and thus: Vs=IL (ZL+ZC+ZB) (1)

Where Vs = r.m.s. voltage induced in the secondary winding =maximum secondary current in amperes; this can be determined by dividing the maximum Fault current on the system by the transformer turns ratio selected ZB = e x t e r n a l impedance connected ZL = impedance of the secondary winding ZC =impedance of the connecting wiring

Use of the formula This method utilizes the fundamental transformer equation: Vs = 4.44.f. . N. Bmax.1 0 -8 V (2) Where f =frequency in Hz, =cross-sectional area of core (cm2) =number of turns Bmax =flux density (lines/cm2) Table 4 Error limits for measurement current transformers Class % current error at the given % phase error at the given proportion of the rated current shown below proportion of rated current shown below

2.0* 2.0*1.2 1.000.500.20 0.10 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 3.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 3.0 0.2 0.25 0.350.50 0.751.00 1.5 2.00 3.0 _

1.2 5 10 30 60 120

1.0 5 10 30 60 -

0.5

0.2 8 15 45

0.1 10 20 60 120 -

0.05

120

90 -

0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 ext 0.5 0.5 ext 1.0 1.0 ext 3.0 3.0 ext *ext = 200 %

0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0

0.2 0.25 0.4 5 0.350.50 0.75 10 0.751.00 1.5 30 1.5 2.00 60 120

5 10 30 60 120

8 15 45 90 -

10 20 60 120 -

15 30 90 -

- 3.0 -

Table 4b Error limits for protection current transformers

Accuracy Class % Current 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0

+/- percentage Current ratio error 5

+/- Phase error (minutes)

20 100 120 5 20 100 120 5 5

0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 15 8

0.75 0.35 0.2 0.2 30 15 10 10 1.5 0.75 0.5 0.5 90 45 30 30 3 1.5 1.0 1.0 180 90 60 60

Total error for nominal error limit current and nominal load is five per cent for 5P and 5 ext CTs and ten per cent for 10P and 10P ext CTs. The cross-sectional area of metal and the saturation flux density are sometimes difficult to obtain. The latter can be taken as equal to 100 000 lines/Cm2, which is a typical value for modern transformers. To use the formula, V is determined from eqn. 4.1 and Bmax. is then calculated using eqn. 2. If Bmax. Exceeds the saturation density, there could be appreciable errors in the secondary current and the CT selected would not be appropriate. Example 1. Assume that a CT with a ratio of 2000/5 is available, having a steel core of high permeability, a cross-sectional area of 3.25 In cm2 and a secondary winding with a resistance of 0.31 . The impedance of the relays, including connections, is 2 . Determine whether the CT would be saturated by a fault of 35 000 A at 50 Hz. Solution If the CT is not saturated, then the secondary current, IL, is 35 000x 5/2000=87.5 A. N= 2000/5 = 400 turns And Vs=87.5x (0.31+2) =202.1 V. Using eqn. 4.2, Bmax, can now be calculated: Bmax = 202.1X108/4.44X50X3.25X400=70 030 lines/ cm2 Since the transformer in this example has a steel core of high permeability, this relatively low value of flux density should not result in saturation.

Using the magnetization curve Typical CT excitation curves which are supplied by manufacturers state the r.m.s. current obtained on applying an r.m.s. voltage to the secondary winding, with the primary winding opencircuited. The curves give the magnitude of the excitation current required order to obtain a specific secondary voltage. The method consists of producing a curve which shows the relationship between the primary and secondary currents for one tap and specified load conditions, such as shown in Figure 4.9. Starting with any value of secondary current, and with the help of the magnetisation curves, the value of the corresponding primary current can be determined. The process is summarized in the following steps: (a) Assume a value for IL. (b) Calculate Vs in accordance with eqn. 4.1. (c) Locate the value of Vs on the curve for the tap selected, and find the associated value of the magnetization current, Ie. (d) Calculate I H / n (=IL + Ie) and multiply this value by n to refer it to the primary side of the CT. (e) This provides one point on the curve of IL against IH, and the process is then repeated to obtain other values of IL and the resultant values of IH. By joining the points together the curve of IL against IH is obtained.

Figure 4.9 using the magnetization curve a - assume a value for IL.

b - Vs = I L ( Z L + Z C + Z B ) c - find I e from the curve d - IH=n(I1,+ I e ) e - draw the point on the curve This method incurs an error in calculating I H /n by adding I e and IL together arithmetically and not vectorially, which implies not taking account of the load angle and the magnetizations branch of the equivalent circuit. However, this error is not great and the simplification snakes it easier to carry out the calculations. After construction, the curve should be checked to confirm that the maximum primary fault current is within the transformer saturation zone. If not, then it will be necessary to repeat the process, changing the tap until the fault current is within the linear part of the characteristic. In practice it is not necessary to draw the complete curve because it is sufficient to take the known fault current and refer to the secondary winding, assuming that there is no saturation for the tap selected. This converted value can be taken as IL initially for the process described earlier. If the tap is found to be suitable after finishing the calculations, then a value of I H can be obtained which is closer to the fault current. Accuracy classes established by the ANSI standards The ANSI accuracy class of a CT (Standard C57.13) is described by two symbols a letter and a nominal voltage; these define the capability of the CT. C indicates that the transformation ratio can be calculated, and T indicates that the transformation ratio can be determined by means of tests. The classification C includes those CTs with uniformly distributed windings and other CTs with a dispersion flux which has a negligible effect on the ratio, within defined limits. The classification T includes those CTs with a dispersion flux which considerably affects the transformation ratio. For example, with a CT of class C100 the ratio can be calculated, and the error should not exceed ten per cent if the secondary current does not go outside the range of 1 to 20 times the nominal current and if the load does not exceed 1 (1 x 5 Ax 20=100 V) at a minimum power factor of 0.5. These accuracy classes are only applicable for complete windings. When considering a winding provided with taps, each tap will have a voltage capacity proportionally smaller, and in consequence it can only feed a portion of the load without exceeding the ten per cent error limit. The permissible load is defined as ZB= (NP Vc) / 100, where ZB, is the permissible load for a given tap of the CT, NP, is the fraction of the total number of turns being used and Vc is the ANSI voltage capacity for the complete CT. 2.6 DC saturation Up to now, the behavior of a CT has been discussed in terms of a steady state, without considering the DC transient component of the DC saturation is particularly significant in complex protection schemes since, in the case of external faults, high fault currents circulate through the CTs.

If saturation occurs in different CTs associated with a particular relay arrangement, this could result in the circulation of unbalanced secondary currents which would cause the system to malfunction. 2.7 Precautions when working with CTs Working with CTs associated with energized network circuits can be extremely hazardous. In particular, opening the secondary circuit of a CT could result in dangerous over voltages which might harm operational staff or lead to equipment being damaged, because the current transformers are designed to be used in power circuits which have impedance much greater than their own. As a consequence, when secondary circuits are left open, the equivalent primary-circuit impedance is almost unaffected but a high voltage will be developed by the primary current passing through the magnetizing impedance Thus, secondary circuits associated with CTs must always he kept in a closed condition or short-circuited in order to prevent these adverse situations occurring. To illustrate this, an example is given next using typical data for a CT and a 13.2 kV feeder. Choice of CTs Primary rating The c. t. primary rating is usually chosen to be equal to or greater than the normal full load current o f the protected circuit. Standard primary ratings are given in B.S. 3938:1973. Generally speaking, the maximum ratio of CTs is usually limited to about 3000/1. This is due to (I) limitation of size of CTs and more importantly (II) the fact that the open circuit volts would be dangerously high for large CTs Primary ratings, such as those encountered on large turbo alternators, e.g. 5,000 amperes. It is standard practice in such applications to use a cascade arrangement of say 5,000/20A together with 20/1A interposing auxiliary CTs Instantaneous over current relays Class P method of specification will a suffice. A secondary accuracy limit current greatly in excess of the value t o cause relay operation serves no useful purpose and a rated accuracy limit of 5 will usually be adequate. When such relays are set to operate at high values of over current, say from 5 to 15 times the rated current o f the transformer, the accuracy limit factor must be at least as high as the value of the setting current used in order to ensure fast relay operation. Rated outputs higher than 15VA and rated accuracy limit factors higher than 10 are not recommended for general purposes. It is possible, however, to combine a higher rated accuracy limit factor with a lower rated output and vice versa. But when the product of these two exceeds 150 the resulting current transformer may be uneconomical, and/or of unduly large dimensions.

Over current relays with Inverse and Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) lag characteristic In general, for both directional and non-directional relays class 10P current transformers should be used Earth fault relays with inverse time characteristic (1) Schemes in which phase fault current stability and accurate time grading are not required. Class 10P current transformers are generally recommended in which the product of rated output and rated accuracy limit fact or approaches 150 provided that the earth fault relay is not set below 20% of the rated current of the associated current transformer and that the burden of the relay at its setting current does not exceed 4VA. (2) Schemes in which phase fault stability and/or where time grading is critical. Class 5P current transformers in which the product of rated output and accuracy limit factor approaches 150 should be used. They are in general suitable for ensuring phase fault stability up to 10 times the rated primary current and for maintaining time grading of the earth f a u l t relays, up to current values of the order of 10 times the earth fault setting provided t h a t the phase burden effectively imposed on each current transformer does not exceed 50% of it s rated burden. The rated accuracy limit factor is not less than 10 the earth fault relay is not set below 30 % The burden of the relay at its setting does not exceed 4VA The use of a higher relay setting the use of an earth fault relay having a burden of less than 4VA at its setting The use of current transformers having a product of rated output and rated accuracy factor in excess of 150. Class X Current Transformer Protection current transformers specified in terms of complying with Class ' X I Specification is generally applicable to unit systems where balancing of outputs from each end of the protected plant is vital. This balance, or stability during through fault conditions, is essentially of a transient nature and thus the extent of the unsaturated (or linear) zone is of paramount importance. Hence a statement of knee point voltage is the parameter of prime importance and it is normal to derive, from heavy current test results, a formula stating the lowest permissible value of VK if stable operation is to be guaranteed, e.g. Vk = K In (RCT + 2RL + R0) Where K - Is a constant found by realistic heavy current tests? In - rated current of C.T. and relay RCT - secondary winding resistance of the line current transformers RL - lead burden (route length) in ohms

Ro - any other resistance (or impedance) in circuit

4.Protection Scheme 1 - Feeders Protection Schemes. 2 - Transformers Protection Schemes. 3 - Bus Bar Protection Schemes. 4 - Generators Protection Schemes. Types and voltage level of Feeders A O. H. T. Lines 500 KV O. H. T Line 400 KV O. H. T Line 275 KV O. H. T Line 220 KV O. H. T Line 132 KV O. H. T Line 66 KV O. H. T Line 33 KV O. H. T Line 22 KV O. H. T Line 11 KV O. H. T Line B U. G. Cables 275 KV U. G. Cable 220 KV U. G. Cable 132 KV U. G. Cable 66 KV U. G. Cable 33 KV U. G. Cable 11 KV U. G. Cable 500, 400, 275 and 220 KV O.H.T. Lines Protection Schemes

Main (A) Protection: Distance Protection Permissive Over Reach Scheme. (POTT) Main (B) Protection: Distance Protection Permissive Under Reach Scheme. (PUTT) Backup Protection: 1. I.D.M.T Directional O/C & E/F Relay. 2. Circuit Breaker Fail to Tripe. 3. Inter Trip. 4. SF6 Pressure Low Trip 5. Cable Oil Pressure Low Trip (For Cable Tail ) Drawing : single Line diagram for protection scheme Click Here

 Main Protection: Back up Protection:

132 and 66 KV O.H.T. Lines Protection Schemes

Distance Protection Permissive Under Reach Scheme. (PUTT) 1. I.D.M.T Directional O/C & E/F Relay. 2. Circuit Breaker Fail To Tripe. 3. Inter Trip. 4. SF6 Pressure Low Trip 5. Cable Oil Pressure Low Trip (For Cable Tail) Drawing : single Line diagram for protection scheme Click Here

33 and 22 KV O.H.T. Lines Protection Schemes I.D.M.T Direction O/C & EF Relay I.D.M.T Non Direction O/C & EF Relay 11 KV O.H.T. Lines Protection Schemes I.D.M.T Direction O/C & EF Relay 275, 220 U.G.C. Line Protection Scheme

Main (A) Protection: Differential Protection (Solkor R) Main (B) Protection: Distance Protection Permissive Over Reach Scheme. (POTT) With Carrier Signal through Pilot Cable Back up Protection: 1. I.D.M.T Directional O/C & E/F Relay. 2. Circuit Breaker Fail to Tripe 3. Inter Trip. 4. SF6 Pressure Low Trip 5. Cable Oil Pressure Low Trip 132, and 66 KV U.G.C. Line Protection Scheme Main Protection: Differential Protection (Solkor R) Back up Protection: 1. I.D.M.T Directional O/C & E/F Relay. 2. Circuit Breaker Fail to Tripe. 3. Inter Trip (Through Pilot Cable). 4. SF6 Pressure Low Trip 5. Cable Oil Pressure Low Trip 33, 22 KV U.G.C. Line Protection Scheme Main Protection: Differential Protection (Solkor R) Back up Protection: I.D.M.T Directional O/C & E/F Relay. I.D.M.T Non Directional O/C & E/F Relay. Cable Oil Pressure Low Trip.

Main Protection: Differential Protection (Solkor R) Back up Protection: I.D.M.T Non Directional O/C & E/F Relay.

11 KV U.G.C. Line Protection Scheme

Transformers Protection Schemes Some types of power transformers 300 MVA. 3 Winding Power Transformer 275 KV / 132 KV / 33 KV. (Y.Y.). 75 MVA. & 45 MVA. 2 Winding Power Transformer 1 32 KV / 33 KV. 30 MVA 2 Winding Power Transformer 132 KV / 11 KV. 20 MVA & 15 MVA 2 Winding Power Transformer 33 KV / 11 KV. Drawing : single Line diagram for protection scheme Click Here

300 MVA 3 Winding Power Transformer Protection Scheme. Main (A&B) Protection: 1. Differential Protection. 2. Restricted Earth Fault Protection. (both at 275 kv and 132 kv) side neutral of the star winding.

BackupProtection: 1. C.B Fail to trip. 2. I.D.M.T Non Direction O/C & E/F relay on 300 KV side 3. I.D.M.T Direction O/C & E/F relay on 132 KV side 4. Inter Trip (through pilot cable). 5. Buchhols Trip. 6. Tap Changer Buchhols Trip. 7. Oil Temperature Trip. 8. Winding Temperature Trip. 9. Cable oil pressure Low Trip. (for cable tails ) 10. SF6 pressure Low Trip.

75, 45 And 30 MVA- 2 Winding Power Transformer Protection Scheme. Main (A) Protection: 1. Differential Protection. 2. Restricted Earth Fault Protection. (At the neutral of the LV. Winding). Backup Protection: 1. Stand-By Earth Fault relay at the neutral of LV. Winding. 2. C.B Fail to trip. (For 132 KV. C.B only) 3. I.D.M.T Non Direction O/C & E/F relay on 132 KV side 4. Inter Trip (through pilot cable). 5. Buchhols Trip. 6. Tap Changer Buchhols Trip. 7. Winding Temperature Trip. 8. Cable oil pressure Low Trip. (For cable tails) 20 & 15 MVA- 33 / 11 KV, 2 Winding Power Transformer Protection Scheme. Main (A) Protection: 1. Differential Protection. 2. Restricted Earth Fault Protection. (At the neutral of the LV. Winding). Backup Protection: 1. Stand-By Earth Fault relay at the neutral of LV. Winding. 2. I.D.M.T Non Direction O/C & E/F relay on 33 KV side 3. Inter Trip (through pilot cable). 4. Buchhols Trip.

Bus-Bar Protection Schemes Bus-Bar Protection Schemes. 500, 400, 275, 220 and 132 KV. Bus-Bar Protection Scheme. - Differential Protection For each section of bus-bar. - SF6 Pressure low Trip. 66 and 33 KV. Bus-Bar Protection Scheme. - Differential Protection For each section of bus-bar or Arc protection or Micro switch protection. SF6 Pressure low Trip. 22 and 11 KV BUS-Bar Protection Scheme. - Arc protection or Micro switches protection. 500, 400, 275, and 220 KV BB section & BB couplers protection scheme. - I.D.M.T Non Directional O/C & E/F Relay. - C.B Fail to Trip. - SF6 Pressure Trip. - Inter Trip (through pilot cable). 132 KV BB section & BB couplers protection scheme. - I.D.M.T Non Directional O/C & E/F Relay. - C.B Fail to Trip. 33 KV BB section & BB couplers protection scheme. - I.D.M.T Non Directional O/C & E/F Relay. 11 KV BB section & BB couplers protection scheme. - I.D.M.T Non Directional O/C & E/F Relay. Shunt Reactor Protection Scheme. 275 &132 KV. Shunt Reactor Protection Scheme. I.D.M.T Non Direction O/C & E/F relay. Inter Trip (through pilot cable SHR connected through cable C.B. for 132 kV only). Buchhols Trip. Oil Temperature Trip. Winding Temperature Trip. Cable oil pressure Low Trip. (For cable tails) SF6 pressure Low Trip. C.B Fail to trip. (For 132 KV. C.B only). 33 KV. Shunt Reactor Protection Scheme for both connected

to 33 KV Bus-Bar or to tertiary of 300 MVA Transformer. I.D.M.T Non Direction O/C & E/F relay. Buchhols Trip. Oil Temperature Trip. Winding Temperature Trip. Protection Scheme 1 - Feeders Protection Schemes. 2 - Transformers Protection Schemes. 3 - Bus Bar Protection Schemes. 4 - Generators Protection Schemes.

Types and voltage level of Feeders A O. H. T. Lines 500 KV O. H. T Line 400 KV O. H. T Line 275 KV O. H. T Line 220 KV O. H. T Line 132 KV O. H. T Line 66 KV O. H. T Line 33 KV O. H. T Line 22 KV O. H. T Line 11 KV O. H. T Line B U. G. Cables 275 KV U. G. Cable 220 KV U. G. Cable

 132 KV U. G. Cable 66 KV U. G. Cable 33 KV U. G. Cable 11 KV U. G. Cable 500, 400, 275 and 220 KV O.H.T. Lines Protection Schemes Main (A) Protection: Distance Protection Permissive Over Reach Scheme. (POTT) Main (B) Protection: Distance Protection Permissive Under Reach Scheme. (PUTT) Backup Protection: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. I.D.M.T Directional O/C & E/F Relay. Circuit Breaker Fail to Tripe. Inter Trip. SF6 Pressure Low Trip Cable Oil Pressure Low Trip (For Cable Tail ) Drawing : single Line diagram for protection scheme Click Here

132 and 66 KV O.H.T. Lines Protection Schemes

Main Protection:

Distance Protection Permissive Under Reach Scheme. (PUTT)

Back up Protection:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

I.D.M.T Directional O/C & E/F Relay. Circuit Breaker Fail To Tripe. Inter Trip. SF6 Pressure Low Trip Cable Oil Pressure Low Trip (For Cable Tail)

Drawing : single Line diagram for protection scheme Click Here

33 and 22 KV O.H.T. Lines Protection Schemes I.D.M.T Direction O/C & EF Relay I.D.M.T Non Direction O/C & EF Relay 11 KV O.H.T. Lines Protection Schemes I.D.M.T Direction O/C & EF Relay 275, 220 U.G.C. Line Protection Scheme Main (A) Protection: Differential Protection (Solkor R) Main (B) Protection: Distance Protection Permissive Over Reach Scheme. (POTT) With Carrier Signal through Pilot Cable Back up Protection: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. I.D.M.T Directional O/C & E/F Relay. Circuit Breaker Fail to Tripe Inter Trip. SF6 Pressure Low Trip Cable Oil Pressure Low Trip

132, and 66 KV U.G.C. Line Protection Scheme Main Protection: Differential Protection (Solkor R) Back up Protection: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. I.D.M.T Directional O/C & E/F Relay. Circuit Breaker Fail to Tripe. Inter Trip (Through Pilot Cable). SF6 Pressure Low Trip Cable Oil Pressure Low Trip

33, 22 KV U.G.C. Line Protection Scheme Main Protection: Differential Protection (Solkor R) Back up Protection: I.D.M.T Directional O/C & E/F Relay. I.D.M.T Non Directional O/C & E/F Relay. Cable Oil Pressure Low Trip.

11 KV U.G.C. Line Protection Scheme Main Protection: Differential Protection (Solkor R) Back up Protection: I.D.M.T Non Directional O/C & E/F Relay.

Transformers Protection Schemes Some types of power transformers 300 MVA. 3 Winding Power Transformer 275 KV / 132 KV / 33 KV. (Y.Y.). 75 MVA. & 45 MVA. 2 Winding Power Transformer 1 32 KV / 33 KV. 30 MVA 2 Winding Power Transformer 132 KV / 11 KV. 20 MVA & 15 MVA 2 Winding Power Transformer 33 KV / 11 KV.

Drawing : single Line diagram for protection scheme Click Here

300 MVA 3 Winding Power Transformer Protection Scheme. Main (A&B) Protection:

1. Differential Protection. 2. Restricted Earth Fault Protection. (both at 275 kv and 132 kv) side neutral of the star winding. BackupProtection: 1. C.B Fail to trip. 2. I.D.M.T Non Direction O/C & E/F relay on 300 KV side 3. I.D.M.T Direction O/C & E/F relay on 132 KV side 4. Inter Trip (through pilot cable). 5. Buchhols Trip. 6. Tap Changer Buchhols Trip. 7. Oil Temperature Trip. 8. Winding Temperature Trip. 9. Cable oil pressure Low Trip. (for cable tails ) 10. SF6 pressure Low Trip. 75, 45 And 30 MVA- 2 Winding Power Transformer Protection Scheme. Main (A) Protection: 1. Differential Protection. 2. Restricted Earth Fault Protection. (At the neutral of the LV. Winding). Backup Protection: 1. Stand-By Earth Fault relay at the neutral of LV. Winding. 2. C.B Fail to trip. (For 132 KV. C.B only) 3. I.D.M.T Non Direction O/C & E/F relay on 132 KV side 4. Inter Trip (through pilot cable). 5. Buchhols Trip. 6. Tap Changer Buchhols Trip. 7. Winding Temperature Trip. 8. Cable oil pressure Low Trip. (For cable tails) 20 & 15 MVA- 33 / 11 KV, 2 Winding Power Transformer Protection Scheme. Main (A) Protection: 1. Differential Protection. 2. Restricted Earth Fault Protection. (At the neutral of the LV. Winding). Backup Protection: 1. Stand-By Earth Fault relay at the neutral of LV. Winding. 2. I.D.M.T Non Direction O/C & E/F relay on 33 KV side 3. Inter Trip (through pilot cable). 4. Buchhols Trip.

Bus-Bar Protection Schemes Bus-Bar Protection Schemes. 500, 400, 275, 220 and 132 KV. Bus-Bar Protection Scheme. - Differential Protection For each section of bus-bar. - SF6 Pressure low Trip. 66 and 33 KV. Bus-Bar Protection Scheme. - Differential Protection For each section of bus-bar or Arc protection or Micro switch protection. SF6 Pressure low Trip. 22 and 11 KV BUS-Bar Protection Scheme. - Arc protection or Micro switches protection. 500, 400, 275, and 220 KV BB section & BB couplers protection scheme. - I.D.M.T Non Directional O/C & E/F Relay. - C.B Fail to Trip. - SF6 Pressure Trip. - Inter Trip (through pilot cable). 132 KV BB section & BB couplers protection scheme. - I.D.M.T Non Directional O/C & E/F Relay. - C.B Fail to Trip. 33 KV BB section & BB couplers protection scheme. - I.D.M.T Non Directional O/C & E/F Relay. 11 KV BB section & BB couplers protection scheme. - I.D.M.T Non Directional O/C & E/F Relay. Shunt Reactor Protection Scheme. 275 &132 KV. Shunt Reactor Protection Scheme. I.D.M.T Non Direction O/C & E/F relay. Inter Trip (through pilot cable SHR connected through cable C.B. for 132 kV only). Buchhols Trip. Oil Temperature Trip. Winding Temperature Trip. Cable oil pressure Low Trip. (For cable tails) SF6 pressure Low Trip. C.B Fail to trip. (For 132 KV. C.B only). 33 KV. Shunt Reactor Protection Scheme for both connected

to 33 KV Bus-Bar or to tertiary of 300 MVA Transformer. I.D.M.T Non Direction O/C & E/F relay. Buchhols Trip. Oil Temperature Trip. Winding Temperature Trip. Over-current and Earth Fault Protection v Introduction

As the fault impedance is less than load impedance, the fault current is more than load current. If a short circuit occurs the circuit impedance is reduced to a low value and therefore a fault is accompanied by large current. Over-current protection is that protection in which the relay picks up when the magnitude of current exceeds the pickup level. The basic element in Over-current protection is an Over-current relay. The Over-current relays are connected to the system, normally by means of CT's. Over-current relaying has following types: 1. 2. 3. 4. High speed Over-current protection. Definite time Over-current protection. Inverse minimum time Over-current protection. Directional Over-current protection (of above types).

Over-current protection includes the protection from overloads. This is most widely used protection. Overloading of a machine or equipment generally) means the machine is taking more current than its rated current. Hence with overloading, there is an associated temperature rise. The permissible temperature rise has a limit based on insulation class and material problems. Over-current protection of overloads is generally provided by thermal relays.

Over-current protection includes short-circuit protection. Short circuits a be phase faults, earth faults or winding faults. Short-circuit currents are generally several times (5 to 20) full load current. Hence fast fault clearance is always desirable on short-circuits.

When a machine is protected by differential protection, the over-current is provided in addition as a back-up and in some cases to protect the machine from sustained through fault. Several protective devices are used for over-current protection these include: 1. 2. 3. 4. Fuses Circuit-breakers fitted with overloaded coils or tripped by over-current relays. Series connected trip coils operating switching devices. Over-current relays in conjunction with current transformers.

The primary requirements of over-current protection are:

The protection should not operate for starting currents, permissible over-current, and current surges. To achieve this, the time delay is provided (in case of inverse relays). If time delay cannot be permitted, high-set instantaneous relaying is used. The protection should be coordinated with neighboring over-current protections so as to discriminate.

Applications of Over-current Protection

Over-current protection has a wide range of applications. It can be applied where there is an abrupt difference between fault current within the protected section and that outside the protected section and these magnitudes are almost constant.

The over-current protection is provided for the following: v Motor Protection Over-current protection is the basic type of protection used against overloads and short-circuits in stator windings of motors. Inverse time and instantaneous phase and ground over-current relays can be employed for motors above 1200 H.P. For small/medium size motors where cost of CT's and protective relays is not economically justified, thermal relays and HRC fuses are employed, thermal relays used for overload protection and HRC fuses for short-circuit protection.

v Transformer Protection Transformers are provided with over-current protection against faults, only, when the cost of differential relaying cannot be justified. However, over-current relays are provided in addition to differential relays to take care of through faults. Temperature indicators and alarms are always provided for large transformers. Small transformers below 500 kVA installed in distribution system are generally protected by drop-out fuses, as the cost of relays plus circuit-breakers is not generally justified Line Protection. The lines (feeders) can be protected by (1) (2) (3) Instantaneous over-current relays. Inverse time over-current relays. Directional over-current relay.

Lines can be protected by impedance or carrier current protection also.

Protection of Utility Equipment The furnaces, industrial installations commercial, industrial and domestic equipment are all provided with over-current protection.

Relays used in Over-current Protection

The choice of relay for over-current protection depends upon the Time / current characteristic and other features desired. The following relays are used. 1. 2. 3. For instantaneous over-current protection. Attracted armature type, moving iron type, permanent magnet moving coil type and static. For inverse time characteristic. Electromagnetic induction type, permanent magnet moving coil type and static.

Directional over-current protection. Double actuating quantity induction relay with directional feature. 4. Static over-current relays. 5. HRC fuses, drop out fuses, etc. are used in low voltage medium voltage and high voltage distribution systems, generally up to 11 kV.

6.

Thermal relays are used widely for over-current protection.

Not: Now Digital Numerical Relay you can used for all types

Characteristics of relay units for over current protection

There is a wide variety of relay-units. These are classified according to their type and characteristics. The major characteristic includes: 1. Definite characteristic 2. Inverse characteristic 3. Extremely Inverse 4. Very Inverse

In definite characteristic, the time of operation is almost definite i.e. I0*T=K Where: I = Current in relay coil T = Relay lime K = Constant. In inverse characteristic, time is inversely proportional to current i.e. I1*T=K In more inverse characteristic

In*T=K

Where n can be between 2 to 8 the choice depends on discrimination desired. Instantaneous relays are those which have no intentional time lag sod which operate in less than 0.1 second, usually less than 0.08 second. As suck they are not instantaneous in real sense.

The relays which are not instantaneous are called Time Delay Relay'. Such relays are provided with delaying means such as drag magnet, dash poss. bellows, escape mechanisms, back-stop arrangement, etc.

The operating time of a relay for a particular setting and magnitude actuating quantity can be known from the characteristics supplied by the manufacturer. The typical characteristics are shown in (Fig. 1)

An inverse curve is one in which the operating time; becomes less as the magnitude of the actuating quantity is increased. However for higher magnitudes of actuating quantity the time is constant. Definite time curve is one in which operating time is little affected by magnitude of actuating current. However even definite time relay has a characteristic which is slightly inverse The characteristic with definite minimum time and of inverse type is also called Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) characteristics (Fig.1).

(Fig.1) Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) characteristics Principle of trip circuit Referring to (Fig. 2) the three current transformers and relay coils connected in star and the star point is earthed. When short circuit occurs in the protected zone the secondary current of CT's increases. These current flows through relay coils and the relay picks-up, the relay contacts close, thereby the trip circuit is closed and the circuit breaker-operates The over-current protection scheme with three over-current relays (Fig. 2) responds to phase faults and earth faults including single-phase to earth fault. Therefore such schemes are used with solidly earthed systems where phase to phase and phase to earth faults are likely to occur. For proper functioning of over-current and earth fault protection, the choice of CT's and polarity connections should be correct.

Fig.2) Over Current protection with three phase OC relays Methods of CT Connections in Over-current Protection of 3-Phase Circuits v Connection Scheme with Three Over-current Relays

Over-current protection can be achieved by means of three over-current relays or by two overcurrent relays (See Table 1). Table 1 Fig 1 Description One OC with one CT for over load protection. Note For balanced load only.

Two OC relays with two CT's for phase to phase fault protection.

Three OC relays with three CT's for phase to phase fault protection.

EF current > two time pickup phase current

Three OC relays with three CT's for phase to phase fault protection and phase to earth fault. Two OC and one EF relays for phase to phase and phase to earth fault protection Earth-Fault Protection

EF setting less than phase fault setting

When the fault current flows through earth return path, the fault is called Earth Fault. Other faults which do not involve earth are called phase faults. Since earth faults are relatively frequent, earth fault protection is necessary in most cases. When separate earth fault protection is not economical, the phase relays sense the earth fault currents. However such protection lacks sensitivity. Hence separate earth fault protection is generally provided. Earth fault protection senses earth fault current. Following are the method of earth fault protection. v Connections of CT's for Earth-fault Protection

1. Residually connected Earth-fault Relay Referring to Fig. 3 In absence of earth-fault the vector sum of three line currents is zero. Hence the vector sum of three secondary currents is also zero. IR+IY+IB=0

The sum (IR+IY+IB) is called residual current The earth-fault relay is connected such that the residual current flows through it (Figs.3 and Fig. 4), in the absence of earth-fault, Therefore, the residually connected earth-fault relay does not operate. However, in presence of earth fault the conditions is disturbed and (IR+IY+IB) is no more zero. Hence flows through the earth-fault relay. If the residual current is above the pick-up value, the earth-fault relay operates. In the scheme discussed here the earth-fault at any location near or away from the location of CT's can cause the residual current flow. Hence the protected zone is not definite. Such protection is called unrestricted earth-fault protection

(Fig.3) Earth-fault Relay connected in Residual Circuit.

(Fig.4) Earth fault protection combined with phase fault protection 2. Earth-fault Relay connected in Neutral to Earth Circuit (Fig. 5). Another method of connecting an earth-fault relay is illustrated in Fig 5. The relay is connected to secondary of a CT whose primary is connected in neutral to earth connection. Such protection can be provided at various voltage levels by connecting earth-fault relay in the neutral-to-earth connection of that voltage level. The fault current finds the return path through the earth and then flows through the neutral-to-earth connected. The magnitude of earth fault current is dependent on type of earthing (resistance, reactance or solid) and location of fault. In this type of protection, The zone of protection cannot be accurately defined. The protected area is not restricted to the transformer/generator winding alone. The relay senses the earth faults beyond the transformer/generator winding hence such protection is called unrestricted earth-fault protection. The earth-fault protection by relay in neutral to earth circuit depends upon the type of neutral Earthing. In case of large generators, voltage transformer is connected between neutral and earth

(Fig. 5) Earth-fault protection by earth-fault-relay connected in neutral-to-earth circuit. Combined Earth-fault and Phase-fault Protection It is convenient to incorporate phase-fault relays and earth-fault relay in a combined phasefault and earth-fault protection. (Fig. 4) The increase in current of phase causes corresponding increase in respective secondary currents. The secondary current flows through respective relay-units Very often only two-phase relays are provided instead of three, because in case of phase faults current in any at least two phases must increase. Hence two relay-units are enough. Earth-fault Protection with Core Balance Current Transformers. (Zero Sequence CT) In this type of protection (Fig. 6) a single ring shaped core of magnetic material, encircles the conductors of all the three phases. A secondary coil is connected to a relay unit. The cross-section of ring-core is

(Fig.6) Principle of core-balance CT for earth fault protection

Ample, so that saturation is not a problem. During no-earth-fault condition, the components of fluxes due to the fields of three conductors are balanced and the secondary current is negligible. During earth faults, such a balance is disturbed and current is induced in the secondary. Core-balance protection can be conveniently used for protection of lowvoltage and medium voltage systems. The burden of relays and exciting current are deciding factors. Very large cross-section of core is necessary for sensitivity less than 10 A. This form of protection is likely to be more popular with static relays due to the fewer burdens of the latter. Instantaneous relay unit is generally used with core balance schemes. Theory of Core Balance CT . Let Ia, Ib and I c , be the three line currents and a, b and c be corresponding components of magnetic flux in the core. Assuming linearity, we get resultant flux as, =k (Ia + Ib + I c ) where k is a constant = K * Ia. Referring to theory of symmetrical components (Ia + Ib + I c )= 3 I c= I n Where, Io is zero sequence current and In, is current in neutral to ground circuit. During normal condition, when earth fault is absent, (Ia + Ib + Ic) = 0 Hence r = 0 and relay does not operate During earth fault the earth fault current flows through return neutral path. For example for single line ground fault, If = 3Iao = In Hence the zero-sequence component of I o produces the resultant flux r in the core. Hence core balance current transformer is also called as zero sequence current transformers (ZSCT). Application for Core Balance CT's with Cable Termination Joints The termination of a three core cable into three separate lines or bus-bars is through cable terminal box. Ref. (Fig. 7), the Core Balance Protection is used along with the cable box and should be installed before making the cable joint. The induced current flowing through cable sheath of normal healthy cable needs particular attention with respect to the core balance protection. The sheath currents (Ish) flow through the sheath to the cover of cable-box and then to earth through the earthing connection between cable-box. For eliminating the error due to sheath

current (Ish) the earthing lead between the cable-box and the earth should be taken through the core of the core balance protection. Thereby the error due to sheath currents is eliminated. The cable box should be insulated from earth. 1. Cable terminal box 2. Sheath of 3 core cable connection to (1) 3. Insulator support for 1 4. Earthing connection passing through 5 5. Core balance CT

Fig (7) Mounting of Core Balance CT with Cable Terminal Box Frame-leakage Protection The metal-clad switchgear can be provided with frame leakage protection. The switchgear is lightly y insulated from the earth. The metal-frame-work or enclosure of the switchgear is earthed with a primary of a CT in between (Fig. 8). The concrete foundation of the switchgear and the cable-boxes and other conduits are slightly insulated from earth, the resistance to earth being about 12 ohms. In the event of an earth fault within the switchgear, the earth-fault current finds the' path through the neutral connection. While doing so, it is sensed by the earth fault relay.

(Fig. 8) Principle of frame-leakage protection of metal-clad-switchgear Circulating current differential protection also responds to earth-faults within its protected zone. Earth-fault protection can be achieved by following methods: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Residually connected relay. Relay connected in neutral-to-ground circuit. Core-balance-scheme. Frame leakage method. Distance relays arranged for detecting earth faults on lines. Circulating current differential protection. Directional Over-current Protection The over-current protection can be given directional feature by adding directional element in the protection system. Directional over-current protection responds to overcurrents for a particular direction flow. If power flow is in the opposite direction, the directional over-current protection remains un-operative. Directional over-current protection comprises over-current relay and power directional relay- in a single relay casing. The power directional relay does not measure the power but is arranged to respond to the direction of power flow. Directional operation of relay is used where the selectivity can be achieved by directional relaying. The directional relay recognizes the direction in which fault occurs, relative to the location of the relay. It is set such that it actuates for faults occurring in one direction only. It does not act for faults occurring in the other direction. Consider a feeder AC (Fig. 9) passing through sub-section B. The circuit breaker CB3 is provided with a directional

(Fig. 9) Principle of directional protection Relay `R' which will trip the breaker CB3 if fault power flow in direction C alone. Therefore for faults in feeder AB, the circuit breaker CB3 does not trip unnecessarily. However for faults in feeder BC the circuit-breaker CB3 trips Because it's protective relaying is set with a directional feature to act in direction AC Another interesting example of directional protection is that of reverse power protection of generator (Fig. 10). If the prime mover fails, the generator continues to run as a motor and takes power from bus-bars.

(Fig. 10) Reverse powers protection against motoring action of a generator Directional power protection operates in accordance with the direction of power flow. Reverse power protection operates when the power direction is reversed in relation to the normal working direction. Reverse power relay is different in construction than directional over-current relay. In directional over-current relay, the directional element does not measure the magnitude of power. It senses only direction of power flow. However, in Reverse Power Relays, the directional element measures magnitude and direction of power flow. Relay connections of Single Phase Directional Over-current Relay : The current coils in the directional over-current relay are normally connected to a secondary of line CT. The voltage coil of directional element is connected to a line VT, having phase to phase output (of 110 V). There are four common methods of connecting the relay depending upon phase angle between current in the current coil and voltage applied to the voltage coil.

Fig.11 Numerical Over current, and Overload Protection Relay 3-Phase Directional over current relays When fault current can flow in both directions through the relay location, it is necessary to make the response of the relay directional by the introduction of directional control elements. These are basically power measuring devices in which the system voltage is used as a reference for establishing the relative direction or phase of the fault current. Although power measuring devices in principle, they are not arranged to respond to the actual system power for a number of reasons: 1. The power system, apart from loads, is reactive so that the fault power factor is usually low. A relay

V a , Vb and Vc. Normal system

voltages V b 1 and V c 1 Voltages at fault location on faulted phases V b 2 and V c 2 Voltages remote from fault location Fig.12 Phase voltages for a B-C fault

Responding purely to the active component would not develop a high torque and might be much slower and less decisive than it could be. 1. The system voltage must collapse at the point of short circuit. When the fault is single-phase, it is the particular voltage across the short-circuited points which are reduced. So a BC phase fault will cause the B and C phase voltage vectors to move together, the locus of their ends being the original line be for a homogeneous system, as shown in (Fig.12) At the point of fault the vectors will coincide, leaving zero voltage across the fault, but the fault voltage to earth will be half the initial phase to neutral voltage. At other points in the system the vector displacement will be less, but relays located at such points will receive voltages which are unbalanced in their value and phase position. The effect of the large unbalance in currents and voltages is to make the torques developed by the different phase elements vary widely and even differ in sign if the quantities applied to the relay are not chosen carefully. To this end, each phase of the relay is polarized with a voltage which will not be reduced excessively except by close three-phase faults, and which will remain in a satisfactory relationship to the current under all conditions.

Relay connections This is the arrangement whereby suitable current and voltage quantities are applied to the relay. The various connections are dependent on the phase angle, at unity system power factor, by which the current and voltage applied to the relay are displaced. Relay maximum torque The maximum torque angle (MTA) is defined as the angle by which the current applied to the relay must be displaced from the voltage applied to the relay to produce maximum torque. Although the relay element may be inherently wattmetric, its characteristic can be varied by the addition of phase shifting components to give maximum torque at the required phase angle. A number of different connections have been used and these are discussed below.

Examination of the suitability of each arrangement involves determining the limiting conditions of the voltage and current applied to each phase element of the relay, for all fault conditions, taking into account the possible range of source and line impedances. 30 relay connection (0 MTA) The A phase relay is supplied with current la and voltage V ac. In this case, the flux due to the voltage coil lags the applied Vac voltage by 90, so the maximum torque occurs when the current lags the system phase to neutral voltage by 30. For unity power factor and 0.5 lagging power factor the maximum torque available is 0.866 of maximum. Also, the potential coil voltage lags the current in the current coil by 30 and gives a tripping zone from 60 leading to 120 lagging currents, as shown in (Fig. 13a). The most satisfactory maximum torque angle for this connection, that ensures correct operation when used for the protection of plain feeders, is 0, and it can be shown that a directional element having this connection and 0 MTA will provide correct discrimination for all types of faults, when applied to plain feeders If applied to transformer feeders, however, there is a danger that at least one of the three phase relays will operate for faults in the reverse direction; for this reason a directional element having this connection should never be used to protect transformer feeders. This connection has been used widely in the past, and it is satisfactory under all conditions for plain feeders provided that three phase elements are employed. When only two phase elements and an earth fault element are used there is a probability of failure to operate for one condition. An inter-phase short circuit causes two elements to be energized but for low power factors one will receive inputs which, although correct, will produce only a poor torque. In particular a BC fault will strongly energize the B element with lb current and Vba voltage, but the C element will receive Ic and the collapsed Vcb voltage, which quantities have a large relative phase displacement, as shown in (Fig. 13b). This is satisfactory provided that three phase elements are used, but in the case of a two phase and one earth fault element relay, with the B phase element omitted, operation will depend upon the C element, which may fail to operate if the fault is close to the relaying point.

A phase element connected l a Va c B phase element connected l b Vba C phase element connected Ic Vcb (a) Characteristic and inputs for phase A element

(b)

B-C Fault with voltage distortion

(Fig. 13) Vector diagrams for the 30 connection

60 No. 1 connection (0 MTA)

The A phase relay is supplied with lab current and Vac voltage. In this case, the flux due to the voltage coil lags the applied voltage to the relay by 90, so maximum torque is produced when the current lags the system phase to neutral voltage by 60. This connection, which uses Vac voltage with delta current produced by adding phase A and phase B currents at unity power factor, gives a current leading the voltage Vac by 60, and provides a correct directional tripping zone over a current range of 30 leading to 150 lagging. The torque at unity power factor is 0.5 of maximum torque and at zero power factor lagging 0.866; see (Fig.14). It has been proved that the most suitable maximum torque angle for this relay connection, that is, one which ensures correct directional discrimination with the minimum risk of mal-operation when applied to either plain or transformer feeders, is 0. When used for the protection of plain feeders there is a slight possibility of the element associated with the A phase mal-operating for a reversed BC fault.

A phase element connected lab Va c B phase element connected I bc V b a C phase element connected Ica Vcb (Fig.14) Vector diagram for the 60 No. 1 connection (phase A element) However, although the directional element may mal-operation, it is unlikely that the over current element which the directional element controls will receive sufficient current to cause it to operate. For this reason the connection may be safely recommended for the protection of plain feeders. When applied to transformer feeders there is a possibility of one of the directional elements mal-operation for an earth fault on the star side of a delta/star transformer, remote from the relay end. For mal-operation to occur, the source impedance would

have to be relatively small and have a very low angle at the same time that the arc resistance of the fault was high. The possibility of mal-operation with this connection is very remote, for two reasons: first, in most systems the source impedance may be safely assumed to be largely reactive, and secondly, if the arc resistance is high enough to cause mal-operation of the directional element it is unlikely that the over current element associated with the mal-operation directional element will see sufficient current to operate. The connection, however, does suffer from the disadvantage that it is necessary to connect the current transformers in delta, which usually precludes their being used for any other protective function. For this reason, and also because it offers no advantage over the 90 connection, it is rarely used. 60 No. 2 connection (0 MTA) The A phase relay is supplied with current la and voltage In this case, the flux of the voltage coil lags the applied voltage by 90 so the maximum torque is produced when the current lags the system phase to neutral voltage by 60. This connection gives

A phase element connected Ia Vc B phase element connected Ib Va C phase element connected Ic Vb (Fig.15) Vector diagram for the 60 No. 2 connection (phase A element).

a correct directional tripping zone over the current range of 30 leading to 150 lagging. The relay torque at unity power factor is 0.5 of the relay maximum torque and at zero power factor lagging 0.866; see (Fig.15). The most suitable maximum torque angle for a directional element using this connection is 0. However, even if this maximum torque angle is used, there is a risk of incorrect operation for all types of faults with the exception of three-phase faults. For this reason, the 60 No. 2 connection is now never recommended.

A phase element connected Ia Vbc B phase element connected Ib Vca C phase element connected Ic Vab (Fig.16) Vector diagram for the 90- 30 connection (Phase A element)

90 relay quadrature connection This is the standard connection for the type CDD relay; depending on the angle by which the applied voltage is shifted to produce the relay maximum torque angle, two types are available. 90- 30 characteristic (30 MTA) The A phase relay is supplied with la current and Vbc voltage displaced by 30 in an anti-clockwise direction. In this case, the flux due to the voltage coil lags the applied voltage Vbc by 60, and the relay maximum torque is produced when the current lags the system phase to neutral voltage by 60. This connection gives a correct directional tripping zone over the current range of 30 leading to 150 lagging; see (Fig.16). The relay torque at unity power factor is 0.5 of the relay maximum torque and at zero power factor lagging 0.866. A relay designed .for quadrature connection and having a maximum torque angle of 30 is recommended when the relay is used for the protection of plain feeders with the zero sequence source behind the relaying point.

90- 45 characteristic (45 MTA) The A phase relay is supplied with current la and voltage Vbc displaced by 45 in an anti-clockwise direction. In this case, the flux due to the voltage coil lags the applied voltage Vbc by 45, and the relay maximum torque is produced when the current lags the system phase to neutral voltage by 45. This connection gives a correct directional tripping zone over the current range of 45 leading to 135 lagging. The relay torque at unity power factor is 0.707 of the maximum torque and the same at zero power factor lagging; see (Fig.17).

A phase element connected Ia ,Vbc B phase element connected Ih Vca C phase element connected Ic Vab (Fig.17) Vector diagram for the 9045 connection (Phase A element) This connection is recommended for the protection of transformer feeders or feeders which have a zero sequence source in front of the relay. The 90- 45 connection is essential in the case of parallel trans-formers or transformer feeders, in order to ensure correct relay operation for faults beyond the star/ delta transformer. This connection should also be used whenever single-phase directional relays are applied to a circuit Theoretically, three fault conditions can cause mal-operation of the directional element: a phase-phase ground fault on a plain feeder, a phase-ground fault on a transformer feeder with the zero sequence source in front of the relay and a phasephase fault on a power transformer with the relay looking into the delta winding of the transformer. It should be remembered, however, that the conditions assumed above to establish the maximum angular displacement between the current and voltage quantities at the relay, are such that, in practice, the magnitude of the current input to the relay would

be insufficient to cause the over current element to operate. It can be shown analytically that the possibility of mal-operation with the 90- 45 connection is, for all practical purposes, non-existent.

Parallel feeders If non-directional relays are applied to parallel feeders, any faults that might occur on any one line will, regardless of the relay settings used, isolate both lines and completely disconnect the power supply. With this type of system configuration it is necessary to apply directional relays at the receiving end and to grade them with the nondirectional relays at the sending end, to ensure correct discriminative operation of the relays during line. faults. This is done by setting the directional relays R'1 and R'2 as shown in (Fig.18) with their directional elements looking into the protected line, and giving them lower time and current settings than relays R1 and R2. The usual practice is to set relays R'1 and R'2 to 50% of the normal full load of the protected circuit and 0.1 TMS, but care must be taken to ensure that their continuous thermal rating of twice rated current is not exceeded. Ring mains Directional relays are more commonly applied to ring mains. In the case of a ring main fed at one point only, the relays at the supply end and at the mid-point substation, where the setting of both relays are identical, can be made non-directional, provided that in the latter case the relays are located on the same feeder, that is, one at each end of the feeder. It is interesting to note that when the number of feeders round the ring is an even number, the two relays with the same operating time are at the same substation and will

have to be directional, whereas when the number of feeders is an odd number, the two relays with the same operating time are at different substations and therefore do not need to be directional. It may also be noted that, at inter-mediate substations, whenever the operating times of the relays at each substation are different, the difference between their operating times is never less than the grading margin, so the relay with the longer operating time can be non-directional. Grading of ring mains The usual procedure for grading relays in an inter-connected system is to open the ring at the supply point and to grade the relays first clockwise and then anti-clockwise; that is, the relays looking in a clock-wise direction round the ring are arranged to operate in the sequence 123456 and the relays looking in the anti-clockwise direction are arranged to operate in the sequence 1'2'3'4'5'6', as shown in (Fig.19)

(Fig.19) Grading of ring mains The arrows associated with the relaying points indicate the direction of current flow that will cause the relays to operate.

A double-headed arrow is used to indicate a non-directional relay, such as those at the supply point where the power can flow only in one direction, and a single-headed arrow a directional relay, such as those at intermediate substations around the ring where the power can flow in either direction. The directional relays are set in accordance with the invariable rule, applicable to all forms of directional protection that the current in the system must flow from the substation bus-bars into the protected line in order that the relays may operate. Disconnection of the faulty line is carried out according to time and fault current direction. As in any parallel system, the fault current has two parallel paths and divides itself in the inverse ratio of their impedances. Thus, at each substation in the ring, one set of relays will be made inoperative because of the direction of current flow, and the other set operative. It will also be found that the operating times of the relays that are inoperative are faster than those of the operative relays, with the exception of the mid-point substation, where the operating times of relays 3 and 3' happen to be the same. The relays which are operative are graded downwards towards the fault and the last to be affected by the fault operates first. This applies to both paths to the fault. Consequently, the faulty line is the only one to be disconnected from the ring and the power supply is maintained to all the substations. When two or more power sources feed into a ring main, time graded over current protection is difficult to apply and full discrimination may not be possible. With two sources of supply, two solutions are possible. The first is to open the ring at one of the supply points, whichever is more convenient, by means of a suitable high set instantaneous over-current relay and then to proceed to grade the ring as in the case of a single infeed, the second to treat the section of the ring between the two supply points as a continuous bus separate from the ring and to protect it with a unit system of protection, such as pilot wire relays, and then proceed to grade the ring as in the case of a single infeed. Directional Earth-Fault Protection In the directional over-current protection the current coil of relay is actuated from secondary current of line CT. whereas the current coil of directional earth fault relay is actuated by residual current. In directional over-current relay, the voltage coil is actuated by secondary of line VT. In directional earth fault relay, the voltage coil is actuated by the residual voltage. Directional earth fault relays sense the direction in which earth fault occurs with respect to the relay location and it operates for fault in a particular direction. The directional earth fault relay (single phase unit) has two coils. The polarizing quantity is obtained either from residual current

I RS = (Ia + Ib + Ic) or residual voltage VRs = V a + V b + V c

Where V a , V b and Vc are phase voltages. Referring to (Fig. 11) the directional earth-fault relay has two coils. One to the coils is connected in residual current circuits (Ref. Fig. 5). This coil gets current during earthfaults. The other coil gets residual voltage, V RS= V a + V b + V c Where V a , V b a n d V c are secondary voltages of the potential transformer ('Three phase five limb potential transformer or three separate single phase potential transformers connected as shown in Fig. 20). The coil connected in potential-transformer secondary circuit gives a polarizing field.

The residual current I RS i.e. the out of balance current is given to the current coil and the residual voltage VRs is given to the voltage coil of the relay. The torque is proportional to T = I RS * V RS * cos ( - ) = angle between I RS and VRs = angle of maximum torque. Summary Over-current protection responds to increase in current above the pick-up value overcurrents are caused by overloads and short-circuits. The over-current relays are connected the secondary of current transformer. The characteristic of over-current relays include inverse time characteristic, definite time characteristic. Earth fault protection responds to single line to ground faults and double line to ground faults. The current coil of earth-fault relay is connected either in neutral to ground circuit

or in residually connected secondary CT circuit. Core balance CTs are used for earth-fault protection. Frame leakage protection can be used for metal clad switchgear. Directional over-current relay and Directional Earth fault relay responds to fault in which power flow is in the set direction from the CT and PT locations. Such directional relays are used when power can flow from both directions to the fault point. Co-ordination Correct current relay application requires knowledge of the fault current that can flow in each part of the network. Since large scale tests are normally impracticable, system analysis must be used. It is generally sufficient to use machine transient reactance X'd and to work on the instantaneous symmetrical currents. The data required for a relay setting study are: 1. A one-line diagram of the power system involved, showing the type and rating of the protective devices and their associated current transformers. 2. The impedances in ohms, per cent or per unit, of all power transformers, rotating machines and feeder circuits. 3. The maximum and minimum values of short circuit currents that are expected to flow through each protective device. 4. The starting current requirements of motors and the starting and stalling times of induction motors. 5. The maximum peak load current through protective devices. 6. Decrement curves showing the rate of decay of the fault current supplied by the generators. 7. Performance curves of the current transformers. 8. The relay settings are first determined so as to give the shortest operating times at maximum fault levels and then checked to see if operation will also be satisfactory at the minimum fault current expected. It is always advisable to plot the curves of relays and other protective devices, such as fuses, that are to operate in series, on a common scale. It is usually more convenient to use a scale corresponding to the current expected at the lowest voltage base or to use the predominant voltage base. The alternatives are a common MVA base or a separate current scale for each system voltage. 9. The basic rules for correct relay co-ordination can generally be stated as follows: 10. Whenever possible, use relays with the same operating characteristic in series with each other. 11. Make sure that the relay farthest from the source has current settings equal to or less than the relays behind it, that is, that the primary current required operating the relay in front is always equal to or less than the primary current required operating the relay behind it. PRINCIPLES OF TIME/CURRENT GRADING Among the various possible methods used to achieve correct relay co-ordination are those using either time or over current or a combination of both time and over-current.

The common aim of all three methods is to give correct discrimination. That is to say, each one must select and isolate only the faulty section of the power system network, leaving the rest of the system undisturbed. 1. Discrimination by time In this method an appropriate time interval is given by each of the relays controlling the circuit breakers in a power system to ensure that the breaker nearest to the fault opens first. A simple radial distribution system is shown in (Fig. 21) to illustrate the principle.

Circuit breaker protection is provided at B, C, D and E, that is, at the infeed end of each section of the power system. Each protection unit comprises a definite time delay over current relay in which the operation of the current sensitive element simply initiates the time delay element. Provided the setting of the current element is below the fault current value this element plays no part in the achievement of discrimination. For this reason, the relay is sometimes described as an 'independent definite time delay relay' since its operating time is for practical purposes independent of the level of over current. It is the time delay element, therefore, which provides the means of discrimination. The relay at B is set at the shortest time delay permissible to allow a fuse to blow for a fault on the secondary side of trans-former A. Typically, a time delay of 0.25s is adequate. If a fault occurs at F, the relay at B will operate in 0.25s, and the subsequent operation of the circuit breaker at B will clear the fault before the relays at C, D and E have time to operate. The main disadvantage of this method of discrimination is that the longest fault clearance time occurs for faults in the section closest to the power source, where the fault level (MVA) is highest. 1. Discrimination by current

Discrimination by current relies on the fact that the fault current varies with the position of the fault, because of the difference in impedance values between the source and the fault. Hence, typically, the relays controlling the various circuit breakers are

set to operate at suitably tapered values such that only the relay nearest to the fault trips its breaker. (Fig. 22) illustrates the method.

For a fault at F1, the system short circuit current is given by: I = 6350 /(Zs + ZL1) A

Where Zs = source impedance = 112 / 250 = 0.485 ohms ZL1= cable impedance between C and B = 0.24 ohms Hence I=6350/0.725 = 8800 A So a relay controlling the circuit breaker at C and set to operate at a fault current of 8800 A would in simple theory protect the whole of the cable section between C and B. However, there are two important practical points which affect this method of coordination. 1. It is not practical to distinguish between a fault at Fl and a fault at F 2, since the distance between these points can be only a few meters, corresponding to a change in fault current of approximately 0.1%. 2. In practice, there would be variations in the source fault level, typically from 250 MVA to 130 MVA. At this lower fault level the fault current would not exceed 6800 A even for a cable fault close to C, so a relay set at 8800 A would not protect any of the cable section concerned.

Discrimination by current is therefore not a practical proposition for correct grading between the circuit breakers at C and B. However, the problem changes appreciably when there is significant impedance between the two circuit breakers concerned. This can be seen by considering the grading required between the circuit breakers at B and A in (Fig. 22).

Assuming a fault at F4, the short-circuit current is given by: I = 6350 /(Zs + ZL1 + ZL2 +ZT) Where ZS = source impedance =112 / 250 = 0.485 ohms ZL1 = cable impedance between C and B 0.24 ohms ZL2 = cable impedance between B and 4 MVA transformer 0.04 ohms ZT = transformer impedance =0.07(112/4) =2.12 ohms Hence I = 6350/ 2.885 = 2200 A For this reason, a relay controlling the circuit breaker at B and set to operate at a current of 2200 A plus a safety margin would not operate for a fault at F4 and would thus discriminate with the relay at A. Assuming a safety margin of 20% to allow for relay errors and a further 10% for variations in the system impedance values, it is reasonable to choose a relay setting of 1.3 x 2200, that is, 2860 A for the relay at B. Now, assuming a fault at F3, that is, at the end of the 11 kV cable feeding the 4 MVA transformers, the short-circuit current is given by: I = 6350 /(Zs + ZL1 + ZL2 +ZT) I = 6350 /(0.485 + 0.24 + 0.04)=8300 Amp. Alternatively, assuming a source fault level of 130 MVA: I = 6350 /(0.93 + 0.24 + 0.004)=5250 Amp. In other words, for either value of source level, the relay at B would operate correctly for faults anywhere on the 11 kV cable feeding the transformer. Discrimination by both time and current 3 Discrimination by both time and current Each of the two methods described so far has a fundamental disadvantage. In the case of discrimination by time alone, the disadvantage is due to the fact that the more severe faults are cleared in the longest operating time. Discrimination by current can only be applied where there is appreciable impedance between the two circuit breakers concerned. A

It is because of the limitations imposed by the independent use of either time or current co-ordination that the inverse time over current relay characteristic has evolved. With this characteristic, the time of operation is inversely proportional to the fault current level and the actual characteristic is a function of both 'time' and 'current'

settings. The advantage of this method of relay Co-ordination may be best illustrated by the system shown in (Fig.23) which is identical to that shown in (Fig.21) except that typical system parameters have been added. In order to carry out a system analysis, before a relay co-ordination study of the system shown in (Fig. 23), it is necessary to refer all the system impedances to a common base and thus, using 10 MVA as the reference base, we have:

4MVA transformer percentage impedance on 10MVA base=7X (10/4) =17.5% 11 kV cable between B and A percentage impedance on10 MVA base

= (0.04 X 100 X 10) / 112= 0.33%

11 kV cable between C and B percentage impedance on 10 MVA base

= (0.24 X 100 X10) /112 =1.98 %

30 MVA transformer percentage impedance on 10 MVA base

=22.5 X 10 / 30 =7.5 %

132 kV overhead line percentage impedance on10 MVA base

= (6.2x100x10)/ 1322 =0.36%

132 kV source percentage impedance on 10 MVA base

= (100 x 10) /3500 =0.29%

The graph in (Fig.23) illustrates the use of 'discrimination curves', which are an important aid to satisfactory protection co-ordination. In this example, a voltage base of 3.3kV has been chosen and the first curve plotted is that of the 200 A fuse, which is assumed to protect the largest outgoing 3.3kV circuit. Once the operating characteristic of the highest rated 3.3kV fuse has been plotted, the grading of the over current relays at the various sub-stations of the radial system is carried out as follows:

Substation B CT ratio 250/5A Relay over current characteristic assumed to be extremely inverse, as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must discriminate with the 200A fuse at fault levels up to:

(10 x 100) / (17.5+0.33+1.98+7.5+0.36+0.29) = 35.7 MVA

That is, 6260 A at 3.3kV or 1880 A at 11 kV. The operating characteristics of the CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 250 A and 4.76 MVA at 11 kV, and at a time multiplier setting of 0.2, suitable discrimination with the 200 A fuse is achieved.

Substation C CT ratio 500/5A Relay over current characteristic assumed to be extremely inverse, as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must discriminate with the relay in substation

B at fault levels up to:

(10 X 100) / (1.98 +7.5 +0.36 +0.29) = 98.7MVA

That is, 17,280 A at 3.3kV or 5180 A at 11 kV. The operating characteristics of the CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 500 A and 9.52 MVA at 11 kV, and at a time multiplier setting of 0.7, suitable discrimination with the relay at substation B is achieved.

(Fig.23) Time and current grading Substation D CT ratio 150/1A Relay over current characteristic assumed to be extremely inverse, as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must discriminate with the relay in substation C

at fault levels up to

(10 X 100) / (7.5 + 0.36 + 0.29) = 123 MVA

That is, 21,500 A at 3.3kV or 538 A at 132 kV. The operating characteristics of the CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 150 A and 34.2 MVA at 132 kV and at a time multiplier setting of 0.25, suitable discrimination with the relay at substation C is achieved.

Substation E CT ratio 500/1 A Relay over current characteristic assumed to be extremely inverse, as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must discriminate with the relay in substation D at fault levels up to:

(10 x 100) / (0.36+0.29) = 1540 MVA

That is, 270,000 A at 3.3kV or 6750 A at 132 kV. The operating characteristics of the CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 500 A and 114 MVA at 132 kV, and at a time multiplier setting of 0.9, suitable discrimination with the relay at substation D is achieved. A comparison between the relay operating times shown in (Fig. 21) and the times obtained from the discrimination curves of (Fig. 23) at the maximum fault level reveals significant differences. These differences can be summarized as follows:

Relay B C D

Fault level (MVA) 98.7 123 1540

Time from Fig.12 (seconds) 0.25 0.65 1.05

Time from Fig.14 (seconds) 0.07 0.33 0.07

3500

1.45

0.25

These figures show that for faults close to the relaying points the inverse time characteristic can achieve appreciable reductions in fault clearance times. Even for faults at the remote ends of the protected sections, reductions in fault clearance times are still obtained, as shown by the following table:

Relay B C D E

Fault level Time from Fig.14 (MVA) (seconds) 35.7 0.17 98.7 0.42 123 0.86 1540 0.39

To finalize the co-ordination study it is instructive to assess the average operating time for each extremely inverse over current relay at its maximum and minimum fault levels, and to compare these with the operating time shown in (Fig.21) for the definite time over current relay.

Relay

Fault level (Max./Min MVA) 98.7/35.7 123/98.7 1540/123 3500/1540

B C D E

Time from Fig.14 (seconds) (Max./ Min) 0.07/0.17 0.33/0.42 0.07/0.86 0.25/0.39

Average time (seconds) 0.12 0.375 0.465 0.32

This comparison clearly shows that when there is a large variation in fault level all along the system network the overall performance of the inverse time over current relay is far superior to that of the definite over current relay.

4 GRADING MARGIN

The time interval between the operations of two adjacent relays depends upon a number of factors: 1. 2. 3. 4. The fault current interrupting time of the circuit breaker. The overshoot time of the relay. Errors. Final margin on completion of operation.

A.

Circuit breaker interrupting time

The circuit breaker interrupting the fault must have completely interrupted the current before the discriminating relay ceases to be energized.

B.

Overshoot

When the relay is de-energized, operation may continue for a little longer until any stored energy has been dissipated. For example, an induction disc relay will have stored kinetic energy in the motion of the disc; static relay circuits may have energy stored in capacitors. Relay design is directed to minimizing and absorbing these energies, but some allowance is usually necessary. The overshoot time is not the actual time during which some forward operation takes place, but the time which would have been required by the relay if still energized to achieve the same amount of operational advance.

C.

Errors

All measuring devices such as relays and current transformers are subject to some degree of error. The operating time characteristic of either or both relays involved in the grading may have a positive or negative error, as may the current transformers, which can have phase and ratio errors due to the exciting current required to magnetize their core. This does not, however, apply to independent definite time delay over current relays. Relay grading and setting is carried out assuming the accuracy of the calibration curves published by manufacturers, but since some error is to be expected, some tolerance must be allowed.

D.

Final margin

After the above allowances have been made, the discriminating relay must just fail to complete its operation. Some extra allowance, or safety margin, is required to ensure that a satisfactory contact gap (or equivalent) remains.

E.

Recommended time

The total amount to be allowed to cover the above items depends on the operating speed of the circuit breakers and the relay performance. At one time 0.5s was a normal grading margin. With faster modern circuit breakers and lower relay overshoot times 0.4s is reasonable, while under the best possible conditions 0.35s may be feasible. In some instances, however, rather than using a fixed grading margin, it is better to adopt a fixed time value, to allow for the operating time of the circuit breaker and relay overshoot, and to add to it a variable time value that takes into account the relay errors, the CT errors and the safety margin.

A value of 0.25s is chosen for the fixed time value, made up of 0.1 s for the fault current interrupting time of the circuit breaker, 0.05s for the relay over-shoot time and 0.1 s for the safety margin. Considering next the variable time values required, it is first assumed that each inverse time over current relay complies with Error Class E7.5 defined as normal British practice in BS 142:1966.

The normal limits of error for an E7.5 relay are 7.5% but allowance should also be made for the effects of temperature, frequency, and departure from reference setting. A practical approximation is to assume a total effective error of 2 x 7.5, that is, 15%, this to apply to the relay nearest to the fault, which shall be considered to be slow. To this total effective error for the relay a further 10% should be added for the overall current transformer error. Hence, for the time interval t' required between inverse time over current relays it is proposed to adopt the equation:

t' = 0.25t + 0.25 seconds

Where t = nominal operating time of relay nearer to the fault.

As far as the independent definite time delay over-current relays are concerned, it is assumed that these comply with Error Class El 0, defined as normal British practice in BS 142:1966. The normal limits of error for an El 0 relay are 10%, but allowance should also be made for the effects of temperature, voltage, frequency and departure from reference setting. A practical approximation is to assume a total effective error of 2 x 10, that is, 20%, this to apply to the relay, nearest to the fault, which shall be considered to be slow. However, unlike the inverse time over current relay, it is not necessary to add a further error for the current transformers. Hence, for the time interval t' required between independent definite time delay over current relays, it is proposed to adopt the equation: t' = 0.2t + 0.25 seconds Where t = nominal operating time of relay nearest to the fault.

STANDARD I.D.M.T. OVER CURRENT RELAY (TYPE CDG 11)

Limits of accuracy have been considered by various national committees and (Fig.24) shows a typical example of the limits set by the British Standards Institution specification BS 142:1966 for the standard inverse definite minimum time over current relay. The discriminating curves shown in (Fig.25) illustrate the application of such a relay to a sectioned radial feeder; it will be seen that with the assumed relay settings and the tolerances allowed in BS 142:1966 the permissible grading margin between the over current relays at each section breaker is approximately 0.5s. With the increase in system fault current it is desirable to shorten the clearance time for faults near the power source, in order to minimize damage. It is therefore necessary to reduce the time errors, which are in this situation disproportionately large when compared with the clearance time of modern circuit breakers; this can only be achieved by improving the limits of accuracy, pick-up and overshoot

(Fig. 24) Typical limits of accuracy set by BS 142: 1966 for an inverse Definite Minimum Time over current relay NORMAL BRITISH PRACTICE ACCURACY CLASS E7.5% TIME/CURRENT CHARACTERISTIC ALLOWABLE LIMIT At 2 times setting 222E At 5 times setting 1.13E At 10 times setting 1.01E At 20 times setting 1.00E

NOTE: The allowance error in operating time should not be less than 100ms All this must be obtained without detriment to the general performance of the relay; in other words, there must be no reduction in the operating torque or weakening of the damper magnets or contact pressures, and the construction must remain simple with the minimum number of moving parts. While these requirements present considerable difficulties in manufacture, owing to variations in materials and practical tolerances, the progress made in the GEC Measurements relays has made it possible to discriminate more closely by reducing the margin between both the current and the time setting of the relays on adjacent breakers.

(Fig.25) application of an IDMT over current relay to a sectioned Radial feeder These relays will thus enable the time setting of the relay nearest the power source to be reduced, or, alternatively, make it possible to increase the number of breakers in series without increasing the time setting of the relays at the power source.

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