Computer Integrated Manufacturing

A Seminar on GROUP TECHNOLOGY By Zoya. A. Rizvi M.E (Sem II CAD/CAM Robotics) Roll No-30 Fr.C.R.C.E (Bandra-w)

WHAT IS GROUP TECHNOLOGY?

Group technology (GT) is a manufacturing philosophy which advocates simplification and standardization of similar entities (parts, assemblies, process plans, tools, instructions, etc .) in order to reduce complexity and achieve economies of scale effects in batch manufacturing.

Batch Manufacturing
Is a dominant manufacturing activity in the world, generating a great deal of industrial output. It accounts 60% - 80% of all manufacturing activities. Characteristics of BM
High level of product variety Small manufacturing lot size

Batch Manufacturing
Time on machine 5%
Moving and waiting 95%

Cutting less than 30%

Positioning, loading, gauging, idle, etc. 70%

Group Technology
In GT large manufacturing system can be decomposed into smaller subsystems of part families based on similarities in :1. Design attributes and
2. Manufacturing features

GT-DESIGN ATTRIBUTES
Part configuration (round or prismatic) Dimensional envelope (length to diameter ratio) Surface integrity (surface roughness, dimensional tolerances) Material type Raw material state (casting, forging, bar stock, etc.)

GT-MANUFACTURING FEATURES
Operations and operation sequences (turning, milling, etc.) Batch sizes Machine tools Cutting tools Work holding devices Processing times

CAD/CAM Integration
An essential aspect of the integration of CAD and CAM is the integration of information used by engineering and manufacturing and all the other departments in a firm. Group technology emphasis on part families based on similarities in design attributes and manufacturing, therefore GT contributes to the integration of CAD and CAM.

BENEFITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY

Group technology is a management strategy to help eliminate waste caused by duplication of effort. It affects all areas of a company, including:
engineering equipment specification facilities planning process planning production control quality control tool design purchasing service

Continued
Some of the well-known tangible and intangible benefits of implementing GT :
1. Engineering design
Reduction in new parts design Reduction in the number of drawings through standardization Reduction of drafting effort in new shop drawings Reduction of number of similar parts, easy retrieval of similar functional parts, and identification of substitute parts

2. Layout planning
Reduction in production floor space required Reduced material-handling effort

3. Specification of equipment, tools, jigs, and fixtures

Standardization of equipment Implementation of cellular manufacturing systems Significant reduction in up-front costs incurred in the release of new parts for manufacture

4. Manufacturing: process planning

Reduction in setup time and production time Alternative routing leading to improved part routing Reduction in number of machining operations and numerical control (NC) programming time

5. Manufacturing: production control

Reduced work-in-process inventory Easy identification of bottlenecks Improved material flow and reduced warehousing costs Faster response to schedule changes Improved usage of jigs, fixtures, pallets, tools, material handling, and manufacturing equipment

6. Manufacturing: quality control

Reduction in number of defects leading to reduced inspection effort Reduced scrap generation Better output quality Increased accountability of operators and supervisors responsible for quality production, making it easier to implement total quality control concepts.

7. Purchasing
Coding of purchased part leading to standardized rules for purchasing Economies in purchasing possible because of accurate knowledge of raw material requirements Reduced number of part and raw materials Simplified vendor evaluation procedures leading to just-in-time purchasing

8. Customer service
Accurate and faster cost estimates Efficient spare parts management, leading to better customer service

Basic Key Features of Group Technology Applications:

Group Layout Short Cycle Flow Control A Planned Machine Loading

Group Layout
In most of todays factories it is possible to divide all the made components into families and all the machines into groups, in such a way that all the parts in each family can be completely processed in one group only. The tree main types of layout are Line Layout Group Layout Functional Layout
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Line Layout
Line Layout is used at present in simple process industries, in continuous assembly, and for mass production of components required in very large quantities.

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Functional Layout
In Functional Layout, all machines of the same type are laid out together in the same section under the same foreman. Each foreman and his team of workers specialize in one process and work independently. This type of layout is based on process specialization.

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Group Layout
In Group Layout, each foreman and his team specialize in the production of one list of parts and co-operate in the completion of common task. This type of layouts based on component specialization.

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The Difference between group and functional layout:

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Methods to form Part families

Group technology begun by grouping parts into families, based on their attributes. There are three methods that can be used to form part families:
1. Manuel visual inspection 2. Production flow analysis 3. Classification and coding
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1) Manual visual inspection involves arranging a set of parts into groups known as part families by visually inspecting the physical characteristics of the parts.

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Manual visual inspection Limitations Incorrect results Human error Different judgment by different people

Advantages
Inexpensive Least sophisticated Good for small companies having smaller number of parts
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2) Production flow analysis:

Parts that go through common operations are grouped into part families. The machines used to perform these common operations may be grouped as a cell, consequently this technique can be used in facility layout (factory layout)

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3) Classification and Coding Employed in classifying parts into part families Coding refers to the process of assigning symbols to the parts The symbols represent design attributes of parts or manufacturing features of part families The variations in codes resulting from the way the symbols are assigned can be grouped into three distinct type of codes:

1. Monocode or hierarchical code 2. Polycode or attribute 3. Hybrid or mixed code

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1) MONOCODE (HIERARCHICAL CODE)

This coding system was originally developed for biological classification in 18th century. The structure of monocode is like a tree in which each symbol amplifies the information provided in the previous digit.

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 A monocode (hierarchical code) provides a large amount of information in a relatively small number of digits useful for storage and retrieval of designrelated information such as part geometry, material, size, etc. it is difficult to capture information on manufacturing sequences in hierarchical manner, so applicability of this code in manufacturing is rather limited
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2) POLYCODE (ATTRIBUTE CODE):

The code symbols are independent of each other Each digit in specific location of the code describes a unique property of the workpiece it is easy to learn and useful in manufacturing situations where the manufacturing process have to be described the length of a polycode may become excessive because of its unlimited combinational features

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Differences in information storage capacity between monocode and polycode: Assume that a code consists of a five symbols and that in each of the five code fields the digits 0 to 9 are used. Determine how many mutually exclusive characteristics can potentially be stored in the monocode and the polycode

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Number of characteristics may be stored in a monocode: 101 + 102 + 103 + 104 + 105 =111110 Number of characteristics may be stored in a polycode: 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 = 50
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3) MIXED CODE (HYBRID CODE):

It is the mixture of both monocode and polycode systems. Mixed code retains the advantages of both systems. Most coding systems use this code structure. The first digit for example, might be used to denote the type of part, such as gear. The next five position might be reserved for a short attribute code that would describe the attribute of the gear. The next digit (7th digit) might be used to designate another subgroup, such as material, followed by another attribute code that would describe the attributes.

A code created by this manner would be relatively more compact than a pure attribute code while retaining the ability to easily identify parts with specific characteristics.
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The OPITZ classification system:

It is a mixed (hybrid) coding system Developed by Opitz, Technical University of Aachen, 1970 It is widely used in industry It provides a basic framework for understanding the classification and coding process It can be applied to machined parts, non-machined parts (both formed and cast) and purchased parts It considers both design and manufacturing information

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The Opitz coding system consists of three groups of digits:

Form code 12345 Supplementary code 6789 Secondary code ABCD

part geometry and features relevant to part design

information relevant to manufacturing (polycode)

Production processes and production sequences

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PART FAMILY FORMATION: One of the primary uses of coding systems is to develop part families.
Example: Consider the family of ferrous parts formed by first three digits of Opitz form code; 131.

- This implies that the attributes associated with the family members are length/diameter ratio in the range 0.5 to 3.0, all parts stepped to one end and internal shape elements with threads.
- A number of mathematical approaches have also been developed to form part families using classification and coding system.
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SELECTION OF CLASSIFICATION AND CODING SYSTEMS Some of the important classification and coding system attributes include: 1. Flexibility for various applications such as part family formation, process planning, costing, and purchasing 2. Accuracy, to provide correct information on parts 3. Expandability, to accommodate information on more part attributes deemed important later on 4. Ease of learning 5. Ease of retrieval 6. Reliability and availability of software 7. Suitability for specific applications

Matching these attributes with the objectives of an organization would be helpful in selecting or developing a coding system to meet organizational needs.

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Application of GT
Cellular manufacturing is an application of group technology in manufacturing in which all or a portion of a firms manufacturing system has been converted into cells. A manufacturing cell is a cluster of machines or processes located in close proximity and dedicated to the manufacture of a family of parts. The parts are similar in their processing requirements, such as operations, tolerances, and machine tool capacities

Continued
The primary objectives in implementing a cellular manufacturing system are to reduce: Setup times (by using part family tooling and sequencing) Flow times (by reducing setup and move times and wait time for moves and using smaller batch sizes) Reduce inventories Market response times

Cell Formation Approaches

1. Machine - Component Group Analysis based on Production flow analysis 2. Rank Order Clustering Algorithm 3. Single Linkage Cluster Analysis(SLCA) or Similarity Coefficient Method

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Stage 1: Machine classification. - Machines are classified on the basis of operations that can be performed on them. A machine type number is assigned to machines capable of performing similar operations. Stage 2: Checking parts list and production route information. - For each part, information on the operations to be undertaken and the machines required to perform each of these operations is checked thoroughly.
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Stage 3: Factory flow analysis.

This involves a micro-level examination of flow of components through machines. This, in turn, allows the problem to be decomposed into a number of machine-component groups. Stage 4: Machine-component group analysis. An intuitive manual method is suggested to manipulate the matrix to form cells. However, as the problem size becomes large, the manual approach does not work. Therefore, there is a need to develop analytical approaches to handle large problems systematically.
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EXAMPLE:
Consider a problem of 4 machines and 6 parts. Try to group them.
Components Machines M1 M2 1 2 1 1 3 4 1 1 5 6 1 1

M3
M4

1
1

1
1

1
1
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Components Machines M1 2 1 4 1 6 1 1 3 5

M2
M3 M4

1
1 1 1 1 1 1

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Rank Order Clustering Algorithm Rank Order Clustering Algorithm is a simple algorithm used to form machine-part groups. Step 1: Assign binary weight and calculate a decimal weight for each row and column using the following formulas:
Decimal weight for row i =

m p=1 n

bip 2m-p b pj2n p

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Decimal weight for column j =

p=1

Step 2: Rank the rows in order of decreasing decimal weight values. Step 3: Repeat steps 1 and 2 for each column.

Step 4: Continue preceding steps until there is no change in the position of each element in the row and the column.

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EXAMPLE: Consider a problem of 5 machines and 10 parts. Try to group them by using Rank Order Clustering Algorithm.

Components Machines
M1 M2 M3 M4 M5
Table 1
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1
1

2
1 1

3
1 1

4
1 1

5
1

7
1

8
1

9
1 1

10
1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

Binary weight 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 Components Machines

M1 M2 M3 M4 M5
Table 2
50

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1
1 1

2
1 1 1

3
1 1 1 1

4
1 1

5
1 1

7
1

8
1

9
1 1

10
1 1 1

Decimal equivalent

1007 451 568 455 1020

1 1

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1

Binary weight
29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

Components
Binary weight Machines

1
1 1 1

2
1 1 1 1

3
1 1 1 1

4
1 1 1 1

5
1 1 1

6
1 1

7
1 1 1

8
1 1 1

10

24 23 22 21 20
Decimal equivalent

M5 M1 M3 M4 M2

1 1 1

1 1 1 11
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28 27 27 27 28 20 28 26 11

Table 3

Binary weight
29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

Components
Binary weight Machines

1
1 1 1

5
1 1 1

7
1 1 1

2
1 1 1 1

3
1 1 1 1

4
1 1 1 1

8
1 1

6
1

10

Decimal equivalent

24 23 22 21 20
Decimal equivalent

M5 M1 M3 M4 M2

1020 1 1 1 1 1019 900 1 1 123 115

1 1

28 28 28 27 27 27 26 20 11 11

Table 4
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Similarity coefficient method

In similarity coefficient method, the basis is to define a measure of similarity between machines, tools, design features, and so forth and then use it to form part families and machine groups.

Single-Linkage Cluster Analysis (SLCA):

It is a hierarchical machine grouping method known as single-linkage cluster analysis using similarity coefficients between machines. The procedure is to construct a tree called a dendrogram.
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The similarity coefficient between two machines is defined as the ratio of the number of parts visiting both machines and the number of parts visiting one of the two machines:

Sij =

X
N

ijk

(Y
N k 1

k=1

ik

+ Z jk - Xijk )

where: Xijk = operation on part k performed both on machine i and j, Yik = operation on part k performed on machine i, Zjk = operation on part k performed on machine j.
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SLCA ALGORITHM
It helps in constructing dendrograms. A dendrogram is a pictorial representation of bonds of similarity between machines as measured by the similarity coefficients. The steps of algorithm are as follows: Step 1: Compute similarity coefficients for all possible pairs of machines, Step 2: Select the two most similar machines to form the first machine cell, Step 3: Lower the similarity level (threshold) and form new machine cells by including all the machines with similarity coefficients not less than the threshold value, Step 4: Continue step 3 until all machines are grouped into a single cell.

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EXAMPLE: Consider the matrix of 5 machines and 10 components given below.

Components Machines M1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 1 1 6 7 1 1 1 1 1 8 1 9 1 10 1

M2 M3 M4 M5

Develop a denrogram and discuss the resulting cell structures.

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Step 1: Determine similarity coefficients between all pairs of machines.

SC12 =

5 = 0.556 9 + 5-5

Similarity coefficients of machine pairs

Machine pairs SC M1 M2 0.55 M1 M3 0.30 M1 M4 0.67 M1 M5 0.70 M2 M3 0.00 M2 M4 0.83 M2 M5 0.30 M3 M4 0.00 M3 M5 0.50 M4 M5 0.40

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Step 2: Select machines M2 and M4, having the highest similarity coefficients of 0.83 to form the first cell.

Step 3: The next lower coefficient of similarity is between machines M1 and M5. Use these machines to form the second cell.

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Step 4: The next lower coefficient of similarity is now 0.67 between machines M1 and M4. At this threshold value machines M1, M2, M4, and M5 will form one machine group. The other possible groups will be evaluated by the same way.
M 4 M 2 M 5 M 1 M 3

0 . 8 3 0 . 7 0 0 . 6 7

0 . 5 0

0 . 0 0 D e n d r o g r a m

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CASE STUDY
Implementation of GT in a Gear Manufacturing Machine shop
Company Profile:
The gear manufacturing machine shop or the small scale industry which is considered for research showed that the typical machine shop facility is characterized by batchoriented processes, large monument-like equipment, a large variety of gears being produced at any time in the facility and there is manual shop floor communications between machine operators, forklift drivers and plant managers/supervisors.

This dispersion of the manufacturing assets, and the functional layout of the facility at each location, results in a Value Added Ratio (Actual Man Hours/Total Lead Time) of about 10%.

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Continued
Problem: Gears that have a high unit price are seen to have the highest lead times , which is the primary reason for high WIP costs. However, it must be recognized that the typical manufacturer operates in a Make-To-Order business environment.

These small scale manufacturers do not have an extensive suite of well-documented, easy-to-use and thoroughly validated methods and tools to support their implementation of GT.
Clearly, there is a need for new concepts and analysis tools specifically suited for Gear manufacturing machine shops to implement GT in a manner that suits their business model and manufacturing environments.

Continued
Implementing GT (Cellular Manufacturing): Hybrid Cellular Layouts, provide an effective foundation for job shops to configure their shop floors differently from the typical assembly facility. These layouts integrate the flexibility of a Process Layout with the order flow tracking and control of a Cellular Layout. They are designed based on the principles of Design for Flow to achieve waste-free, and therefore highvelocity, flows of orders in a Make-To-Order realm without necessitating repeated shop floor reconfiguration.

Continued
Performance Measurement

Continued

Conclusion:

Continued

The approach to cell design and implementation process proposed in this presentation was used to implement the ideas at a small scale industry, and it has begun to realize the benefits expected from the cell. The key findings are listed below: 1. Do not underestimate the importance of analysis. A successful implementation requires thorough analysis. When introducing a cell in an already existing job shop, managers may decide to rely on their own knowledge and experience rather than on data and analysis to determine part families and cell capacity. 2. People make it happen. Analysis is necessary but not sufficient. Participation from people across the organization facilitates and enhances the design; and it is people that implement the design. Ensure that inputs from as many of those who will work and live within the cell are obtained prior to implementation.

Continued
3. Break down the functional barriers. GT( Cellular Manufacturing) requires communication amongst and between the operators and the functional support personnel to support rapid problem solving and results. The culture of an already existing shop may not support the kinds of interactions and relationships that support CM. Managers should be aware that the introduction of CM can potentially require changes to the organizational culture. Final Conclusion : In conclusion, this presentation has shown that when a job shop manufactures a group of products with similar characteristics and stable demand, Cellular manufacturing can be a very effective way to obtain performance improvements. The method proposed in the paper is recommended to design and implement Group Technology in existing job shop environments.