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Casting
Introduction Casting is one of the easiest classes of process to understand. Casting is simply a process where a mould is filled with a fluid, which then solidifies in the shape of the mould cavity. Provided the liquid is capable of undergoing a liquid-to-solid transition, by freezing or chemical reaction for instance, then casting can be used. Making ice cubes and jellies are useful analogies here. The production of the mould is one of the most important stages in making a casting. The casting, when solidified, must be of the right shape for the final product. In making the mould, often a pattern made in the shape of the final component is used. This might be a wooden mock-up, for example. Complex 3D shapes can be made using casting processes. Casting can be used to make a vast array of products, from gas-turbine blades to cheap plastic toys. Cast parts can range in size from fractions of centimetres and grams (such as the individual teeth on a zipper), to over 10 metres in length and many tonnes (such as the propellers of ocean liners). Using one of the available casting processes almost anything can be manufactured. It is a matter of optimising materials to be cast, the mould material and the pouring method (see Properties for processing casting). Generally, during casting, the fluid flows into the mould under gravity, but sometimes the fluid may need some extra force to push it into the cavity. Casting is not restricted to metals (or jellies). Glass and plastics can also be cast using a variety of processes, each being dependent on the raw starting material, and the manner by which it can be made to flow when it is in its liquid state. Casting processes can be classified into three types depending on the nature of the mould used. Properties for processing casting The casting (or pouring) group of processes is one of the most convenient for making threedimensional shapes, especially if repeated copies are required. However, you do have to be able to get your material into liquid form, and it has then to be runny enough to be poured. What do these conditions require? To get a liquid, you have to either melt the material; or dissolve it in a solvent which is subsequently evaporated off (the solution route); or pour liquid precursors into a mould where they react chemically to form a solid (the reaction route). Some materials (e.g. thermosetting plastics) decompose rather than melt on heating. Others react with oxygen when heated, so need to be melted in inert atmospheres (which may prove expensive). Yet others have such high melting points (see the database) that the energy costs of heating them is only justified in special cases. The solution route needs a suitable solvent, which you then have to be able to evaporate safely (many coatings such as paints are applied this way), but you can have shrinkage problems as the solvent is removed. The reaction route is used for both thermosets and thermoplastics and for concrete, but

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chemical reactions can produce considerable quantities of heat, so you must allow for this in the design of the process. Once you have the liquid, can you pour it? The physical property that determines the runniness of liquid is called viscosity. This varies with temperature and is not all that useful for describing how well a mould will be filled if the temperature of the liquid is falling as it runs into the cold mould. In the casting of metals a more useful property is fluidity, which takes into account not only the viscosity changes but also the effects of cooling rate, surface tension of oxide films and the temperature range over which the alloy filling the mould actually freezes. Eutectic alloys have a high fluidity as they melt at a single temperature. Many of the alloys used for casting products are based on eutectic alloys. Water and most liquids at room temperature have low viscosities, so can be poured easily, as can thermoset precursors. Molten thermoplastics, freshly-mixed concrete and clays have much higher viscosities. Although concrete can be poured, the others generally need to be pushed into their moulds, which is why injection-moulding machines for plastics are much beefier than their pressure diecasting machine counterparts for metals.

Types of casting
Permanent pattern This type of casting uses a model, or pattern, of the final product to make an impression which forms the mould cavity. Each mould is destroyed after use but the same pattern is used over and over again. Sand casting is a typical example of a permanent pattern process, where a pattern is placed into a special casting sand to form the right shape of cavity. Permanent pattern processes are usually cheaper than other methods, especially for small quantity production or one-offs, and are suitable for a wide range of sizes of product. Permanent mould In this method the same mould is used for large numbers of castings. Each casting is released by opening the mould rather than by destroying it. Permanent moulds need to be made of a material which can withstand the temperature fluctuations and wear associated with repeated casting. A good example of a product made with methods such of this is the ubiquitous die-cast childs toy (die is another word for mould).

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Casting
Casting is a manufacturing process by which a molten material such as metal or plastic is introduced into a mold, allowed to solidify within the mold, and then ejected or broken out to make a fabricated part. Casting is used for making parts of complex shape that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods, such as cutting from solid material. Casting may be used to form hot, liquid metals or meltable plastics (called thermoplastics), or various materials that cold set after mixing of components such as certain plastic resins such as epoxy, water setting materials such as concrete or plaster, and materials that become liquid or paste when moist such as clay, which when dry enough to be rigid is removed from the mold, further dried, and fired in a kiln. Substitution is always a factor in deciding whether other techniques should be used instead of casting. Alternatives include parts that can be stamped out on a punch press or deep-drawn, forged, items that can be manufactured by extrusion or by cold-bending, and parts that can be made from highly active metals. The casting process is subdivided into two distinct subgroups: expendable and nonexpendable mold casting: Expendable mold casting : Expendable mold casting is a generic classification that includes sand, plastic, shell, and investment (lost-wax technique) moldings. This method of mold casting involves the use of temporary, nonreusable molds. Sand casting : Sand casting requires a lead time of days for production at high output rates (1-20 pieces/hr-mold), and is unsurpassed for large-part production. Green (moist) sand has almost no part weight limit, whereas dry sand has a practical part mass limit of 2300-2700 kg. Minimum part weight ranges from 0.075-0.1 kg. The sand is bonded together using clays (as in green sand) or chemical binders, or polymerized oils. Sand in most operations can be recycled many times and requires little additional input. Preparation of the sand mold is fast and requires a pattern which can "stamp" out the casting template. Typically, sand casting is used for processing low-temperature metals, such as iron, copper, aluminium, magnesium, and nickel alloys. Sand casting can also be used for high temp metals where other means would be unpractical. It is by far the oldest and best understood of all techniques. Consequently, automation may easily be adapted to the production process, somewhat less easily to the design and preparation of forms. These forms must satisfy exacting standards as they are the heart of the sand casting process - creating the most obvious necessity for human control. Plaster casting (of metals) : Plaster casting is similar to sand molding except that plaster is substituted for sand. Plaster compound is actually composed of 70-80% gypsum and 20-30% strengthener and water. Generally, the form takes less than a week to prepare, after which a production rate of 1-10 units/hr-mold is achieved with items as massive as 45 kg and as small as 30 g with very high surface resolution and fine tolerances.

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Once used and cracked away, normal plaster cannot easily be recast. Plaster casting is normally used for nonferrous metals such as aluminium-, zinc-, or copper-based alloys. It cannot be used to cast ferrous material because sulfur in gypsum slowly reacts with iron. Prior to mold preparation the pattern is sprayed with a thin film of parting compound to prevent the mold from sticking to the pattern. The unit is shaken so plaster fills the small cavities around the pattern. The form is removed after the plaster sets. Plaster casting represents a step up in sophistication and requires skill. The automatic functions easily are handed over to robots, yet the higher-precision pattern designs required demand even higher levels of direct human assistance. Casting of plaster, concrete, or plastic resin : Plaster itself may be cast, as can other chemical setting materials such as concrete or plastic resin either using single use waste molds, multiple use piece molds, or molds made of flexible material such as latex rubber (which is in turn supported by an exterior mold). When casting plaster or concrete the finished product is, unlike marble, relatively unattractive, lacking in transparency, and so is usually painted, often in ways that give the appearance of metal or stone. Alternatively, the first layers cast may contain colored sand so as to give an appearance of stone. By casting concrete, rather than plaster, it is possible to create sculptures, fountains, or seating for outdoor use. A simulation of high quality marble may be made using certain chemically set plastic resins (for example epoxy or polyester) with powdered stone added for coloration, often with multiple colors worked in. The later is a common means of making attractive washstands, washstand tops and shower stalls, with the skilled working of multiple colors resulting in simulated staining patterns as is often found in natural marble or travertine. Shell molding : Shell molding is also similar to sand molding except that a mixture of sand and 3-6% resin holds the grains together. Set-up and production of shell mold patterns takes weeks, after which an output of 550 pieces/hr-mold is attainable. Aluminium and magnesium products average about 13.5 kg as a normal limit, but it is possible to cast items in the 45-90 kg range. Shell mold walling varies from 3-10 mm thick, depending on the forming time of the resin. There are a dozen different stages in shell mold processing that include: initially preparing a metal-matched plate mixing resin and sand heating pattern, usually to between 505-550 K inverting the pattern (the sand is at one end of a box and the pattern at the other, and the box is inverted for a time determined by the desired thickness of the mill) curing shell and baking it. removing investment. inserting cores. repeating for other half. assembling mold. pouring mold. removing casting. cleaning and trimming.

The sand-resin mix can be recycled by burning off the resin at high temperatures.

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Investment Casting :
Investment casting (lost-wax process) yields a finely detailed and accurate product, but mechanical properties are not good since the process involves slow cooling. Polystyrene foam is also used in investment castingsee lost-foam casting. After a variable lead time, usually weeks, 11000 pieces/hour-mold can be produced in the mass range 2.32.7 kg. Items up to 45 kg and as light as 30 g are possible for unit production. The process starts by creating an injection die to the desired specifications. This die will be used to inject wax to create the patterns needed for investment casting. The patterns are attached to a central wax sprue, creating an assembly, or mold. The sprue contains the fill cup where the molten metal will be poured into the assembly. The wax assembly is now dipped multiple times in a ceramic slurry, depending on the shell thickness desired. A layer of fine sand (usually zircon) is added on top of each ceramic layer. This process will be repeated until the desired shell is created. After the shell is created to the specifications desired, the wax must be removed; this is normally achieved using an autoclave. This is where the name "lost-wax process" comes from. This leaves an impression of the desired castings, which will be filled with metal. Before being cast, however, the shells must be heated in a furnace so they do not break during the casting process. Next, the desired metal is poured into the hot ceramic shell. The metal fills each part on the assembly, and the central sprue cavity and fill cup. The individual parts will be removed after the mold cools and the shell is removed. The shell is generally removed with water-blasting, although alternate methods can be used. What remains are the cast metal parts, but they are still attached to the sprue assembly. The individual parts are removed by cold-break (dipping in liquid nitrogen and breaking the parts off with hammer and chisel) or with large cutoff saws. Most investment castings need some degree of post casting machining to remove the sprue and runners, and improve surface finish. Grinding operations are perfomed to remove the gate. Parts are also inspected to make sure they were cast properly, and if not are either fixed or scrapped. Depending on the investment casting facility and specifications, more finishing work can be done on-site, subcontracted, or not done at all. Investment casting yields exceedingly fine quality products made of all types of metals. It has special applications in fabricating very high-temperature metals such as alloy steels or stainless steels, especially those which cannot be cast in metal or plaster molds and those which are difficult to machine or work.

Investment casting is often used in the aerospace and power generation industries to produce single crystal turbine blade, which exhibit superior creep resistance to equiaxed castings. A combination of slow cooling rates, seed crystals, and an elaborate sprue and runner system referred to as a "pigtail" are used to produce single crystal castings.

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Nonexpendable mold casting :

Nonexpendable mold casting differs from expendable processes in that the mold need not be reformed after each production cycle. This technique includes at least four different methods: permanent, die, centrifugal, and continuous casting.

Permanent mold casting :

Permanent mold casting (typically for non-ferrous metals) requires a set-up time on the order of weeks to prepare a steel tool, after which production rates of 5-50 pieces/hr-mold are achieved with an upper mass limit of 9 kg per iron alloy item (cf., up to 135 kg for many nonferrous metal parts) and a lower limit of about 0.1 kg. Steel cavities are coated with refractory wash of acetylene soot before processing to allow easy removal of the workpiece and promote longer tool life. Permanent molds have a life which varies depending on maintenance of after which they require refinishing or replacement. Cast parts from a permanent mold generally show 20% increase in tensile strength and 30% increase in elongation as compared to the products of sand casting. The only necessary input is the coating applied regularly. Typically, permanent mold casting is used in forming iron-, aluminium-, magnesium-, and copper-based alloys. The process is highly automated.

Die casting :
Die casting is the process of forcing molten metal under high pressure into the cavities of steel moulds. The moulds are called dies. Dies range in complexity to produce any non-ferrous metal parts (that need not be as strong, hard or heat-resistant as steel) from sink faucets to engine blocks (including hardware, component parts of machinery, toy cars, etc). In fact, the process lends itself to making any metal part that: must be precise (dimensions plus or minus as little as 50 m--over short distances), must have a very smooth surface that can be bright plated without prior polishing and buffing, has very thin sections (like sheet metal--as little as 1.2 mm), must be produced much more economically than parts primarily machined (multicavity die casting moulds operating at high speed are much more productive than machine tools or even stamping presses), must be very flexible in design; a single die casting may have all the features of a complex assembly.

If several machining operations would be required or assembly of several parts would be required (to make a finished part), die casting is probably far more economical. This level of versatility has placed die castings among the highest volume products made in the metalworking industry.

Common metals used in die casting include zinc and aluminum. These are usually not pure metals; rather are alloys which have better physical characteristics. In recent years, injection-molded plastic parts have replaced some die castings because they are usually cheaper (and lighter--important especially for automotive parts since the fuel-economy standards).

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Plastic parts are practical (particularly now that plating of plastics has become possible) if hardness is not required and if parts can be redesigned to have the necessary strength.

Process :
There are four major steps in the die casting process. First, the mould is sprayed with lubricant and closed. The lubricant both helps control the temperature of the die and it also assists in the removal of the casting. Molten metal is then injected into the die under high pressure. The high pressure assures a casting as precise and as smooth as the mold. Typically it is around 100 MPa (1000 bar). Once the cavity is filled then the pressure is maintained until the casting has become solid (though this period is usually made short as possible by water cooling the mold). Finally, the die is opened and the casting is ejected. Equally important as high-pressure injection is high-speed injection--required so the entire cavity fills before any part of the casting solidifies. In this way, discontinuities (spoiling the finish and even weakening the casting) are avoided even if the design requires difficult-to-fill very thin sections. Before the cycle can be started the die must be installed in the die casting machine (set up) and brought to operating temperature. This set-up requires 1-2 hours after which a cycle can take anywhere between a few seconds to a few minutes depending on the size of the casting. Maximum mass limits for magnesium, zinc, and aluminium parts are roughly 4.5 kg, 18 kg, and 45 kg, respectively. A typical die set will last 500,000 shots during its lifetime with lifetime being heavily influenced by the melting temperature of the metal or alloy being used. Aluminum and its alloys typically shorten die life due to the high temperature of the liquid metal resulting in deterioration of the steel mold cavities. Molds for die casting zinc last almost indefinitely due to the lower temperature of the zinc. Molds for die casting brass are the shortest-lived of all. This is despite, in all cases, making the mold cavities out of the finest "hot work" alloy steel available. A shot occurs every time the die is filled with metal. Shots are different from castings because there can be multiple cavities in a die, yielding multiple castings per shot. Also the shot consists not only of the individual castings but also the "scrap" (which, unlike in the case of scrap from machining, is not sold cheaply; it is remelted) that consists of the metal that has hardened in the channels leading into and out of the cavities. This includes, for example, the sprue, runners and overflows. Also there is usually some unplanned-for thin scrap called flash, the result of molds not fitting together tightly. Molding (process) : Molding is the process of manufacturing by shaping pliable raw material using a rigid frame or model called a mold. A mold or mould is a hollowed-out block that is filled with a liquid like plastic, glass, metal, or ceramic raw materials. The liquid hardens or sets inside the mold, adopting its shape. A mold is the opposite of a cast (see casting). The manufacturer who makes the molds is called moldmaker or mouldmaker. A release agent is typically used to make removal of the hardened/set substance from the mould easier.

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Casting Process
Casting is one of the easiest classes of process to understand. Casting is simply a process where a mould is filled with a fluid, which then solidifies in the shape of the mould cavity. Provided the liquid is capable of undergoing a liquid-to-solid transition, by freezing or chemical reaction for instance, then casting can be used. Casting is simply a process where a mould is filled with a fluid, which then solidifies in the shape of the mould cavity. Provided the liquid is capable of undergoing a liquid-to-solid transition, by freezing or chemical reaction for instance, then casting can be used. Making ice cubes and jellies are useful analogies here. The production of the mould is one of the most important stages in making a casting. The casting, when solidified, must be of the right shape for the final product. In making the mould, often a pattern made in the shape of the final component is used. This might be a wooden mock-up, for example.

Listings of the Casting Processes Groups

1. Conventional Castings Processes Groups are:

Sand Castings Green Sand Casting Flask-less molding Dry Sand Molding Sand Slinging Shell Core Molding Loam moldings, assorted processes

2. Precision Casting Processes Groups are:

Investment Casting Shaw Process Replica Casting Rubber Casting Molding Spin Casting Permanent Molding Process Die Casting Powdered Metal Casting Process

3. Special Casting Processes Groups are:

Styro-foam molding Special V-Process Casting

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Centrifugal Castings Continuous Casting Slush Casting NO-Bake Casting Squeeze Process

The Application Chart

[Casting Process = the normal application expected ]

Sand Castings: everyday mechanical components, currently made as fabrications, weld-aments, or off the shelf assembled parts. Green Sand Castings: same as sand castings. Permanent Molding: depending on the situations permanent molding can be looked at as an alternate process for almost all sand casting ( green sand ), and flask-less molding processes. Investment Casting: dental appliances, jewelry, firearms, weapon systems, engine parts, aircraft parts, anything that requires high definition, high details and easily duplicated. Powdered Metal Casting: motor hubs, gears, spacers, magnets, slides, blanks, automotive, lawn and garden, hardware, air-movement, recreation, agriculture, elevators, escalators The V-Process: medical equipment, machine tools, testing stands and equipment, specialty equipment, audio drivers, (speakers housings), aircraft, automotive, agriculture Die Casting: power tool bodies, handles, parts, triggers, housings, bases, plumbing, hardware, agriculture, aircraft, rails, gates, caps, covers, tops, bottoms Grey Iron Casting: pump housings, impellers, covers, caps, tops, bases, plumbing, agriculture, hardware, sewer covers, gears, blanks, hubs, flywheels, casings, housings Flask-less Molding: this casting and molding process can replace sand, green sand, and used with gray iron, whenever high volume, high out put, economical, exact duplications are required ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

I. The CONVENTIONAL CASTING PROCESSES:

1 A.) SAND CASTING ( also called, GREEN- SAND MOLDING ) is the most commonly used casting platform throughout the entire Casting Industry, World Wide. Simply put, there is a top, a bottom, and a middle to a mold. The pattern, or impression device, sits in the middle of the mold, and later is surrounded with sand . These are the basic, universal casting components, which can be applied to all casting processes. The top and the bottom of the pieces of the mold form the flask. The flask assembly, the

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top and bottom, "holds the whole thing together". The upper or topmost section of the flask of the mold (flask) is called the cope, while the bottom of the mold (flask) is called the drag. The impression device, in the middle, is called the pattern. The sand around the pattern is called the, holding medium. The mold maker uses the pattern to make the impression in the sand. He then sets the pattern aside. At that point, the molder closes the cope and drag, forming the mold. What the mold maker wants is the void left from the impression of the pattern, in middle of the sand, inside the mold. So, he fills that void with a molten material. Basic casting like this, is also called, "Green Sand Molding, or Green Sand Casting". These are the most basic molding methods, currently used in todays casting practices, regardless of the metal alloy, or any molten - liquid material being poured. Like was said in the Preface, Man has been casting things since before Biblical times, using these very concepts. All casting techniques employed in the rest of the Casting and Molding Processes are in many ways, just like sand casting, or green sand molding. With some thought and imagination, you can always see the cope and drag principle of casting we already discussed. The different techniques or casting and molding processes are used to achieve a desired end product, which has a special need in the market place. This special need prompted man to develop special processes. Examples of usage would be: Air movement components ( fan blades), hubs, shafts, tubes, rectangles, squares, holes, no holes, the list is endless. 1B.) GREY IRON CASTINGS This process is very much like sand casting and green sand casting processes. It can be done as flask-less molding. The difference being that the molten material is gray iron. Grey Iron is white iron to which 2% to 3% carbon has been added to reduce the hardness and brittleness of iron. See GREY IRON in Glossary. Examples of usage would be: pump bodies, housings, impellers, sewer covers, gears, blanks, bases, pads, motor mounts etc. 2.) FLASKLESS, MOLDING This process is a sand casting, or a green sand molding variation, that has been automated for speed and high volume out-put, of identical castings. Despite any misconceptions, a flask-less molding does use flasks. The flasks, " holds the whole thing together ". A Flask must be used on all sand molding for the containment of the sand, while the sand is firmed about the pattern. In flask-less molding, in either a vertical or a horizontal stance, a sand filled flask is rebuilt and used over and over, in this totally mechanized, and automated sand molding process. In sand casting or green sand casting, a tight fitting, individual most likely sand filled flask is used for each mold produced. The Industry has sand molders, use machines named "Hunter" or "B&P", to identify the makes and models of their flask-less molding equipment. The benefits of these systems are very impressive uniformity, high density molds, high out put of products, elimination of mold shift, just to mention a few, all of which drastically reduce labor expense.

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Flask-less Molding provides a mold hardness that is consistent though out the mold. The operator can adjust to different cope, drag heights and total squeeze pressure to accommodate different mold densities and mold hardness to meet the molding application. The operator can adjust the sand fill allowing the adjustment for variations in each pattern. It is possible produce complex molds and mold with deep pockets, which are difficult with traditional, normal sand casting procedures Rapid core setting, easy inspection of cores used, utilization of existing tooling, high casting quality, reduced finishing time, quick pattern change, exceptional mold to mold consistency, high productivity are some of the many reasons to use flask-less molding. 3.) DRY SAND MOLDING large components are very difficult to cast to exact size and dimensions. Hence, some foundries use dry sand molds to produce such parts. Dry sand molding is the green sand process modified by baking the mold at prescribed temperature. Engine blocks, large gears, big housings, construction parts, are examples of dry sand process candidates. Ferrous and non-ferrous metals are cast in this method. The key to this process is the proper baking time in relation to the binder and the moisture content. The other factors are the size, weight, and mass, of the component being cast. Wynn Danzur can explain the profitable advantages of this process to you. Some good examples are, the great strength of the part cast, exactness in dimension, much smoother finish, etc., but most important is how these processes will benefit your casting jobs. Examples of usage would be: engine blocks, transmission housings, big gear boxes, etc. 4.) SAND SLINGING is the rapid process of mechanically filling the flasks with sand. The sand is propelled into the flask, like a sling-shot. This yet, just another method for compacting the sand into the cope and drag of the flask. Some sand slingers are stationary, some portable, and are some moveable. The big plus with this process, is the elimination of sand waste, which is the universal sand foundry problem. Examples of usage would be: large pump bodies, gear boxes, boat engine blocks, gears, Large valve bodies, etc. 5.) STACK MOLDING is another high production, sand casting, or green sand molding process. The piston ring people know this method well. Simply explained, the bottom of a given flask in a stack provides the cope of the flask below, while the top, provides the drag of the next layer"pan caked- casting ". Examples of usage would be: piston rings

6.) DRY OR BAKED "SAND CORE" MOLDING very intricate automotive and agricultural castings are formed with this process. Accuracy, is the key word here along with close tolerances. A binder is mixed with un-bonded sand, it is then formed to the mold or pattern and baked. This is an expensive process, that achieves high level accuracy, in all dimensions..) DRY OR BAKED "SAND CORE" MOLDING very intricate automotive and agricultural castings are formed with this process. Accuracy, is the key word here along with close tolerances. A binder is mixed with un-bonded sand, it is then formed to the mold or pattern and baked. This is an expensive process, that achieves high level accuracy, in all dimensions.

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Examples of usage would be: engine blocks, transmission housings, gear housings, pump housings etc. 7.) SHELL CORE MOLDS - are the earliest, most automated, and most rapid of mold, and core making processes. This technique is also called the " C " Process or, Croning. Found in Germany after WW II, from a patent issued to Johannes C. A. Croning. The " C "Process uses a fluidized, harden-able sand synthetic resin mixture to do shell molding and shell core making. Some big advantages are closer tolerances, increased productivity, excellent casting surface finishing, almost "as cast quality ". Wynn Danzur, can work with you to determine how best this process may fit your operation. the earliest, most automated, and most rapid of mold, and core making processes. Examples of usage would be: engines valve heads, transmission cases, valve bodies, etc. 8.) OTHER CONVENTIONAL PROCESSES - Loam Molds, Chamotte Molds, Compo Molds, Cement-Bonded Molds, Floor and Pit Molds, Sweep Molds( like loam molds), Open Sand Molds, Waterless Bonded Sand Molds, are some of the lesser used, but also very important processes. 8.1) Oil Based Sand Casting - is very similar to regular sand casting and green sand casting, but a oil based mixture of sand is employed, instead of earth and sands and clays. This concept, provides Die Cast like finish, at a fraction of the cost, because no expensive die casting tools are required. When long life span, and high out put required for the application, a Die Casting is best option.

II. PRECISION CASTING PROCESSES

A.) INVESTMENT CASTING - or the "lost wax" process has been in use since the construction of the first pyramid. The Egyptians and Chinese used the process in their early history to make statues and jewelry. The investment casting method was largely ignored as an industrial process for the fabrication of parts until the demand for rapidly finished parts during World War II created the need for near net-shape components that could readily be put into their final form. Then new inorganic high temperature ceramic mold binders were developed to industrialize the process applications to include high strength and corrosion resistant materials such as low to high carbon alloy steel, tool steel, stainless steel, and nickel and cobalt base alloys. Aluminum and brass alloys are available also. It is a process capable of producing intricate shapes weighing from a small fraction of an ounce up to forty pounds or more. Make sure to visit Investment Casting in the Exploded Drawings, Exploded Drawings . Some examples of usage would be: dental appliances, jewelry, components for the automotive industry, military weaponry, jet engines, aircraft structural parts, machinery components, and many others.

Investment castings works this way:

A injection molded wax pattern is used for each part produced which is then encased in multiple layers of ceramic material. The wax pattern is then removed from the ceramic

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shell mold. The mold is fired in an oven and then molten metal is poured into the cavities left by the evacuated wax pattern. Upon cooling, the resulting precision castings are cleaned and subjected to further processing such as heat treatment. At this point, many parts are in their final form and are ready for use while others may require a small amount of further processing such as machining before reaching their final form. When properly applied, the advanced technology can offer complex near net-shapes that reduce overall manufacturing costs by minimizing material and labor inputs. Parts designs can be lighter in weight, more complex and are available in a wider range of alloys than those offered by other processes. Stronger materials, better surface finishes, thinner walls, difficult internal configurations and closer tolerances than those available through alternate processing techniques are some of the other advantages of the investment casting process. The word investment, in INVESTMENT CASTING, denotes the mechanical manner of making a mold rather than the material used. This process employs a three-dimensional pattern using all three dimensions to produce a one time destructible mold into which molten metal will be poured. A very simple example would be to pour wax into and egg shell, let it cool, then crack away the shell. People, not especially versed in casting terms, on occasion associate this process with financial matters. A.1) Lost Foam Process - This Process is similar to "Lost Wax", better known as Investment Casting, in that both the casting mediums are expended, either melted or evaporated away, leaving the cast part. Make sure to visit "Lost Foam" Casting Process in the Exploded Drawings, or Views Sections. A.2)Ceramic Mold Casting - Also known as `cope and drag investment casting'. The basic process is: A wood or metal pattern is placed in a flask and coated with a slurry of zircon and fused silica combined with bonding agents. 2. The mold is removed, cleaned and baked. The shells may be used as given, or they may have other materials, such as clay put on as backing materials. 3. The molds are then used as normal.
1.

This can make high temperature material parts. B.) THE SHAW PROCESS this is one of the best known of the INVESTMENT CASTING variations. The chief difference is that a jelling agent is added to the inside of the destructible mold instead of cracking away the mold, it is stripped away. C.) REPLICA CASTING can be made from any material that can be burned away, burnt out, or incinerated leaving a pattern chamber free of ash and residue. Examples would beplants, seedpods, insects, etc. This method is for very intricate designs, costume jewelry, precious metal replica. D.) RUBBER MOLDS is made of silicone or vulcanized rubber. It is a form containing the impression of an original mold. It is then filled with wax to duplicate identical molds of the original. A slurry is dipped around the wax, the wax burnt out and the molten metal poured into the void left by the burnt away wax. A simple example would be a mouth

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piece for dental work. E.) SPIN CASTING this bridges the gap between die casting and sand casting by incorporating the some of the important advantages of both of those processes.

E.1) Centrifugal Casting - is another name for this same Process. Production of prototype castings, in high or low volumes, with low tooling costs and short lead times, yielding die cast quality parts known for the close tolerances.

How it all works:

" ...Imagine a star inside a circle both made of rubber. At the ends of the points of the star are the patternsthe arms of the star are the sprues for the molten material to flow out to the patterns. The circle is spun and the molten material is poured into the center of the star the spinning motion casts the part. F.) PERMANENT MOLDING is very much like sand casting, but no sand is used, and there is no real impression devicejust a metal vessel shaped to the configuration of the part wanted, this is the impression device. The vessel is closed, an molten metal is poured inside, there it is allowed to cool and set up. Then the "cope and drag " are opened up and there is the cast part. In Permanent molding, just as the names states, the mold is permanent, in that it is used over and over again, unlike a sand mold, that is re-made, after each sand cast part, is produced. Alloys suited for Permanent Molding both ferrous, and nonferrous. is very much like sand casting but no sand is used, and there is no real impression devicejust a metal vessel shaped to the configuration of the part wanted, this is the impression device. The vessel is closed, an molten metal is poured inside, there it is allowed to cool and set up. Then the "cope and drag " are opened up and there is the cast part. In Permanent molding, just as the names states, the mold is permanent, in that it is used over and over again, unlike a sand mold, that is re-made, after each sand cast part, is produced. Alloys suited for Permanent Molding both ferrous, and nonferrous. Permanent Molding is also referred to as Gravity Die Casting. Advantages of Permanent molding over other processes are; the molten metals cool more rapidly than sand, producing a sound dense casting with superior mechanical properties, high degree of uniformity, high degree of dimensional accuracy, less scrap castings, more machining secondary operations can be " cast-out " of project reducing overall costs, a consistent quality finish. All casting techniques employed in the rest of the Casting and Molding Processes are in many ways, just like sand casting, or green sand molding. With some thought and imagination, you can always see the cope and drag principle of

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casting we already discussed. The different techniques or casting and molding processes are used to achieve a desired end product, which has a special need in the market place. This special need prompted man to develop special processes. Examples of usage would be: Permanent molding can replace just about all sand casting applications, where the benefits listed above are desired. G.) DIE CASTING this process is for high volume, high detail, value added, economy priced, cast parts. A metal tool is built, and it is attached to a furnace of molten metal, this molten metal is mechanically pouredinjected into the metal mold, the mold cools for a brief time, it opens the parts come out the process repeats, over and over and over. Advantage is very high production with great duplication, with great tolerances. An Aluminum Die Casting - is a process where molten aluminum alloy is injected into a closed vessel called a casting die or mold, under high pressure and at a controlled temperature. The mold has sections which include the "cover" or hot side and the "moveable" or the ejector side. The die may also have additional moveable segments called slides or pulls which are used to create features such as undercuts or holes which are parallel to the parting line. Aluminum die casting molds operate in cold chamber die casting machines. These machines run at the required temperatures and pressures to produce a quality part to net-shape or near net-shape specifications. Aluminum die castings can be readily machined, anodized, painted or powder coated. Examples of usage would be: cabinets for the electronics industry, hand and power tools for industrial and home use, general hardware appliances, pump parts, plumbing parts, parts for the automotive industry, sports and leisure, home appliances, a lot of communications equipment, the list is endless. Zinc die castings - poured from Zamak #3,#5 or #7 or a zinc-aluminum alloy casting made from ZA-8, are made very similar to aluminum die casting. The molten metal is injected into a closed vessel called a casting die or mold under high pressure and at a controlled temperature. The metal is cooled rapidly until the solidified part is sufficiently solid enough, to permit it to be ejected from the mold. The mold has sections which include the "cover" or hot side and the "moveable" or ejector side. The die may also have additional moveable segments called slides, or pulls which are use to create features such as undercuts or holes which are parallel to the parting line. Zinc die casting dies or molds operate in hot chamber die casting machines. These machines run at the required temperatures and pressures to produce a quality part, to netshape or near net-shape specifications. Zinc die castings, can be readily machined, plated, painted or powder coated. Examples of usage would be: all general hardware type parts, hardware for doors, drawers, and furniture, plumbing fixtures, automotive products, parts for the lighting

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industry, all hand tools, power tools, sporting goods list is endless.: all general hardware type parts, hardware for doors, drawers, and furniture, plumbing fixtures, automotive products, parts for the lighting industry, all hand tools, power tools, sporting goods list is endless. H.) POWDERED METAL CASTING this process is also sometimes referred to as the sintered metal process, we will always refer to this as Powdered Metal Casting. Casting Industry professionals across industry depend on Powdered Metal, for cost effective production of parts. The Powdered Metal Casting Process is the absolute choice for parts that require high mechanical properties with repeatable close tolerances. That's why this modern technology is so popular today. The advantages of Powdered Metal Casting process are: 1. Unlimited choices of alloys and associated properties 2. The metal properties can be specialized for most any application 3. The process is suited well for moderate to high production quantities 4. Powdered metal process offers long term reliability, too. Close control of dimensions and physical properties are an inherent part of the process. In addition, powdered metal parts are produced with net shape, requiring little secondary operations like machining. The Powdered Metal Casting Flow Process Description: 1. dispense measured quantity of powder metal into mold 2. compact powder with high pressure machine tool 3. extract compacted part 4. sinter part in an inert atmosphere at controlled temperature and time Examples of usage would be: fan hubs, motor hubs, magnets, automotive, farm, aircraft service equipment, power tools, machine tools, etc. I.) OTHER PRECISION MOLDING AND CASTING PROCESSES Acurrad Process Plaster Molding Antioch Process Graphite Molding Are some of the other processes

III. Special Casting Processes

A.) THE "V PROCESS " - permits molds to be made for the first time, out of freeflowing, dry, un-bonded sand without using high pressure squeezing, jolting, slinging, or blowing as a means of compaction of the sand used in conventional casting. This process is dimensionally consistent, economical, environmentally and ecologically acceptable, energy thrifty, versatile and clean.

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How it all works:

A thin plastic film is heated and place it over a pattern. A vacuum tightly draws the film around the pattern which is then surrounded by a flask. Next, the flask is filled with dry, un-bonded, extremely fine sand and vibrated, so that the sand tightly packs the pattern. A second sheet of film is placed on the flask, a vacuum draws out the remaining air, and the completed mold is then stripped from the pattern. Each half of the mold is made in a like fashion. Aluminum or the Alloy of choice, is poured to form the casting. Examples of usage would be: the medical equipment, instrumentation, electronics, machine tool , aircraft machine tools, musical drivers ( speakers ), church bells, automotive testing and repair equipment, to mention just a very few applications. Use the Table of Contents, to visit the Exploded Drawing Section and see a colored drawing on the V-Process. Follow the numbered steps listed below to get a better understanding of this V-Process. set a pattern on a hollow carrier plate. a heater softens up a thin sheet of plastic film. film is draped over the pattern, and a vacuum sucks the film down over the pattern. flask is set on the film coated pattern. flask is filled with dry sand, it is vibrated slightly to settle the sand. the sprue-cup is formed, the mold is leveledthe sprue-cup and flask are covered with plastic film. 7. vacuum is applied to flask, and hardens the sand, containing the pattern. 8. cope and drag are both formed in this manner and assembled. 9. plastic lined cavity is under vacuum. 10. molten metal is poured in, left to cool, part is done, plastic melts evaporates away into sand.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

B.) STYRA FOAM MOLDING think of permanent molding, or sand casting, green sand molding. But, instead of sand, a permanent molding tool, STYRO-FOAM is used as the pattern material. Most times the styro-foam pattern is laid out by a computer, then air cut to the shapes needed, or many shapes fastened together to form pattern. During the casting process, which would be just like sand casting, with the pouring of molten metal into pattern cavity, which in this process is styro-foam, sometimes the styrofoam is burned away, and sometimes it is not. This depends on the application of the actual component being cast. See Lost Foam Casting above, and visit the exploded drawings or views Sections. Examples of usage would be: large tooling for aircraft, bridge decking, highway barrier components, elevator components, to mention a few applications.