Credit: Department of Energy

Industrial Waste Heat Recovery

Alfred Piggott
4/20/2012

MEEM 4220 Internal Combustion Engines

2.0 Waste Heat Grades .......................................................................................................................... 3 3.0 Systems for Waste heat Recovery ............................................................................................. 5 3.1 Heat Exchangers .......................................................................................................................... 5 3.2 Load Preheating .......................................................................................................................... 5 3.3 Low Grade Recovery .................................................................................................................. 5 3.3.1 Deep Economizers.............................................................................................................. 6 3.3.2 Indirect Contact Condensation Recovery.................................................................. 6 3.3.3 Direct Contact Condensation Recovery ..................................................................... 6 3.3.4 Transport Membrane Condenser ................................................................................. 6 3.3.5 Heat Pumps ........................................................................................................................... 6

1.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 3

Table of Contents

4.0 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................... 8 5.0 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................... 9

3.4 Power Generation ....................................................................................................................... 7 3.4.1 Generating Power via Mechanical work .................................................................... 7 3.4.2 Direct Electrical Conversion Systems ......................................................................... 7

3.3.6 Closed compression cycles ............................................................................................. 6 3.3.7 Open Cycle Vapor Recompression ............................................................................... 6 3.3.8 Absorption Heat Pumps ................................................................................................... 6

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As fuel prices rise, supplies decrease, and concerns about environmental impact intensify, we start looking for new and better energy sources. A pollution-free source of energy that is often overlooked is waste heat. Waste heat is a byproduct of converting energy from one form to another. As governed by the second law of thermodynamics, no process of energy conversion is 100% efficient. Typical fossil fuel energy conversion processes include converting coal or natural gas to electricity or gasoline to vehicle power. In 2008 world energy consumption was roughly 505 quadrillion BTU (505 X 1015 BTU) (1). Conversion of fossil fuels to usable energy accounts for roughly 84% (1) of the world energy consumption. The efficiency of these fossil fuel conversion processes tends to be around 2843% (2). This means 57-72% or 217-288 quadrillion BTU is turned to heat and not part of the usable output. This equates to roughly 4-5 times more energy going to waste heat than all the renewable energy (Wind, Solar, Hydropower, Biomass, Geothermal) usage which was about 50 quadrillion BTU in 2008 (1).

1.0 Introduction

The second law of thermodynamics also governs the amount of waste heat that can be recovered. The higher the temperature of the waste heat, the greater the proportion that can be recovered. This can be seen with the equation for Carnot efficiency (equation 1). TH is the temperature of the waste heat and TL is the temperature of the environment, for example the ambient air temperature or the temperature of a lake or river where a portion of heat not recovered will be dumped. = 1

2.0 Waste Heat Grades

Equation 1: Carnot Efficiency Waste heat temperatures are generally classified into three categories (3). These categories were chosen based on typical industrial waste heat temperatures and the commercially available equipment to recover the waste heat. High-Grade 1100 TH 3000F (590-1650C) Medium-Grade 400 TH 1100F (205-590C) Low-Grade 80 TH 400F (27-205C) Table 1 shows various sources of high-grade waste heat. Although high-grade waste heat can be recovered at a higher efficiency than the lower grades, the cost to do so will be higher due to special materials and equipment design needed to withstand the higher temperatures.

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Table 1: Sources of High Grade Waste Heat [Source (3)]

Table 2 shows sources of medium grade waste heat. This is a temperature range that can still be economical (3) without the higher cost associated with high-grade recovery conversion equipment. Table 2: Sources of Medium Grade Waste Heat [Source (3)]

Table 3 shows sources of low-grade heat. Due to low efficiency at these temperatures, it is typically not economical to extract work from these sources. Some applications include preheating process gases, liquids, solids, or space heating.

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Table 3: Source of Lowe Grade Waste Heat [Source (3)]

3.0 Systems for Waste heat Recovery

3.1 Heat Exchangers

In medium to high temperature heat recovery systems, heat exchangers use heat from combustion exhaust gases to preheat pre-combustion incoming air. This reduces the amount of heat taken from combustion to heat the air and thus more combustion heat is available to run the intended process. There are many types of heat exchangers used, these include recuperators, regenerators, heat wheels, passive air preheaters, heat pipes, waste heat boilers and finned tube heat exchangers / economizers. Each of these has advantages and disadvantages for a given application.

3.2 Load Preheating

Load preheating refers to the preheating solid materials entering a plant with the waste heat from the plant process. An example of solid preheating is using the waste heat from a braze furnace to preheat the parts that will be brazed. This reduces the load on the furnaces and thus reduced energy consumption.

As in high and medium grade waste heat recovery, low-grade waste heat recovery also uses heat exchangers to accomplish the task. Low-grade recovery has a different set of challenges than medium and high-grade waste heat recovery. The main challenges are corrosion, large heat transfer surfaces, and finding a use for recovered heat. Corrosion becomes a challenge because these heat exchangers cool the gases to a low enough temperature that vapors condense. These combustion vapors are highly corrosive. Another challenge for low-grade
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3.3 Low Grade Recovery

recovery is the size of the heat exchanger. The laws of heat transfer require a larger surface area for heat transfer if the difference in temperature of the hot side and cold side is smaller. 3.3.1 Deep Economizers Deep economizers are corrosion resistant heat exchangers designed to cool exhaust gases to low-grade 150-160F. The heat recovered from the exhaust gas can then be used for another process. 3.3.2 Indirect Contact Condensation Recovery Indirect contact condensation recovery units are corrosion resistant shell and tube heat exchangers that can cool gases enough (100-110F) to completely condense vapor which in turn increases their efficiency. 3.3.3 Direct Contact Condensation Recovery Direct contact condensation recovery heat exchangers mix process waste steam with cooling fluid that is used to heat or preheat an external system. The direct contact of steam with the cooling fluid makes this process more efficient than an indirect contact heat exchanger. 3.3.4 Transport Membrane Condenser A transport membrane condenser uses capillary action to condense combustion gas vapor and recover latent heat for use in another process. 3.3.5 Heat Pumps Heat pumps can increase the temperature of low-grade waste heat for usage in a process that requires a higher temperature. In certain cases this can be done economically depending on the temperature rise needed and the cost of fuel and electricity. 3.3.6 Closed compression cycles The closed compression cycle is essentially a heat pump. This cycle removes heat from one fluid loop where cooling is needed and adds that heat to another fluid loop where heating is needed. 3.3.7 Open Cycle Vapor Recompression These systems use either mechanical or thermal compression to increase the pressure and thus the temperature of a waste side vapor. This allows the heat to be used in processes where a higher temperature is needed. 3.3.8 Absorption Heat Pumps The operation of an absorption heat pump is similar to the closed cycle compression system but instead of using mechanical compression it uses chemical means driven by heat.
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Power generation from waste heat typically involves using waste heat to generate mechanical energy, which subsequently drives an electrical generator. Prevailing technologies for accomplishing this are the steam Rankine cycle, organic Rankine cycle and the Kalina cycle. Other types of power generation that currently have not been demonstrated for large-scale industrial use are thermoelectric, piezoelectric, thermionic and thermal voltaic power generation. These types convert heat directly to electrical energy. 3.4.1 Generating Power via Mechanical work 3.4.1.1 Steam Rankine Cycle The most common system that converts heat to mechanical work is the steam Rankine cycle. This system is typically used for medium grade waste heat as it becomes less economical for low-grade heat. Furthermore, if temperatures are too low, superheat will not be achieved and if superheat is not achieved, condensation and erosion of turbine blades will occur. 3.4.1.2 Organic Rankine Cycle Organic Rankine cycle is much more suitable for low temperature waste heat recovery. This suitability comes from the organic working fluid, which has a higher vapor pressure and a lower boiling point than water. The higher molecular mass of the organic working fluid also allows for smaller turbine design due to more energy imparted on the turbine blade per unit area. 3.4.1.3 Kalina Cycle The Kalina cycle is basically a Rankine cycle that uses a mixture of two non-reacting fluids. The benefit of using two fluids is better thermal matching to the waste heat source. This thermal matching allows the Kalina cycle to achieve significant efficiency gains over the one fluid Rankine cycle. 3.4.2 Direct Electrical Conversion Systems 3.4.2.1 Thermoelectric Generation Thermoelectric generators (TEG) utilize the Seebeck effect to convert heat directly to electricity. When two different semiconductors are connected electrically in series and a temperature differential is applied, a voltage is created across the series. Thermoelectric materials are suitable for medium and high-grade waste heat recovery. Currently the costs are high and efficiencies are relatively low compared with the Rankine cycles. Advances in materials will make thermoelectric power generation more competitive.

3.4 Power Generation

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3.4.2.2 Piezoelectric Power Generation Piezoelectric Power Generation (PEPG) converts mechanical vibrations into electricity. These vibrations come from oscillating gas expansion processes. PEPG are suitable for lowgrade heat recovery. These devices are currently very low efficiency and high cost. 3.4.2.3 Thermionic Generation Thermionic generation devices operate on the principle of thermionic emission. Thermionic emission is produced when a temperature difference across two metal oxide plates separated in a vacuum causes electrons to flow through the vacuum gap. These devices are suitable for high and low-grade heat sources. 3.4.2.4 Thermophotovoltaic (TPV) Generator TPV generators operate by converting radiant heat into electricity. The heat source heats an emitter, which gives off electromagnetic radiation. This radiation travels through a filter and on to the Photovoltaic cell that converts the radiation into electricity.

4.0 Conclusion

Waste heat is a large potential source of pollution free energy. The maximum efficiency of the system used to recover waste heat depends on the temperature of the heat and is governed by laws of thermodynamics. There are many types of waste heat recovery equipment, each with its own pros and cons depending on the characteristics of the waste heat source. In the future, it will be possible to convert heat directly to electricity economically on a larger scale with solid-state devices.

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5.0 Bibliography
1. 2. 3.

"Environmental Footprints and Costs of Coal-Based Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle and Pulverized Coal Technologies." United States Environmental Protection Agency. Nexant, Inc., July 2006. Web. 7 Mar. 2012. <2. http://www.epa.gov/air/caaac/coaltech/2007_01_epaigcc.pdf>.

"International Energy Outlook 2011." U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). Sept. 2011. Web. 7 Mar. 2011. <http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/ieo/pdf/0484(2011).pdf>.

4.

Doty, Steve, and Wayne C. Turner. Energy Management Handbook - Seventh Addition. 7th ed. Lilburn: Fairmont, 2009. Print.

"Waste Heat Recovery: Technology and Opportunities in the U.S. Industry." U.S. Department of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. BCS Incorporated, Mar. 2008. Web. 10 Mar. 2012. <http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/intensiveprocesses/pdfs/waste_heat_recovery.pdf>.

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