Lecture 5

Earth Systems: Atmosphere

Dr. K. Vijaya Kumar School of Earth Sciences SRTM University, Nanded 431 606 Maharashtra, INDIA (E-mail: vijay_kumar92@hotmail.com)

Evolution of Atmosphere
First Atmosphere
The primordial atmosphere was probably rich in H2 and He. But in the present atmosphere these gases are relatively rare on Earth compared to other places in the universe. Hydrogen and helium were probably lost to space early in Earth's history because Earth's gravity is not strong enough to hold lighter gases. In the early stages of evolution the Earth still did not have a differentiated core (solid inner/liquid outer core) which creates Earth's magnetic field (magnetosphere = Van Allen Belt) which deflects solar winds. Once the core was differentiated the heavier gases were retained.

Second Atmosphere
The Second Atmosphere was produced by volcanic out gassing. Degassing of gases produced by ancient volcanic eruptions were probably similar to those created by modern volcanoes (H2O, CO2, SO2, CO, S2, Cl2, N2, H2, NH3 (ammonia) and CH4 (methane)). Free O2 was absent in the atmosphere at this time as it was not found in volcanic gases. As the Earth cooled, H2O produced by out gassing could exist as liquid in the Early Archean (> 3.5 billion years ago), allowing oceans to form. The formation of oceans during this period of Earths evolution is provided by pillow basalts (basalt a block coloured rock shows pillow structure when it is erupted within the water bodies) and deep marine sediments.

Addition of O2 to the Atmosphere

However, the present-day atmosphere contains ~21% free oxygen. Increasing oxygen concentrations in the atmosphere were gradually brought out by two processes: Photochemical dissociation - breakup of water molecules by ultraviolet light produced O2 levels ~ 1-2% current levels. At these levels, O3 (Ozone) can form to shield Earth surface from UV rays. Photosynthesis - CO2 + H2O + sunlight = organic compounds + O2 - produced by cyanobacteria and eventually higher plants - supplied the rest of O2 to atmosphere.

Thus plants are responsible for the elevated oxygen contents in the atmosphere and indirectly the animal life (of course including humans!!) on Earth.

The atmospheric oxygen is essentially consumed by Chemical Weathering - through oxidation of surface materials (early consumer) Animal Respiration (much later) and Burning of Fossil Fuels (much, much later)

In summary, the Earths has changed its composition with time Throughout the Archean there was little to no free oxygen in the atmosphere (<1% of presence levels). What little was produced by cyanobacteria, was probably consumed by the weathering process. Once rocks at the surface were sufficiently oxidized, more oxygen could remain free in the atmosphere. During the Proterozoic (~ 2.5 Billion years ago) the amount of free O2 in the atmosphere rose from 1 - 10 %. Most of this was released by cyanobacteria, which increase in abundance in the fossil record 2.3 Ga. Present levels of O2 were probably not achieved until ~400 Ma.

Evidence from the Rock Record Banded Iron Formation (BIF) - Deep water deposits in which layers of iron-rich minerals alternate with iron-poor layers, primarily chert. Iron minerals include iron oxide, iron carbonate, iron silicate, iron sulfide. BIF's are a major source of iron ore, because they contain magnetite (Fe3O4) which has a higher iron-to-oxygen ratio than hematite (Fe2O3). These rocks are common around 2.0 - 2.8 billion years

ago, but do not form today (indicates Iron in +2 state changed to +3 state and precipitated). Iron is occurs in two oxidation states: +2 (ferrous) and +3 (ferric). Iron in +2 state is mobile and in +3 state is stable and gets precipitated. Iron changing oxidation state from +2 to +3 state indicates elevated oxygen contents in the atmosphere around 2.3 Billion years ago. Red beds (continental siliciclastic deposits) are never found in rocks older than 2.3 B. y., but are common during Phanerozoic (< 500 million years) time. Red beds are red because of the highly oxidized mineral hematite (Fe2O3) that probably forms secondarily by oxidation of other Fe minerals that have accumulated in the sediment. Therefore, the amount of O2 in the atmosphere has increased with time especially at 2.3 billion years ago, recording a fundamental shift in the composition of atmosphere from anoxic to oxygen-rich conditions.

Schematic representation of Evolution of Atmosphere

Present Day Atmosphere Composition The Earths present day atmosphere is dominated by nitrogen, oxygen and argon (99.64%). Nitrogen and argon are more because they do not react and have high residence times in atmosphere whereas high concentration of oxygen is due to photosynthesis.

Structure of Atmosphere

Structure of Atmosphere Different segments of Atmosphere are based on meteorological variables of Density Pressure Temperature Composition

Structure of Atmosphere: Density and Pressure

Structure of Atmosphere: Temperature

Structure of Troposphere

Structure of Stratosphere

Structures of Mesosphere and Thermosphere

Structure of Atmosphere: Composition

Greenhouse Gases
Parameter CO2 CH4 CFC-11 (CFCl3) 0 ppm CFC-12 (CF2Cl2) 0 ppm N2O

Pre-Industrial atmospheric concentration Current atmospheric concentration

280 ppm (v) 353 ppm (v) 1.8 ppm (0.5%)

0.8 ppm

288 ppb

1.72 ppm

280 ppt

484 ppt

310 ppb

Current rate of annual atmospheric accumulation

0.015 ppm (0.9%) 10

9.5 ppt (4%)

17 ppt (4%)

0.8 ppb (0.25%)

Atmospheric residence time (in years)

(50200)

65

130

150

 Certain gasses in the atmosphere (CO2 and Water Vapour) absorb infrared radiation and reduce the amount that escapes into space This trapping of heat from our only source of warmth the Sun by the atmosphere is known as the Greenhouse Effect This gives us a global average temperature of +15C rather than -18C if we had no Greenhouse Effect!! Water vapour is the most important greenhouse gas - ~ 60 - 98% of the greenhouse effect is due to water vapour in the atmosphere CO2 and other minor gasses account for the remainder Due to anthropogenic activities increased the rate of emission of the greenhouse gases into the atmosphere thereby making the planet slightly warmer, which we popularly call as Global Warming. Global warming causes increasing levels of evaporation from the oceans and melting of glaciers.

Ozone Hole Ozone is dominantly present between 20 and 30 km within stratosphere, If all the ozone could be brought down to earths surface, the layer of ozone would be only 2.5 mm thick. This small amount of atmosphere protects the earth by absorbing ultraviolet radiation from the sun. In the troposphere ozone is generated by reaction of sunlight with gases coming out of auto exhausts and factory smoke. Ozone formed in this way causes the burning of eyes and breathing problems. Due to reactions between the chloro-fluoro carbons (CFC), the concentration of ozone is decreasing in the stratosphere. This decrease in ozone concentration (in other words its density) is called as OZONE HOLE. This decrease is concentration is first observed above the Antarctica.

In summary..

The composition and structure of atmosphere changed with time. Atmosphere has a layered structure Entire weather is within Troposphere Ozone concentration is decreasing with time