WUNDT,VLKERPSYCHOLOGIE, AND EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGY
Greenwood, John D.
Issue: Volume 6(1), February 2003, !0"##
$ubl%&a'%on (ye: )*r'%&les+
$ubl%sher: , 2003 by 'he *mer%&an $sy&holo-%&al *sso&%a'%on
Abstract
.%lhelm .und' d%s'%n-u%shed be'ween /e0er%men'al sy&holo-y1 and
Vol2ersy&holo-%e. I' %s o3'en &la%med 'ha' .und' ma%n'a%ned 'ha' so&%al sy&holo-%&al
henomena, 'he sub4e&' ma''er o3 V5l2ersy&holo-%e, &ould no' be %n6es'%-a'ed
e0er%men'ally bu' mus' be e0lored 6%a &omara'%6e7h%s'or%&al me'hods. In 'h%s ar'%&le
%' %s ar-ued 'ha' %' %s doub'3ul %3 many o3 'he assa-es usually &%'ed as e6%den&e 'ha'
.und' held su&h a 6%ew a&'ually suor' su&h a 6%ew. I' %s also ar-ued 'ha' %3 .und' d%d
hold su&h a 6%ew, %' was %n&ons%s'en' w%'h h%s own -eneral 'heore'%&al os%'%on and
me'hodolo-%&al ra&'%&e. I' %s su--es'ed 'ha' %' %s ana&hron%s'%& 'o a''r%bu'e su&h a 6%ew
'o .und', be&ause he aears 'o ha6e had l%''le %n'eres' %n 'he e0er%men'al analys%s o3
'he syn&hron%& so&%al dynam%&s o3 sy&holo-%&al ro&esses. 8os' o3 .und'9s ar-umen's
abou' 'he %naror%a'eness o3 e0er%men'a'%on were d%re&'ed a-a%ns' 'he %n'rose&'%6e
analys%s o3 d%a&hron%& h%s'or%&al ro&esses.
(rad%'%onal h%s'or%es o3 *mer%&an so&%al sy&holo-y re-ularly &elebra'e 'he
ro-ress%6e 'r%umh o3 s&%en'%3%& and e0er%men'al me'hods (:ar'wr%-h', 1;!;< Jones,
1;#=, 1;;#). >e6%s%on%s' &r%'%&s o3 su&h .h%- h%s'or%es o3'en 'rea' 'he &omm%'men' 'o
e0er%men'a'%on as one o3 'he h%s'or%&al sour&es o3 'he %mo6er%shmen' o3 *mer%&an
so&%al sy&holo-y (Dan?%-er, 2000< Farr, 1;;6). @u&h &r%'%&s -enerally &red%' .%lhelm
.und' w%'h an early re&o-n%'%on o3 'he so&%al d%mens%ons o3 &o-n%'%on, emo'%on, and
beha6%or. .und' %s held 'o ha6e re&o-n%?ed 'ha' &er'a%n 3orms o3 &o-n%'%on, emo'%on, and
beha6%or are or%en'ed 'o 'he reresen'ed &o-n%'%on, emo'%on, and beha6%or o3 members o3
so&%al -rous (%.e., &er'a%n bel%e3s, a''%'udes, and beha6%ors are held or en-a-ed by
%nd%6%duals be&ause 'hey are reresen'ed as held or en-a-ed by, e.-., o'her 3am%ly
members, Demo&ra's, :a'hol%&s, ban2ers, or -an- members). .und' ma%n'a%ned 'ha'
'hese so&%al 3orms o3 &o-n%'%on, emo'%on, and beha6%or &ons'%'u'e 'he sub4e&' ma''er o3
/so&%al sy&holo-y,1 wh%&h he e0lored %n h%s 1076olume V5l2ersy&holo-%e (.und',
1;00"1;20), some'%mes &hara&'er%?ed as h%s /se&ond sy&holo-y1 (:ahan A .h%'e,
1;;2).
B%s'or%&al &r%'%&s o3 e0er%men'al 3orms o3 so&%al sy&holo-y also 3reCuen'ly
&red%' .und' w%'h 'he 6%ew 'ha' so&%al sy&holo-%&al henomena &anno' be %n6es'%-a'ed
e0er%men'ally bu' mus' be e0lored w%'h &omara'%6e7h%s'or%&al me'hods. Indeed,
.und' %s o3'en ra%sed 3or h%s res&%en' re&o-n%'%on o3 'he %nadeCua&y o3 %nd%6%dual%s'%&
aroa&hes 'o so&%al sy&holo-y, su&h as 'hose 'ha' &ame 'o dom%na'e *mer%&an so&%al
sy&holo-y %n 'he 20'h &en'ury, as der%6%n- 3rom 'he m%sal%&a'%on o3 e0er%men'al
me'hods 'o 'he s'udy o3 so&%al sy&holo-%&al henomena (Dan?%-er, 1;#3< Farr, 1;;6<
For-as, 1;#1< Graumann, 1;#6< Deary, 1;!;< 8euller, 1;!;).
1
.und' %s -enerally reresen'ed as ha6%n- ma%n'a%ned 'h%s 6%ew be&ause he held
'ha' &omle0 so&%al sy&holo-%&al s'a'es and ro&esses are emer-en' /sura%nd%6%dual1
henomena 'ha' &anno' be redu&ed 'o 'he %n'rasy&holo-%&al s'a'es and ro&esses o3
%nd%6%duals. Graumann (1;#6), 3or e0amle, &la%med 'ha':
*&&ord%n- 'o .und', no %nd%6%dual &o-n%'%on, so&%al or non7
so&%al ('hou-h', 4ud-emen', e6alua'%on) may me'hodolo-%&ally
be %sola'ed 3rom %'s so&%o&ul'ural bas%s, as %s bound 'o haen %n
urely e0er%men'al analyses. (ha' %s why 3or .und' 'he
e0er%men'al aroa&h, bas%& as %' %s, had 'o rema%n res'r%&'ed 'o
'he mos' bas%&, 'ha' %s, s%mle, henomena o3 %nd%6%dual men'al
l%3e. (. ;#)
(he suosed reason 3or 'h%s %s be&ause /:o-n%'%on resuoses
(sura%nd%6%dual) lan-ua-e and &ul'ure %n'o wh%&h 'he %nd%6%dual %s Eso&%al%?edF and,
3rom &h%ldhood on, 3%rmly embedded1 (. ;#).
@%m%lar sor's o3 &la%ms ha6e been made by Dan?%-er (1;#3), Farr (1;;6), For-as
(1;#1), Deary (1;!;), and 8euller (1;!;). $erhas 'he mos' e0l%&%' and e0'reme
s'a'emen' o3 'h%s os%'%on %s 'o be 3ound %n @hoo2 (1;;=):
.und' bel%e6ed 'ha' due 'o 'he e0'reme &omle0%'y %n6ol6ed %n
'he h%-her so&%o7h%s'or%&al na'ure o3 human%'y, wh%&h %n&ludes
moral%'y, lan-ua-e, and %n -eneral any or'%on o3 human l%3e
wh%&h essen'%ally reCu%res ar'%&%a'%on %n 'he lar-er so&%al
shere, e0er%men'a'%on %s s%mly %moss%ble (%'al%&s added).
(. 3=1"3=2)
In 'h%s ar'%&le I Cues'%on 'h%s &ommonly a&&e'ed %n'erre'a'%on o3 .und'. (here
%s l%''le doub' 'ha' .und' d%d re&o-n%?e 'he so&%al d%mens%ons o3 &o-n%'%on, emo'%on, and
beha6%or and ma%n'a%ned 'ha' 'hese &ons'%'u'e 'he d%s'%n&'%6e sub4e&' ma''er o3 so&%al
sy&holo-y, e6en %3 (as I su--es' %n 'h%s ar'%&le) h%s own &on'r%bu'%on 'o 'he emer-%n-
d%s&%l%ne o3 so&%al sy&holo-y d%d no' l%6e u 'o %'s or%-%nal rom%se. (here %s also l%''le
doub' 'ha' .und' d%d e0ress 'he 6%ew 'ha' so&%al sy&holo-%&al henomena &anno' be
%n6es'%-a'ed e0er%men'ally, al'hou-h e0a&'ly wha' he mean' by 'h%s %s oen 'o
%n'erre'a'%on. For e0amle, one o3 'he &leares' e0ress%ons o3 'h%s 6%ew %s -%6en %n 'he
o3'7Cuo'ed assa-e 3rom .und'9s $r%n&%les o3 $hys%olo-%&al $sy&holo-y (1;0G, . ="
6):
.e may add 'ha', 3or'una'ely 3or 'he s&%en&e, 'here are o'her
sour&es o3 ob4e&'%6e sy&holo-%&al 2nowled-e, wh%&h be&ome
a&&ess%ble a' 'he 6ery o%n' wh%&h 'he e0er%men'al me'hod 3a%ls
us. (hese are &er'a%n rodu&'s o3 'he &ommon men'al l%3e, %n
wh%&h we may 'ra&e 'he oera'%on o3 de'erm%na'e sy&h%&al
mo'%6es: &h%e3 amon- 'hem are lan-ua-e, my'h and &us'om. In
ar' de'erm%ned by h%s'or%&al &ond%'%ons, 'hey are also, %n ar'
deenden' uon un%6ersal sy&holo-%&al laws< and 'he
henomena 'ha' are re3erable 'o 'hese laws 3orm 'he sub4e&'7
ma''er o3 a se&%al sy&holo-%&al d%s&%l%ne, e'hn%& sy&holo-y.
(he resul's o3 e'hn%& sy&holo-y &ons'%'u'e, a' 'he same '%me,
our &h%e3 sour&e o3 %n3orma'%on re-ard%n- 'he -eneral
sy&holo-y o3 'he &omle0 men'al ro&esses.
He' .und' wen' on 'o &la%m 'ha' /e'hn%& sy&holo-y1 has 'o &ome 'o 'he a%d o3
/%nd%6%dual sy&holo-y1 only under se&%al &%r&ums'an&es, namely, when 'he
/de6elomen'al 3orms o3 'he &omle0 men'al ro&esses are %n Cues'%on1 (. 6). (h%s
does no' ob6%ously re&lude 'he e0er%men'al s'udy o3 'he so&%al d%mens%ons o3
de6eloed 3orms o3 /&omle0 men'al ro&esses.1
In 'h%s ar'%&le I ar-ue 'ha' %' %s doub'3ul whe'her many o3 'he assa-es 'ha' are
normally &%'ed as e6%den&e 'ha' .und' held 'he 6%ew 'ha' so&%al sy&holo-%&al
henomena &anno' be %n6es'%-a'ed e0er%men'ally a&'ually suor' su&h a 6%ew. I also
ar-ue 'ha' %3 .und' d%d hold su&h a 6%ew, he does no' aear 'o ha6e held %' 3or 'he
reasons usually a6owed, namely, 'he resumed &omle0%'y and /sura%nd%6%dual%'y1 o3
so&%al sy&holo-%&al henomena, and 'ha' %' would ha6e been %n&ons%s'en' w%'h h%s own
-eneral 'heore'%&al os%'%on and me'hodolo-%&al ra&'%&e.
G%6en 'he absen&e o3 .und'%an ar-umen's demons'ra'%n- 'he %moss%b%l%'y or
%naror%a'eness o3 e0er%men'a'%on %n so&%al sy&holo-y, 'here do no' aear 'o be any
-rounds 3or as&r%b%n- 'o .und' res&%en' re&o-n%'%on o3 'he suosed reason 3or 'he
ne-le&' o3 'he so&%al %n *mer%&an so&%al sy&holo-y, namely, %'s &omm%'men' 'o 'he
e0er%men'al analys%s o3 so&%al sy&holo-%&al henomena.
2
(o as&r%be su&h a os%'%on 'o
.und' %s %n any &ase ana&hron%s'%&, be&ause .und' does no' seem 'o ha6e had mu&h
%n'eres' %n 'he syn&hron%& so&%al sy&holo-%&al dynam%&s o3 &o-n%'%on, emo'%on, and
beha6%or 'ha' d%d be&ome 'he ob4e&' o3 e0er%men'al analys%s %n *mer%&an so&%al
sy&holo-y, a' leas' %n 'he early de&ades.
In 'h%s ar'%&le I 'rea' V5l2ersy&holo-%e as an early 3orm o3 so&%al sy&holo-y,
be&ause I ma%n'a%n 'ha' .und' d%d re&o-n%?e 'he so&%al d%mens%ons o3 &o-n%'%on,
emo'%on, and beha6%or. V5l2ersy&holo-%e was %n 3a&' 'ransla'ed as /so&%al sy&holo-y1
%n :harles B. Judd9s ed%'%on o3 .und'9s Ilemen's o3 $sy&holo-y (.und', 1#;!J1;02).
Bowe6er, %' %s wor'h no'%n- 'ha' 'here %s some d%su'e abou' how V5l2ersy&holo-%e
should be 'ransla'ed. Klumen'hal (1;#=) no'ed 'ha' /V5l2ersy&holo-%e %s a un%Cue
German 'erm, one 'ha' has -enerally been m%s'ransla'ed as E3ol2 sy&holo-y.F Bowe6er,
'he re3%0, V5l2er, &arr%es 'he mean%n- o3 Ee'hn%&F or E&ul'uralF1 (. G0). Idward Deroy
@&haub used 'he 'erm 3ol2 sy&holo-y %n h%s 'ransla'%on o3 .und'9s Ilemen's o3 Fol2
$sy&holo-y: Lu'l%nes o3 a $sy&holo-%&al B%s'ory o3 'he De6elomen' o3 8an2%nd
(.und', 1;16), 3ollow%n- .und'9s own &omla%n' 'ha' /so&%al sy&holo-y1
(so?%alsy&holo-%e) %s no' a su%'able 'ransla'%on 3or V5l2ersy&holo-%e. Bowe6er,
.und'9s reason 3or re4e&'%n- 'h%s 'ransla'%on mus' be 'a2en %n &on'e0'. Be ob4e&'ed 'o 'he
'ransla'%on o3 V5l2ersy&holo-%e as so?%alsy&holo-%e be&ause %n h%s own day
so?%alsy&holo-%e was res'r%&'%6ely asso&%a'ed w%'h &on'emorary &ul'ural henomena:
/E@o?%alsy&holo-%eF (so&%al sy&holo-y) a' on&e rem%nds us o3 modern so&%olo-y,
wh%&h, e6en %n %'s sy&holo-%&al hases, usually deals e0&lus%6ely w%'h Cues'%ons o3
modern &ul'ural l%3e1 (1;16, . G). In &on'ras', a&&ord%n- 'o .und', V5l2ersy&holo-%e
embra&es /3am%l%es, &lasses, &lans and -rous1 as well as /more &omrehens%6e, so&%al
-rous1 su&h as /eoles1 (1;16, . G). *nalo-ously, early *mer%&an so&%al
sy&holo-%s's su&h as 8&Dou-all (1;20) and Dunla (1;2=) ma%n'a%ned 'ha' so&%al
sy&holo-y embra&es /3am%l%es1 and /o&&ua'%onal -rous1 as well as /eoles1 and
/na'%ons.1
Wu!t a! V"#$%r&s'c()#)*+%
.und' %s -enerally re&o-n%?ed as a %oneer and %ns'%'u'%onal 3ounder o3 'he
a&adem%& s'udy o3 s&%en'%3%& sy&holo-y %n Iuroe. Be e33e&'%6ely &rea'ed 'he 3%rs'
labora'ory, 'e0'boo2, 4ournal, and $hD ro-ram %n e0er%men'al sy&holo-y. .ha' he
%n'rodu&ed a' 'he Mn%6ers%'y o3 De%?%- %n 'he 1##0s was a d%s&%l%ne &on&erned w%'h 'he
e0er%men'al analys%s o3 %mmed%a'e e0er%en&e, %n suosed &on'ras' 'o 'he na'ural
s&%en&es, wh%&h were held 'o be &on&erned w%'h med%a'e e0er%en&e (/w%'h 'he ob4e&'s
o3 e0er%en&e, 'hou-h' o3 as %ndeenden' o3 'he sub4e&'1<.und', 1#;!J1;02, . 3).
.und'9s e0er%men'al wor2, &ondu&'ed %n 'he De%?%- labora'ory and reor'ed %n
$h%losoh%s&he @'ud%en (la'er $sy&holo-%s&he @'ud%en), lar-ely &omr%sed s'ud%es o3
sy&hohys%&s, rea&'%on '%me, er&e'%on, and a''en'%on. (h%s 3orm o3 /%nd%6%dual1 or
/-eneral1 e0er%men'al sy&holo-y .und' &alled hys%olo-%s&he $sy&holo-%e, no'
be&ause %' was -rounded %n or d%re&'ed 'oward hys%olo-%&al ob4e&'s bu' be&ause %'
aror%a'ed 'he e0er%men'al me'hods o3 'he newly and su&&ess3ully de6eloed s&%en&e
o3 hys%olo-y 'o 'he sub4e&' ma''er o3 %mmed%a'e e0er%en&e.
*s %s well 2nown, .und' also 'hou-h' 'ha' 'h%s 3orm o3 e0er%men'al %nd%6%dual
sy&holo-y should be sulemen'ed by V5l2ersy&holo-%e, a /so&%al1 or /-rou1 or
/&ul'ural1 or /3ol21 sy&holo-y, &on&erned w%'h 'he &omle0 /men'al rodu&'s1 o3
/so&%al &ommun%'%es,1 su&h as lan-ua-e, my'h, and &us'om. (he %dea o3 a 3orm o3
sy&holo-y -rounded %n so&%al &ommun%'y had been su--es'ed by Johann Fr%edr%&h
Berbar' (1#16), who &hara&'er%?ed %' as a 3orm o3 /ol%'%&al e'holo-y,1 and de6eloed by
.%lhelm 6on Bumbold' (1#36), who e0l%&%'ly rela'ed d%33eren&es %n 3orms o3 &o-n%'%on,
emo'%on, and beha6%or 'o d%33eren&es %n so&%al &ommun%'%es and asso&%a'ed l%n-u%s'%&
modes o3 e0ress%on.
3
Bumbold' layed a ma4or role %n 'he de6elomen' o3 'he modern
German un%6ers%'y and ersonally ensured 'he &rea'%on o3 ro3essorsh%s %n newly
de6elo%n- d%s&%l%nes su&h as l%n-u%s'%&s (and, e6en'ually, sy&holo-y).
(he %dea o3 a new d%s&%l%ne se&%3%&ally &alled V5l2ersy&holo-%e, de6o'ed 'o
'he &omara'%6e and h%s'or%&al s'udy o3 'he men'al rodu&'s o3 so&%al &ommun%'%es, was
3%rs' de6eloed by 8or%'? Da?arus (1#2G"1;03) %n an 1#=1 ar'%&le en'%'led /Ln 'he
:on&e' and $oss%b%l%'y o3 a V5l2ersy&holo-%e (Jahoda, 1;;!).
G
In 1#60, w%'h Ba4m
@'e%n'hal (1#23"1#;;), Da?arus 3ounded 'he 4ournal Ne%'s&hr%3' 3Or V5l2ersy&holo-%e
und @ra&hw%ssens&ha3'. Bowe6er, 'he -eneral no'%on o3 a &omara'%6e sy&holo-y
3o&used on &ul'ural and h%s'or%&al 6ar%a'%ons %n so&%al &ommun%'y had a mu&h lon-er
h%s'ory, and .und'9s ro4e&' (des%'e h%s d%sa-reemen's w%'h Da?arus and @'e%n'hal, and
h%s own %d%osyn&ra'%& %n'eres's) reresen'ed 'he &on'%nua'%on o3 an older 'rad%'%on 'ha'
&an be 'ra&ed ba&2 'o G%amba''%s'a V%&o (1!2=J1;G#) and Johann Go''3r%ed Berder
(1!#GJ1;6#) and 'ha' 3ound %'s ar'%al e0ress%on %n 'he /*n'hroolo-%e1 o3 Immanuel
Pan' (1!;#J1;!G) and 'he /e'holo-y1 o3 John @'uar' 8%ll (1#G3).
=
(h%s 'rad%'%on was lar-ely &on&erned w%'h 'he h%s'or%&al de6elomen' o3 'he
men'al%'y or /s%r%'1 (V5l2s-e%s') o3 /eoles1 and how 'he%r d%sara'e 3orms o3
men'al%'y e6ol6ed under 6ar%ed h%s'or%&al, -eo-rah%&al, &l%ma'%&al, e&onom%&, so&%al,
and ol%'%&al &ond%'%ons. (h%s 'ye o3 enCu%ry e6ol6ed %n'o 'he &omara'%6e and
de6elomen'al analys%s o3 'he 3orms o3 /-rou men'al%'y1 or /-rou m%nd1 asso&%a'ed
w%'h d%33eren' so&%al &ommun%'%es, ran-%n- 3rom 3am%l%es and rel%-%ous &ommun%'%es 'o
whole na'%ons.
.und'9s V5l2ersy&holo-%e 3ollowed 'h%s 'rad%'%on %n ma%n'a%n%n- 'ha' d%s'%n&'%6e
so&%al 3orms o3 &o-n%'%on, emo'%on, and beha6%or are -rounded %n so&%al -rous or
/&ommun%'%es1: /*ll su&h men'al rodu&'s o3 a -eneral &hara&'er resuose as a
&ond%'%on 'he e0%s'en&e o3 a men'al &ommun%'y &omosed o3 many %nd%6%duals1 (.und',
1#;!J1;02, . 23). 8oreo6er, .und' based h%s d%s'%n&'%on be'ween /so&%al1 (or /-rou1
or /3ol21) sy&holo-y and /%nd%6%dual1 sy&holo-y on 'he d%s'%n&'%on be'ween so&%ally
as oosed 'o %nd%6%dually en-a-ed sy&holo-%&al s'a'es and ro&esses:
Ke&ause o3 'h%s deenden&e on 'he &ommun%'y, %n ar'%&ular 'he
so&%al &ommun%'y, 'h%s whole dear'men' o3 sy&holo-%&al
%n6es'%-a'%on %s des%-na'ed as so&%al sy&holo-y, and
d%s'%n-u%shed 3rom %nd%6%dual, or as %' may be &alled be&ause o3
%'s redom%na'%n- me'hod, e0er%men'al sy&holo-y. (.und',
1#;!J1;02, . 23)
6
*l'hou-h .und'9s Vol2ersy&holo-%e reresen's an early 3orm o3 so&%al
sy&holo-y, .und' d%d no' 'urn 'o V5l2ersy&holo-%e and &omara'%6e7h%s'or%&al
me'hods be&ause he la'er &ame 'o re&o-n%?e 'he %nadeCua&%es and l%m%'a'%ons o3 'he
e0er%men'al me'hod as al%ed 'o /h%-her1 sy&holo-%&al s'a'es -rounded %n so&%al
&ommun%'y. .und' be&ame %n'eres'ed %n V5l2ersy&holo-%e 6ery early %n h%s &areer. Be
o33ered a &ourse on /so&%al1 or /3ol21 sy&holo-y en'%'led /*n'hroolo-%e (Qa'ural
B%s'ory o3 8an)1 (Deary, 1;!;) a' 'he Mn%6ers%'y o3 Be%delber- %n 1#=;. In h%s 3%rs'
boo2, Ke%'rR-e ?ur (heor%e der @%nneswahrnehmun- (:on'r%bu'%ons (owards 'he (heory
o3 $er&e'%on), wr%''en dur%n- h%s years a' Be%delber- and ubl%shed %n 1#62, .und'
do&umen'ed 'he essen'%al ro-ram o3 bo'h e0er%men'al sy&holo-y and
V5l2ersy&holo-%e. In 'he 276olume Vorlesun-en Ober d%e 8ens&hen7und (h%erseele
(De&'ures on 'he Buman and *n%mal 8%nd), ubl%shed %n 1#63, 16 years be3ore .und'
3ounded 'he e0er%men'al sy&holo-y ro-ram a' De%?%-, he de6o'ed many a-es 'o 'he
e0l%&a'%on and de6elomen' o3 'he ro4e&' o3 V5l2ersy&holo-%e (Klumen'hal, 1;!;).
Pr)!ucts a! Pr)c%ss%s, E-&%r+.%ta# a! Pur% Obs%r/at+)
.und' d%d 'al2 abou' /men'al rodu&'s1 su&h as lan-ua-e, my'h, and &us'om as
emer-en' /sura%nd%6%dual1 henomena. Bowe6er, he also ma%n'a%ned 'ha' 'hey are
deenden' on (be&ause 'hey &an only be %ns'an'%a'ed by) 'he sy&holo-%&al (albe%' so&%al
sy&holo-%&al) s'a'es and beha6%oral ra&'%&es o3 %nd%6%dual ersons:
*ll su&h men'al rodu&'s o3 a -eneral &hara&'er resuose as a
&ond%'%on 'he e0%s'en&e o3 a men'al &ommun%'y &omosed o3
many %nd%6%duals, 'hou-h, o3 &ourse, 'he%r deees' sour&es are
'he sy&h%&al a''r%bu'es o3 'he %nd%6%dual. (.und', 1#;!J1;02, .
23) S I' mus' no' be 3or-o''en 'ha' S 'here &an be no 3ol2
&ommun%'y aar' 3rom %nd%6%duals who en'er %n'o re&%ro&al
rela'%ons w%'h%n %'. (.und', 1;16, . 3)
!
In &onseCuen&e, 'he emer-en' /sura%nd%6%dual1 na'ure o3 men'al rodu&'s su&h
as lan-ua-e, my'h, and &us'om does no' by %'sel3 aear 'o &ons'%'u'e %n r%n&%le any
%med%men' 'o 'he e0er%men'al %n6es'%-a'%on o3 'he%r sy&holo-%&al &auses (-rounded %n
so&%al &ommun%'y), %ns'an'%a'ed as 'he so&%al sy&holo-%&al s'a'es o3 %nd%6%dual ersons
(%.e., as so&%ally en-a-ed sy&holo-%&al s'a'es o3 %nd%6%dual ersons).
In any &ase, lan-ua-e, my'h, and &us'om are only 'he %mmed%a'e ob4e&'s o3 'he
V5l2ersy&holo-%e. For .und', 'he whole o%n' o3 'he &omara'%6e7h%s'or%&al s'udy o3
'hese men'al rodu&'s was 'o ro6%de an ob4e&'%6e bas%s 3or ma2%n- %n3eren&es abou' 'he
sy&holo-%&al ro&esses %n6ol6ed %n 'he%r rodu&'%on. .und' was no' %n'eres'ed %n
s'udy%n- 'hese men'al rodu&'s urely 3or 'he%r own sa2e, as m%-h' a l%n-u%s',
an'hroolo-%s', or e'hnolo-%s', 3or e0amle:
(he or%-%n and de6elomen' o3 'hese rodu&'s deend %n e6ery
&ase on -eneral sy&h%&al &ond%'%ons wh%&h may be %n3erred
3rom 'he%r ob4e&'%6e a''r%bu'es. $sy&holo-%&al analys%s &an,
&onseCuen'ly, e0la%n 'he sy&h%&al ro&esses oera'%6e %n 'he%r
3orma'%on and de6elomen'. (.und', 1#;!J1;02, . 23)
.und' Cu%'e na'urally 'hou-h' 'ha' e0er%men'al me'hods are %naror%a'e 3or
'he s'udy o3 whole lan-ua-es, my'hs, and &us'oms (Cua es'abl%shed lan-ua-es, my'hs,
and &us'oms), be&ause whole lan-ua-es, my'hs, and &us'oms &anno' be man%ula'ed or
&on'rolled, or %n6es'%-a'ed by means o3 %n'rose&'%on. He' al'hou-h 'he
/sura%nd%6%dual1 na'ure o3 whole lan-ua-es, my'hs, and &us'oms re&ludes 'he%r
e0er%men'al %n6es'%-a'%on, a' leas' by means o3 man%ula'%on and %n'rose&'%on, %' does
no' ob6%ously re&lude 'he e0er%men'al %n6es'%-a'%on o3 'he so&%al sy&holo-%&al
ro&esses o3 %nd%6%duals 'ha' &an be %n3erred 3rom 'hem (by means o3 'he &omara'%6e7
h%s'or%&al s'udy o3 lan-ua-es, my'hs, and &us'oms).
.und' &er'a%nly 'rea'ed 'he &omara'%6e7h%s'or%&al me'hods o3 'he
V5l2ersy&holo-%e as sulemen's 'o e0er%men'al me'hods:
$sy&holo-%&al analys%s o3 'he mos' -eneral men'al rodu&'s,
su&h as lan-ua-e, my'holo-%&al %deas, and laws o3 &us'om, %s 'o
be re-arded as an a%d 'o 'he unders'and%n- o3 all 'he more
&oml%&a'ed sy&h%&al ro&esses. (.und', 1#;!J1;02, . 10)
(hus, 'hen, %n 'he analys%s o3 'he h%-her men'al ro&esses, 3ol2
sy&holo-y %s an %nd%sensable sulemen' 'o 'he sy&holo-y o3
%nd%6%dual &ons&%ousness. Indeed, %n 'he &ase o3 some Cues'%ons
'he la''er already 3%nds %'sel3 obl%-ed 'o 3all ba&2 on 'he
r%n&%les o3 3ol2 sy&holo-y S (he 3ormer )3ol2 sy&holo-y+,
howe6er, %s an %mor'an' sulemen' 'o 'he la''er )%nd%6%dual
sy&holo-y+, ro6%d%n- r%n&%les 3or 'he %n'erre'a'%on o3 more
&oml%&a'ed ro&esses o3 %nd%6%dual &ons&%ousness. (1;16, . 3)
Bowe6er, %' would be m%slead%n- 'o su--es' 'ha' .und' ad6o&a'ed 'he
&omara'%6e7h%s'or%&al me'hods o3 V5l2ersy&holo-%e 3or 'he ne-a'%6e reason 'ha' so&%al
sy&holo-%&al rodu&'s su&h as lan-ua-e, my'h and &us'om (or 'he%r so&%al
sy&holo-%&al &auses) &anno' be %n6es'%-a'ed e0er%men'ally, and 'hus ha6e 'o be
s'ud%ed 6%a &omara'%6e7h%s'or%&al me'hods. .und' had %ndeenden' os%'%6e reasons 3or
ad6o&a'%n- 'he &omara'%6e7h%s'or%&al s'udy o3 lan-ua-es, my'hs and &us'oms, and 3or
s'ress%n- 'he /sura%nd%6%dual1 or /'h%n-7l%2e1 na'ure o3 su&h men'al rodu&'s.
.und' 'hou-h' 'ha' 'he &omara'%6e7h%s'or%&al me'hods o3 V5l2ersy&holo-%e
are a' leas' as ob4e&'%6e and s&%en'%3%& as 'he me'hods o3 e0er%men'al sy&holo-y and
are as &losely analo-ous 'o 'he me'hods o3 na'ural s&%en&e as are 'he me'hods o3
e0er%men'al sy&holo-y.
#
.und' does aear 'o ha6e bel%e6ed 'ha' men'al rodu&'s
su&h as lan-ua-e, my'h, and &us'om are e0ress%ons o3 /h%-her1 sy&holo-%&al
ro&esses 'ha' are -rounded %n so&%al &ommun%'y. He', 3or .und', 'he r%mary e6%den'%al
6alue o3 men'al rodu&'s su&h as lan-ua-e, my'h, and &us'om lay no' so mu&h %n 'he%r
so&%al na'ure as %n 'he%r ob4e&'%6e or /'h%n-7l%2e1 na'ure. *&&ord%n- 'o .und', 'hese
men'al rodu&'s are more &losely analo-ous 'o /ob4e&'s o3 na'ure1 'han 'he
sy&holo-%&al ro&esses resons%ble 3or 'hem (and wh%&h &an be %n3erred 3rom 'hem). In
'h%s rese&', 'hey ro6%de a more se&ure e6%den'%al base 3or sy&holo-%&al 'heory 'han
'he 3lee'%n- e6%den'%al base o3 e0er%men'al %n'rose&'%6e sy&holo-y.
*&&ord%n- 'o .und', 'he sy&holo-%&al ob4e&'s o3 s&%en'%3%& sy&holo-y, unl%2e
'he hys%&al ob4e&'s o3 na'ural s&%en&e, &an be s'ud%ed d%re&'ly only 'hrou-h
/e0er%men'al obser6a'%on,1 be&ause 'hey are e0&lus%6ely ro&esses. In &on'ras', some
o3 'he ob4e&'s o3 'he na'ural s&%en&esT/ob4e&'s o3 na'ure1Tare ob4e&'s o3 /ure
obser6a'%on1:
(he &ase %s d%33eren' w%'h ob4e&'s o3 na'ure. (hey are rela'%6ely
&ons'an'< 'hey do no' ha6e 'o be rodu&ed a' a ar'%&ular
momen', bu' are always a' 'he obser6er9s d%sosal and ready 3or
e0am%na'%on S .hen S 'he only Cues'%on %s 'he a&'ual na'ure
o3 'hese ob4e&'s, w%'hou' re3eren&e 'o 'he%r or%-%n or
mod%3%&a'%on, mere obser6a'%on %s -enerally enou-h. (hus,
m%neralo-y, bo'any, ?oolo-y, ana'omy, and -eo-rahy, are ure
s&%en&es o3 obser6a'%on so lon- as 'hey are 2e' 3ree 3rom 'he S
roblems S 'ha' S ha6e 'o do w%'h ro&esses o3 na'ure, no'
w%'h 'he ob4e&'s %n 'hemsel6es. (.und', 1#;!J1;02, . 20)
.und' always ma%n'a%ned 'ha' sy&holo-%&al henomena, whe'her %nd%6%dually
or so&%ally en-a-ed, are ro&esses, no' ob4e&'s: I0a&' obser6a'%on o3 'hem %s -enerally
oss%ble only under &ond%'%ons o3 e0er%men'al rodu&'%on and &on'rol. (he
&omara'%6e7h%s'or%&al me'hods o3 'he V5l2ersy&holo-%e do no' allow 3or 'he ure
obser6a'%on o3 sy&holo-%&al henomena (so&%al sy&holo-%&al or %nd%6%dual
sy&holo-%&al) any more 'han 'he e0er%men'al me'hod does. Qone'heless, .und' held
'ha' 'he men'al rodu&'s o3 &er'a%n sy&holo-%&al s'a'es -rounded %n so&%al &ommun%'y
ha6e roer'%es analo-ous 'o 'he roer'%es o3 /ob4e&'s o3 na'ure1 and &an 'hus be
'rea'ed as %3 'hey were /sy&h%&al ob4e&'s1 o3 ure obser6a'%on:
$ure obser6a'%on, su&h as %s oss%ble %n many dear'men's o3
na'ural s&%en&e, %s, 3rom 'he 6ery &hara&'er o3 sy&h%&al
henomena, %moss%ble %n %nd%6%dual sy&holo-y. @u&h a
oss%b%l%'y would be &on&e%6able only under 'he &ond%'%on 'ha'
'here e0%s'ed ermanen' sy&h%&al ob4e&'s, %ndeenden' o3 our
a''en'%on, s%m%lar 'o 'he rela'%6ely ermanen' ob4e&'s o3 na'ure,
wh%&h rema%n un&han-ed by our obser6a'%on o3 'hem. (here are,
%ndeed, &er'a%n 3a&'s a' 'he d%sosal o3 sy&holo-y, wh%&h,
'hou-h 'hey are no' real ob4e&'s, s'%ll ha6e 'he &hara&'er o3
sy&h%&al ob4e&'s %nasmu&h as 'hey ossess 'hese a''r%bu'es o3
rela'%6e ermanen&e, and %ndeenden&e o3 'he obser6er.
:onne&'ed w%'h 'hese &hara&'er%s'%&s %s 'he 3ur'her 3a&' 'ha' 'hey
are unaroa&hable by means o3 e0er%men' %n 'he &ommon
a&&e'an&e o3 'he 'erm. (hese 3a&'s are 'he men'al rodu&'s 'ha'
ha6e been de6eloed %n 'he &ourse o3 h%s'ory, su&h as lan-ua-e,
my'holo-%&al %deas, and &us'oms.
@o7&alled so&%al sy&holo-y &orresonds 'o 'he me'hod o3 ure obser6a'%on, 'he
ob4e&'s o3 obser6a'%on %n 'h%s &ase be%n- 'he men'al rodu&'s. (.und', 1#;!J1;02, .
22"23)
;
.und'9s o%n' was 'ha' men'al rodu&'s su&h as lan-ua-e, my'h, and &us'om,
unl%2e 'he sy&holo-%&al ro&ess resons%ble 3or 'he%r rodu&'%on, ha6e roer'%es
analo-ous 'o /ob4e&'s o3 na'ure1 and 'hus may be 'rea'ed as ob4e&'s o3 ure obser6a'%on.
*nd %' %s 'hese rodu&'s, no' 'he sy&holo-%&al ro&esses resons%ble 3or 'hem, o3 wh%&h
.und' &la%med 'ha' 'hey /are unaroa&hable by means o3 e0er%men' %n 'he &ommon
a&&e'an&e o3 'he 'erm.1
.und' does aear 'o ha6e re&o-n%?ed 'he so&%al d%mens%ons o3 su&h men'al
rodu&'s and 'he sy&holo-%&al s'a'es resons%ble 3or 'hem. Bowe6er, h%s 'heore'%&al
%n'eres' %n 'he so&%al d%mens%ons o3 lan-ua-e, my'h, and &us'om was r%mar%ly rela'ed 'o
'he%r a6owed role %n ro6%d%n- a s'able e6%den'%al base 3or sy&holo-%&al %n3eren&e, by
6%r'ue o3 'he%r /sura%nd%6%dual1 or /'h%n-7l%2e1 na'ure. .und' re4e&'ed 'he s'udy o3
lan-ua-e, my'h, and &us'om by means o3 'he%r ar'%&ular sy&holo-%&al and beha6%oral
e0ress%ons %n ar'%&ular %nd%6%duals no' be&ause 'he%r ar'%&ular sy&holo-%&al and
beha6%oral e0ress%ons &anno' be sub4e&' 'o e0er%men'al man%ula'%on and &on'rol
(wh%&h 'hey ar-uably &an) bu' be&ause 'hey are 'oo 6ar%able 'o ser6e as ob4e&'s o3 ure
obser6a'%on:
(he ne&essary &onne&'%on o3 'hese rodu&'s w%'h so&%al
&ommun%'%es, wh%&h has -%6en so&%al sy&holo-y %'s name, %s
due 'o 'he 3a&' 'ha' 'he men'al rodu&'s o3 'he %nd%6%dual are o3
'oo 6ar%able a &hara&'er 'o be 'he sub4e&'s o3 ob4e&'%6e
obser6a'%on. (he henomena -a%n 'he ne&essary de-ree o3
&ons'an&y only when 'hey be&ome &olle&'%6e. (.und',
1#;!J1;02, . 23)
10
Qone'heless, as no'ed earl%er, 3or .und' 'he whole o%n' o3 s'udy%n- su&h men'al
rodu&'s %s 'o ma2e &ausal e0lana'ory %n3eren&es 'o 'he sy&holo-%&al ro&esses
resons%ble 3or 'hem:
(he or%-%n and de6elomen' o3 'hese rodu&'s deend %n e6ery
&ase on -eneral sy&holo-%&al &ond%'%ons wh%&h may be %n3erred
3rom 'he%r ob4e&'%6e a''r%bu'es. $sy&h%&al analys%s &an,
&onseCuen'ly, e0la%n 'he sy&h%&al ro&esses oera'%6e %n 'he%r
3orma'%on and de6elomen'. (.und', 1#;!J1;02, . 23)
.und' seems 'o ha6e bel%e6ed 'ha' he &ould ma2e s%-n%3%&an' %n3eren&es abou'
'he d%33eren' so&%al sy&holo-%&al ro&esses 'ha' &ausally -round 'he rodu&'%on o3
so&%ally d%6erse lan-ua-es, my'hs, and &us'oms. Be su--es'ed, 3or e0amle, 'ha'
s%-n%3%&an' d%33eren&es %n sy&holo-%&al ro&esses -rounded %n so&%al &ommun%'y &ould
be %n3erred 3rom do&umen'ed d%33eren&es %n 'he%r l%n-u%s'%&, my'h%&al, and &us'omary
rodu&'s. (hus, 3or e0amle, .und' (1;01) su--es'ed 'ha' d%33eren&es %n so&%al
sy&holo-%&al mo'%6es &ould be %n3erred 3rom 'he d%33eren' 'yes o3 word order%n-s o3
sen'en&es %n d%33eren' lan-ua-es:
(wo &lass%&al lan-ua-es, Gree2 and Da'%n, o33er be''er e0amles
o3 'he deenden&e o3 word order on sy&holo-%&al mo'%6es, 3or
%n 'hese lan-ua-es 'he 3or&e o3 'rad%'%on on 'he os%'%on%n- o3
words %s less. .ord os%'%on %s mu&h 3reer. (hus %' &an more
eas%ly 3ollow momen'ary re6a%l%n- sy&holo-%&al 'hemes. I' %s
oss%ble, 'hen, 'o 'es' %n an e0er%men'al way
11
'he sy&holo-%&al
s%-n%3%&an&e o3 6ar%ous word order%n-s by 6%r'ue o3 'h%s &aa&%'y
3or 3ree 6ar%a'%on. (.und', 1;01< 'ransla'ed by Klumen'hal,
1;!0, . 2#)
E-&%r+.%ta# Obs%r/at+), 0H+*(%r1 a! 0S)c+a#1 Pr)c%ss%s
I' %s &ommonly suosed 'ha' .und' e0ressed h%s 3undamen'al ob4e&'%ons 'o 'he
e0er%men'al analys%s o3 so&%al sy&holo-%&al henomena %n h%s 1;0! &r%'%Cue o3 'he
e0er%men'al ro&edures de6eloed by Lswald POle and h%s &ollea-ues (su&h as
Qar?%b *&h, Parle KOhler, Parle 8arbe, *u-us' 8ayer, *u-us' 8esser, Johannes Lr'h,
and Benry J. .a'') a' 'he Mn%6ers%'y o3 .Or?bur-. (h%s %s be&ause mos' &ommen'a'ors
3ollow .und' %n eCua'%n- /h%-her1 'hou-h' ro&esses and so&%al sy&holo-%&al
ro&esses.
12
Bowe6er, .und'9s (1;0!) ob4e&'%ons 'o 'he .Or?bur- e0er%men's de6o'ed 'o 'he
/new sy&holo-y o3 'hou-h'1 were ob4e&'%ons 'o 'he ar'%&ular me'hodolo-%&al ra&'%&es
o3 'he .Or?bur- e0er%men'al%s's, no'ably *&h and KOhler, and d%d no' &ons'%'u'e %n
r%n&%le ob4e&'%ons 'o 'he e0er%men'al analys%s o3 /h%-her1 'hou-h' ro&esses er se
(howe6er .und' may ha6e &on&e%6ed o3 'hem). .und' was no' oosed 'o 'he -oals o3
'he e0er%men'al ro-ram ursued by 'he .Or?bur- s&hool. .%'h rese&' 'o 'he
.Or?bur- s'ud%es o3 'he %n3luen&e o3 'he /'as21 (*u3-abe) or /se'1 (I%ns'ellunun-) on
&o-n%'%6e ro&ess%n- (*&h, 1;0=), 3or e0amle, .und' ma%n'a%ned 'ha' 'hey deser6ed
/3ur'her al%&a'%on and de6elomen' %n 'he same d%re&'%on1 (1;11a, . GG;, Cuo'ed %n
.oodward, 1;#2, . 1#!).
.und' la%d down 3our &ond%'%ons o3 e0er%men'al adeCua&y: (a) 'he obser6er
should be %n a os%'%on 'o obser6e 'he henomena %n6es'%-a'ed, (b) 'he obser6er should
be %n a s'a'e o3 an'%&%a'ory a''en'%on, (&) 'he e0er%men' should be reea'ed, and (d) 'he
&ond%'%ons under wh%&h 'he obser6ed henomena o&&ur should be de'erm%ned 'hrou-h
6ar%a'%on o3 'he e0er%men'al &ond%'%ons. .und' &la%med 'ha' all 3our &ond%'%ons were %n
3a&' 6%ola'ed by 'he .Or?bur- e0er%men's. In &onseCuen&e, he &la%med 'ha' 'he
.Or?bur- e0er%men's were /sham e0er%men's wh%&h ha6e 'he aearan&e o3 be%n-
sys'ema'%& only be&ause 'hey 'a2e la&e %n a sy&holo-%&al labora'ory1 (1;0!, . 32;).
He' .und'9s &omla%n's abou' 'he .Or?bur- e0er%men's were somewha'
d%s%n-enuous. Be adm%''ed 'ha' h%s 3our &ond%'%ons were %deal%?ed and only
aro0%ma'ely sa'%s3%ed by na'ural s&%en'%3%& e0er%men's. Be &omla%ned 'ha' 'hese
&ond%'%ons were no' %n 3a&' sa'%s3%ed by 'he .Or?bur- e0er%men's bu' ne6er
demons'ra'ed 'ha' 'hey &ould no' be sa'%s3%ed by e0er%men's d%re&'ed 'o 'he
%n6es'%-a'%on o3 /h%-her1 'hou-h' ro&esses (or so&%al sy&holo-%&al ro&esses %n
-eneral). KOhler, %n h%s resonse 'o .und' (KOhler, 1;0#), made a reasonable &ase 'ha'
all 3our &ond%'%ons were rou'%nely sa'%s3%ed by 'he .Or?bur- e0er%men's, a' leas' 'o 'he
de-ree 'ha' 'hey were sa'%s3%ed by 'he e0er%men'al s'ud%es &ondu&'ed w%'h%n .und'9s
own ro-ram, a os%'%on la'er endorsed by %ndeenden' &ommen'a'ors su&h as
.oodwor'h (1;3#) and Bumhrey (1;=1).
.und' h%msel3 was no' a6erse 'o aeal%n- 'o /sel37obser6a'%on1 %n suor' o3
h%s own ar'%&ular 'heor%es o3 /h%-her1 &o-n%'%6e ro&ess%n-. In 'a2%n- 'heore'%&al %ssue
w%'h 'he .Or?bur-ers9 %n'erre'a'%on o3 some o3 'he%r e0er%men'al resul's, .und'
o33ered h%s own 'heore'%&al a&&oun' o3 'he 'rans3orma'%on o3 men'al &on3%-ura'%ons %n'o
seCuen'%al l%n-u%s'%& reresen'a'%ons, &%'%n- e6%den'%al suor' 3rom h%s own /%n&%den'al1
sel37obser6a'%ons o3 'he ro&ess:
In su&h sel37obser6a'%ons %' be&ame en'%rely &lear 'o me 'ha' one
does no' 3orm 'he 'hou-h' a' 'he momen' when one s'ar's 'o
e0ress %' %n a sen'en&e. (he 'hou-h' %s resen' as a whole %n
one9s &ons&%ousness be3ore 'he 3%rs' word %s u''ered. *' 'he ou'se'
'he 3o&us o3 &ons&%ousness does no' &on'a%n a s%n-le one o3 'he
6erbal and o'her %ma-es wh%&h ma2e 'he%r aearan&e %n runn%n-
'hrou-h 'he 'hou-h' and -%6%n- %' l%n-u%s'%& e0ress%on, and %' %s
only %n 'he ro&ess o3 un3old%n- 'he 'hou-h' 'ha' %'s ar's r%se
su&&ess%6ely 'o d%s'%n&' awareness. (.und', 1;0!, Cuo'ed %n
.oodwor'h, 1;3#, . !#G"=)
In 'he be-%nn%n- o3 KOhler9s (1;0#) ar'%&le resond%n- 'o .und'9s &r%'%Cue, he
remar2ed how surr%sed he was by %', be&ause 'he .Or?bur-ers were bas%&ally 3ollow%n-
.und'9s own ra&'%&eTor, as .oodwor'h (1;3#) less &har%'ably u' %':
Be 3%rs' demol%shes 'he me'hod o3 'he 'hou-h' e0er%men' by h%s
&r%'%Cue, and 'hen ro&eeds 'o emloy 'he same me'hod 'o rea&h
'he same resul's (as 'o /%ma-eless 'hou-h'1) wh%&h had been
rea&hed by 'he POle s&hool and wh%&h had seemed so
ob4e&'%onable. (. !#=)
13
Indeed, %' may be reasonably ar-ued 'ha' .und' &learly re&o-n%?ed 'ha' /h%-her1
&o-n%'%6e ro&esses, su&h as memory and &o-n%'%on, &an be e0er%men'ally man%ula'ed.
(hese were, a3'er all, re&%sely 'he henomena s'ud%ed e0er%men'ally and
%n'rose&'%6ely by .und'9s *mer%&an and German s'uden's %n 'he De%?%- labora'ory: 3or
e0amle, Barry .ol3e9s d%sser'a'%on on /@'ud%es on 'he 8emory o3 (ones1 and Idward
@&r%'ure9s s'udy o3 /(h%n2%n- and Feel%n-.1 I' seems 3a%rly &lear 'ha' .und' 'hou-h'
'ha' a' leas' some /h%-her1 &o-n%'%6e ro&esses &an be s'ud%ed w%'h 'he me'hods o3 bo'h
e0er%men'al sy&holo-y and V5l2ersy&holo-%e. Indeed, .und' o3'en &la%med 'ha'
e0er%men'al sy&holo-y and V5l2ersy&holo-%e d%33er essen'%ally %n 'he%r me'hods, no'
'he%r sy&holo-%&al ob4e&'s: /In 'he resen' s'a-e o3 'he s&%en&e 'hese 'wo bran&hes o3
sy&holo-y are -enerally 'a2en u %n d%33eren' 'rea'%ses< s'%ll, 'hey are no' so mu&h
d%33eren' dear'men's as d%33eren' me'hods1 (.und', 1#;!J1;02, . 23)
$erhas 'he &leares' e0amle o3 a /h%-her1 &o-n%'%6e ro&ess 'ha' was 'rea'ed by
.und' as a le-%'%ma'e ob4e&' o3 bo'h e0er%men'al sy&holo-y and V5l2ersy&holo-%e %s
'he ro&ess o3 aer&e'%on, or 'he a&'%6e (sele&'%6e and &ons'ru&'%6e) ro&ess o3
a''en'%on. (h%s &en'ral7&on'rol ro&ess was a ma4or 3o&us o3 'he V5l2ersy&holo-%e. I'
was 'rea'ed by .und' as 'he e6olu'%onary ad6an&e %n men'al de6elomen' 'ha'
d%s'%n-u%shes man2%nd 3rom 'he res' o3 'he an%mal 2%n-dom and 'ha' made oss%ble 'he
de6elomen' o3 &omle0 &ul'ural 3orms su&h as lan-ua-e, my'h, and &us'om
(Klumen'hal, 1;!=). Bowe6er, 'h%s &en'ral7&on'rol ro&ess also 3ormed a ma4or 3o&us o3
.und'9s %nd%6%dual e0er%men'al %n'rose&'%6e sy&holo-y. (he 3%rs' $hD awarded %n
.und'9s De%?%- labora'ory under h%s suer6%s%on was 3or 8a0 Fr%edr%&h9s e0er%men'al
analys%s o3 aer&e'%on, en'%'led /Ln 'he Dura'%on o3 *er&e'%on 3or @%mle and
:omle0 V%sual @'%mul%1 and ubl%shed %n 'he 3%rs' 6olume o3 .und'9s 4ournal
$h%losoh%s&he @'ud%en (Fr%edr%&h, 1##3). *s re&en' &ommen'a'ors ha6e no'ed, .und'9s
s'ud%es o3 'h%s &en'ral a''en'%onal ro&ess are -enerally a&2nowled-ed as re&ursors o3
some o3 'he e0er%men'al a&h%e6emen's o3 &on'emorary &o-n%'%6e sy&holo-y
(Klumen'hal, 1;!=< Deahey, 1;!;).
I' m%-h' be ob4e&'ed 'ha' su&h e0er%men'al s'ud%es are s'%ll only s'ud%es o3 3a%rly
elemen'al sy&holo-%&al ro&esses and 'ha' 'he &omle0 aer&e'%6e rodu&'s o3 su&h
ro&esses, su&h as so&%al 3orms o3 &o-n%'%on and memory, &anno' be s'ud%ed
e0er%men'ally.
1G
Bowe6er, 'h%s ob4e&'%on %s based on 'he re-ularly resumed eCua'%on
o3 /h%-her1 or /&omle01 &o-n%'%6e ro&esses and so&%al sy&holo-%&al ro&esses, wh%&h
may be Cues'%oned. *l'hou-h %' may be aror%a'e 'o 'rea' men'al rodu&'s su&h as
lan-ua-e, my'h, and &us'om, and 'he so&%al 3orms o3 &o-n%'%on, emo'%on, and beha6%or
resons%ble 3or 'hem, as h%-her or more &omle0 'han elemen'ary sy&holo-%&al
ro&esses %n e6olu'%onary and de6elomen'al 'erms, 'here %s no -ood reason 3or 'rea'%n-
so&%al 3orms o3 &o-n%'%on, emo'%on, and beha6%or as h%-her or more &omle0 'han
%nd%6%dual 3orms o3 &o-n%'%on, emo'%on, and beha6%or, Cua 3orms o3 &o-n%'%on, emo'%on,
and beha6%or. *ny bel%e3, a''%'ude, or beha6%or may be en-a-ed so&%ally or %nd%6%dually
(%.e., w%'h or w%'hou' re3eren&e 'o 'he reresen'ed bel%e3s, a''%'udes, or beha6%or o3
members o3 so&%al -rous),
1=
so 'here %s no -ood reason 'o deny 'ha' elemen'al
sy&holo-%&al henomena may be en-a-ed so&%ally.
16
:er'a%nly .und' -a6e no -rounds
3or deny%n- 'ha' elemen'al sy&holo-%&al ro&esses, su&h as 3o&% o3 a''en'%on or 'one
memor%es, &ould be so&%ally en-a-ed, or 3or deny%n- 'ha' 'he%r so&%al en-a-emen' &ould
be e0lored e0er%men'ally, as la'er e0er%men's by @her%3 (1;3=) demons'ra'ed 'ha'
'hey &ould.
In any &ase, .und'9s &r%'%Cue o3 'he .Or?bur- e0er%men's was res'r%&'ed 'o 'he
%n'rose&'%6e analys%s o3 sy&holo-%&al henomena, a 'e&hn%Cue .und' only rarely used
%n h%s own sy&holo-%&al e0er%men's. 8any o3 'he e0er%men's &ondu&'ed %n h%s
De%?%- labora'ory were des%-ned 'o l%&ense %n3eren&es abou' sy&holo-%&al ro&esses on
'he bas%s o3 rea&'%on '%mes, or o'her 6erbal or beha6%oral measures, %n resonse 'o
man%ula'ed s'%mulus &ond%'%ons. *s .und' (1#;G) u' %':
In sy&holo-y we 3%nd 'ha' only 'hose men'al henomena wh%&h
are d%re&'ly a&&ess%ble 'o hys%&al %n3luen&es &an be made 'he
sub4e&' ma''er o3 e0er%men'. .e &anno' e0er%men' uon 'he
m%nd %'sel3, bu' only uon %'s ou'wor2s, 'he or-ans o3 sense and
mo6emen' wh%&h are 3un&'%onally rela'ed 'o men'al ro&esses.
@o 'ha' e6ery sy&holo-%&al e0er%men' %s a' 'he same '%me
hys%olo-%&al, 4us' as 'here are hys%&al ro&esses &orresond%n-
'o 'he men'al ro&esses o3 sensa'%on, %dea and w%ll. (. 10"11)
.und' ma%n'a%ned 'ha' /h%-her1 &o-n%'%6e ro&esses, %n&lud%n- so&%al
sy&holo-%&al ro&esses, are hys%&ally %n&arna'ed %n 'he neurohys%olo-%&al sys'ems o3
%nd%6%duals. In &onseCuen&e, %n3eren&es abou' 'hem &an be made on 'he bas%s o3
labora'ory e0er%men's or &omara'%6e7h%s'or%&al analyses o3 'he%r men'al rodu&'s.
1!
Ke&ause 3or .und' any sy&holo-%&al ro&ess 'ha' &an be man%ula'ed 'hrou-h s'%mulus
resen'a'%on &an %n r%n&%le be&ome 'he ob4e&' o3 e0er%men'al %n6es'%-a'%on, 'here
aear 'o be no -rounds (or a' leas' none o33ered by .und') 3or deny%n- 'ha' 'h%s &an be
'he &ase w%'h rese&' 'o /h%-her1 &o-n%'%6e and so&%al sy&holo-%&al henomena,
1#
be&ause 'here %s no reason 'o suose 'ha' 'hey &anno' be man%ula'ed 'hrou-h s'%mulus
resen'a'%on (%rrese&'%6e o3 whe'her 'hey &an be %sola'ed or e0lored %n'rose&'%6ely %n
'he 3ash%on o3 'he .Or?bur- e0er%men's).
1;
(he 3a&' 'ha' &er'a%n sy&holo-%&al s'a'es
and ro&esses resuose 'he e0%s'en&e o3 so&%al &ommun%'%es, or /lan-ua-e and
&ul'ure1 (Graumann, 1;#6), resen's no se&%al roblem so lon- as 'hese s'a'es and
ro&esses are %n&arna'ed %n 'he neurohys%olo-%&al sys'ems o3 %nd%6%duals (wh%&h
.und', l%2e mos' &on'emorary so&%al sy&holo-%s's, ne6er doub'ed).
20
I' %s oss%ble 'ha' .und' only 'hou-h' 'ha' 'he so&%al d%mens%ons o3 &o-n%'%on,
emo'%on, and beha6%or &ould no' be s'ud%ed e0er%men'ally 6%a e0er%men'al
%n'rose&'%on: 'ha' e0er%men'a'%on d%re&'ed 'o 'he s'udy o3 so&%al 3orms o3 &o-n%'%on,
emo'%on, and beha6%or would lose /'he e&ul%ar s%-n%3%&an&e wh%&h %' ossesses as an
%ns'rumen' o3 %n'rose&'%on,1 as .und' ar-ued w%'h rese&' 'o s'ud%es %n &h%ld and
an%mal sy&holo-y (1;0G, . 6). .und' may ha6e only 'hou-h' 'ha' e0er%men'al
%n'rose&'%on %s no' an aror%a'e means o3 e0lor%n- 'he so&%al d%mens%ons o3
&o-n%'%on, emo'%on, and beha6%or, be&ause e0er%men'al sub4e&'s are unl%2ely 'o
%n'rose&'%6ely re&o-n%?e 'he so&%al d%mens%ons o3 'he%r re4ud%&es, 3or e0amle. I3 'h%s
was all 'ha' .und' 'hou-h', %' does no' reresen' mu&h o3 a &hallen-e 'o e0er%men'al
so&%al sy&holo-y, be&ause mos' &on'emorary de3enders o3 e0er%men'al so&%al
sy&holo-y share .und'9s s2e'%&%sm abou' 'he u'%l%'y o3 %n'rose&'%6e reor's o3
sy&holo-%&al s'a'es and ro&esses (Q%sbe'' A >oss, 1;#0< Q%sbe'' A .%lson, 1;!!).
C)c#us+)
Des%'e h%s re&o-n%'%on o3 'he so&%al d%mens%ons o3 sy&holo-%&al ro&esses and
'he%r rodu&'s, .und' does no' seem 'o ha6e been mu&h &on&erned w%'h 'he syn&hron%&
so&%al sy&holo-%&al dynam%&s o3 &o-n%'%on, emo'%on, and beha6%or %n 'he
V5l2ersy&holo-%e. In &onseCuen&e, he had 6ery l%''le 'o say abou' 'he oss%b%l%'y o3 and
o'en'%al 3or 'he%r e0er%men'al %n6es'%-a'%on. .und' was mu&h more %n'eres'ed %n 'he
Cues'%on o3 'he d%a&hron%& h%s'or%&al de6elomen' o3 'he so&%al sy&holo-%&al ro&esses
'ha' -rounded 'he de6elomen' o3 lan-ua-e, my'h, and &us'om 'han he was %n 'he
syn&hron%& so&%al sy&holo-%&al dynam%&s o3 ar'%&ular lan-ua-es, my'hs, or &us'oms %n
any la&e and '%me.
8oreo6er, %' was lar-ely be&ause .und' was &on&erned w%'h 'hese d%a&hron%&
de6elomen'al Cues'%ons 'ha' he re4e&'ed e0er%men'al %n'rose&'%on as an %n6es'%-a'%6e
me'hod. In'rose&'%on aears 'o ha6e been re4e&'ed no' be&ause V5l2ersy&holo-%e %s
&on&erned w%'h 'he sura%nd%6%dual so&%al d%mens%ons o3 sy&holo-%&al henomena bu'
be&ause %' %s &on&erned w%'h 'he h%s'or%&al e6olu'%on o3 (%nd%6%dual and so&%al)
sy&holo-%&al ro&esses, wh%&h %s o3 &ourse no' a&&ess%ble 'o %n'rose&'%on:
I' %s 'rue 'ha' 'he a''em' has 3reCuen'ly been made 'o %n6es'%-a'e
'he &omle0 3un&'%ons o3 'hou-h' on 'he bas%s o3 mere
%n'rose&'%on. (hese a''em's, howe6er, ha6e always been
unsu&&ess3ul. Ind%6%dual &ons&%ousness %s wholly %n&aable o3
-%6%n- us a h%s'ory o3 'he de6elomen' o3 human 'hou-h' (%'al%&s
added), 3or %' %s &ond%'%oned by an earl%er h%s'ory &on&ern%n-
wh%&h %' &anno' o3 %'sel3 -%6e us any 2nowled-e. (.und', 1;16,
. 3)
Des%'e .und'9s re&o-n%'%on o3 'he so&%al d%mens%ons o3 &o-n%'%on, emo'%on, and
beha6%or, 'he V5l2ersy&holo-%e d%d no' l%6e u 'o %'s so&%al sy&holo-%&al rom%se. In
'he 3%nal analys%s, %' rema%ns d%sao%n'%n-ly %nd%6%dual%s'%& %n &on'en'.
21
.und'9s
addu&ed laws o3 men'al de6elomen' ('he r%n&%les o3 men'al -row'h, o3 'he
he'ero-ony o3 ends, and o3 'he de6elomen' o3 oos%'es) arallel ra'her 'oo &losely 3or
&om3or' h%s laws o3 %nd%6%dual sy&holo-y ('he r%n&%les o3 sy&h%&al resul'an's,
sy&h%&al rela'%ons, and sy&h%&al &on'ras's). (he laws o3 men'al de6elomen'
'hemsel6es bear a 6ery doub'3ul lo-%&al rela'%onsh% 'o 'he body o3 &omara'%6e
e'hno-rah%& e6%den&e (der%6ed 3rom se&ondary sour&es) do&umen'ed %n 'he 10 6olumes
o3 'he V5l2ersy&holo-%e. Des%'e .und'9s su--es'%6e remar2s abou' d%33eren&es %n
l%n-u%s'%& 3orms ro6%d%n- e6%den'%al -rounds 3or %n3eren&es abou' so&%al sy&holo-%&al
mo'%6es, he ne6er really de6eloed 'h%s su--es'%on %n ra&'%&e, and h%s own %oneer%n-
wor2 on l%n-u%s'%&s 3o&used almos' e0&lus%6ely on %nd%6%dual sy&holo-%&al ro&esses %n
sen'en&e rodu&'%on. (hus, .und' %s 4us'ly re&o-n%?ed as a 3ounder o3 sy&hol%n-u%s'%&s
(Klumen'hal, 1;!=< Deahey, 1;!;) bu' no' o3 so&%o7 or &ul'ural l%n-u%s'%&s. *s Fay Par3
(1;32) d%a-nosed 'he roblem:
.und' ro&eeded on 'he 'heory 'ha' 'ha' 'he 3undamen'al
ro&esses o3 'he %nd%6%dual m%nd are sy&holo-%&ally bas%& 'o 'he
ro&esses o3 'he /&olle&'%6e m%nd1 and 'ha' %nd%6%dual
sy&holo-y %s 'here3ore bas%& 'o 'he s'udy o3 'he &olle&'%6e
men'al l%3e o3 so&%e'y. (. =6)
(hus, al'hou-h .und' d%d a&2nowled-e 'he so&%al d%mens%ons o3 &o-n%'%on,
emo'%on, and beha6%or, and 'he d%s'%n&'%6e sub4e&' ma''er o3 so&%al sy&holo-y, %' %s
doub'3ul %3 he &ons%s'en'ly ma%n'a%ned (3ar less demons'ra'ed) 'ha' e0er%men'al me'hods
&anno' be used %n 'he %n6es'%-a'%on o3 so&%al 3orms o3 &o-n%'%on, emo'%on, and beha6%or.
Be seems 'o ha6e had l%''le %n'eres' %n 'he syn&hron%& dynam%&s o3 3orms o3 &o-n%'%on,
emo'%on, and beha6%or or%en'ed 'o so&%al -rous or so&%al &ommun%'%es (&er'a%nly 'hese
ma''ers -e' 6%r'ually no a''en'%on %n 'he 10 6olumes o3 'he V5l2ersy&holo-%e), and %n
'h%s rese&' %' %s almos' ana&hron%s'%& 'o a''r%bu'e 'o .und' any r%n&%led ob4e&'%on 'o
an e0er%men'al so&%al sy&holo-y, &on&e%6ed as 'he e0er%men'al e0lora'%on o3 'he
&ausal dynam%&s o3 so&%ally held and en-a-ed 3orms o3 &o-n%'%on, emo'%on, and
beha6%or. .und'9s V5l2ersy&holo-%e deser6es 'o be re&o-n%?ed %n 'he h%s'ory o3 so&%al
sy&holo-y 3or %'s early a&2nowled-emen' o3 so&%al 3orms o3 &o-n%'%on, emo'%on, and
beha6%or as 'he aror%a'e sub4e&' ma''er o3 so&%al sy&holo-y bu' no' 3or %'s se&%3%&
'heore'%&al or em%r%&al 'rea'men' o3 'hem or 3or %'s me'hodolo-%&al res&r%'%ons
-o6ern%n- 'he%r %n6es'%-a'%on. :er'a%nly 'here does no' aear 'o be any -ood ar-umen'
o33ered %n 'he .und'%an &orus a-a%ns' 'he oss%b%l%'y o3 an e0er%men'al so&%al
sy&holo-y.
22
R%2%r%c%s
*&h, Q. (1;0=). Uber d%e .%llens'R'%-2e%' und das Den2en. G5''%n-en, Germany:
Vandenhoe&2 and >ure&h'
*llor', F. B. (1;2G). @o&%al sy&holo-y. Kos'on: Bou-h'on78%33l%n.
*llor', F. B. (1;33). Ins'%'u'%onal beha6%or. :hael B%ll: Mn%6ers%'y o3 Qor'h :arol%na
$ress.
*llor', F. B. (1;3G). (he J7&ur6e hyo'hes%s o3 &on3orm%n- beha6%or. Journal o3 @o&%al
$sy&holo-y, =, 1G1"1#1.
*n-ell, J. *. (1;0#). $sy&holo-y. Qew Hor2: Benry Bol'.
*s&h, @. I. (1;=1). I33e&'s o3 -rou ressure uon 'he mod%3%&a'%on and d%s'or'%on o3
4ud-emen's. In B. Gue'?2ow (Id.), Grous, leadersh%, and men. $%''sbur-h, $*:
:arne-%e $ress.
*s&h, @. I., Klo&2, B., A Ber'?man, 8. (1;3#). @'ud%es %n 'he r%n&%les o3 4ud-emen's
and a''%'udes: I. (wo r%n&%les o3 4ud-emen'. Journal o3 $sy&holo-y, =, 21;"2=1.
Kaldw%n, J. 8. (1#;!). @o&%al and e'h%&al %n'errela'%ons %n men'al de6elomen'. Qew
Hor2: 8a&m%llan
Klumen'hal, *. D. (1;!0). Dan-ua-e and sy&holo-y: B%s'or%&al ase&'s o3
sy&hol%n-u%s'%&s. Qew Hor2: .%ley.
Klumen'hal, *. D. (1;!=). * re7ara%sal o3 .%lhelm .und'. *mer%&an $sy&holo-%s', 30,
10#1"10##.
Klumen'hal, *. D. (1;!;). (he 3ound%n- 3a'her we ne6er 2new. :on'emorary
$sy&holo-y, 2G, =G!"==0.
Klumen'hal, *. (1;#=). .%lhelm .und': $sy&holo-y as 'he roaedu'%& s&%en&e. In :. I.
Ku0'on (Id.), $o%n's o3 6%ew %n 'he modern h%s'ory o3 sy&holo-y. Qew Hor2: *&adem%&
$ress.
Ko-ardus, I. @. (1;2G). Fundamen'als o3 so&%al sy&holo-y. Qew Hor2: :en'ury.
Kr%n-mann, .., A (weney, >. (Ids.). (1;#0). .und' s'ud%es. (oron'o, Ln'ar%o, :anada:
Bo-re3e.
KOhler, P. (1;0#). Qa&h'ra-: *n'wor' au3 d%e 6on .. .und' erhobenen I%nwande -e-en
d%e 8e'hode der @elbs'beoba&h'un- an e0er%emen'ell er?eu-'en Irlebn%ssen. *r&h%6 3Or
d%e -esam'e $sy&holo-%e, 12, ;3"112.
:ahan, I. D., A .h%'e, @. B. (1;;2). $roosals 3or a se&ond sy&holo-y. *mer%&an
$sy&holo-%s', G!, 22G"23=.
:ar'wr%-h', D. (1;!;). :on'emorary so&%al sy&holo-y %n h%s'or%&al erse&'%6e. @o&%al
$sy&holo-y Vuar'erly, G2, #2";3.
:har'ers, .. .. Jr., A Qew&omb, (. 8. (1;=2). @ome a''%'ud%nal e33e&'s o3
e0er%men'ally %n&reased sal%en&e o3 a membersh% -rou. In (. 8. Qew&omb A I. D.
Bar'ley (Ids.), >ead%n-s %n so&%al sy&holo-y (2nd ed.). Qew Hor2: Benry Bol'.
:ole, 8. (1;;6). :ul'ural sy&holo-y: (he on&e and 3u'ure d%s&%l%ne. :ambr%d-e, 8*:
Bar6ard Mn%6ers%'y $ress.
:ooley, :. B. (1;02). Buman na'ure and 'he so&%al order. Qew Hor2: @&r%bner9s.
Dan?%-er, P. (1;#3). Lr%-%ns and bas%& r%n&%les o3 .und'9s V5l2ersy&holo-%e. Kr%'%sh
Journal o3 @o&%al $sy&holo-y, 22, 303"313.
Dan?%-er, P. (2000). 8a2%n- so&%al sy&holo-y e0er%men'al: * &on&e'ual h%s'ory,
1;20"1;!0. Journal o3 'he B%s'ory o3 'he Keha6%oral @&%en&es, 36, 32;"3G!.
Dan?%-er, P. (2001). .und' and 'he 'em'a'%ons o3 sy&holo-y. In >. .. >%eber A D. P.
>ob%nson (Ids.), .%lhelm .und' %n h%s'ory: (he ma2%n- o3 a s&%en'%3%& sy&holo-y.
Qew Hor2: Pluwer *&adem%&J$lenum.
Dunla, P. (1;2=). @o&%al sy&holo-y. Kal'%more: .%ll%ams A .%l2%ns.
Dur2he%m, I. (1;G!). (he d%6%s%on o3 labour %n so&%e'y (G. @%mson, (rans.) Qew Hor2:
Free $ress. (Lr%-%nal wor2 ubl%shed 1#;3).
Farr, >. 8. (1;;6). (he roo's o3 modern so&%al sy&holo-y 1#!2"1;=G. L03ord,
In-land: Kas%l Kla&2well.
For-as, J. (Id.). (1;#1). .ha' %s so&%al abou' so&%al &o-n%'%onW In J. For-as (Id.), @o&%al
&o-n%'%on: $erse&'%6es on e6eryday unders'and%n-. Qew Hor2: *&adem%& $ress.
Fr%edr%&h, 8. (1##3). Uber d%e *er&e'%onsdauer be% en3a&hen and
?usammen-ese'?'en Vors'ellun-en. $h%losoh%s&he @'ud%en, 1, 3;"!!.
Graumann, :. F. (1;#6). (he %nd%6%dual%?a'%on o3 'he so&%al and 'he deso&%al%?a'%on o3
'he %nd%6%dual: Floyd B. *llor'9s &on'r%bu'%on 'o so&%al sy&holo-y. In :. F. Graumann
A @. 8os&o6%&% (Ids.), :han-%n- &on&e'%ons o3 &rowd m%nd and beha6%or. Qew Hor2:
@r%n-er7Verla-.
Greenwood, J. D. (1;#;). I0lana'%on and e0er%men' %n so&%al sy&holo-%&al s&%en&e.
Qew Hor2: @r%n-er7Verla-.
Greenwood, J. D. (1;;;). From V5l2ersy&holo-%e 'o &ul'ural sy&holo-y: (he on&e
and 3u'ure d%s&%l%neW $h%losoh%&al $sy&holo-y, 12, =03"=1G.
Greenwood, J. D. (2000). Ind%6%dual%sm and 'he so&%al %n early *mer%&an so&%al
sy&holo-y. Journal o3 'he B%s'ory o3 'he Keha6%oral @&%en&es, 36, GG3"G==.
Greenwood, J. D. (%n ress). (he ass%n- o3 'he so&%al %n *mer%&an so&%al sy&holo-y.
Qew Hor2: :ambr%d-e Mn%6ers%'y $ress.
Berbar', J. F. (1#16). Dehrbu&h ?ur $sy&holo-%e. P5n%-sber-, Germany: Mn?er.
Berder, J. G. (1;6#). Idea 'oward a h%losohy o3 h%s'ory. :h%&a-o: Mn%6ers%'y o3
:h%&a-o $ress. (Lr%-%nal wor2 ubl%shed 1!#G). ):on'e0' D%n2+
Bobhouse, D. (. (1;13). De6elomen' and urose. Qew Hor2: 8a&m%llan.
Bumhrey, G. (1;=1). (h%n2%n-: *n %n'rodu&'%on 'o %'s e0er%men'al sy&holo-y. Qew
Hor2: 8e'huen.
Jahoda, G. (1;;!). .und'9s Vol2ersy&holo-%e. In .. G. Kr%n-mann, B. I. DO&2, >.
8%ller, A :. I. Iarly (Ids.), * %&'or%al h%s'ory o3 sy&holo-y. :h%&a-o: Vu%n'essen&e.
James, .. (1#;0). (he r%n&%les o3 sy&holo-y. Qew Hor2: Bol'.
Jan%s, I. D. (1;6#). V%&'%ms o3 -rou'h%n2. Qew Hor2: Bar&our' Kra&e Jo6ano6%&h.
Jones, I. I. (1;#=). 8a4or de6elomen's %n so&%al sy&holo-y dur%n- 'he as' 3%6e
de&ades. In G. D%nd?ey A I. *ronson (Ids.), (he handboo2 o3 so&%al sy&holo-y (3rd
ed.). Qew Hor2: >andom BouseJIrlbaum.
Jones, I. I. (1;;#). 8a4or de6elomen's %n 3%6e de&ades o3 so&%al sy&holo-y. In D. (.
G%lber', @. (. F%s2e, A G. D%nd?ey (Ids.), (he handboo2 o3 so&%al sy&holo-y (G'h ed.).
Qew Hor2: L03ord Mn%6ers%'y $ress.
Judd, :. B. (1;2=). (he sy&holo-y o3 so&%al %ns'%'u'%ons. Journal o3 *bnormal and
@o&%al $sy&holo-y, 20, 1=1"1=6.
Judd, :. B. (1;26). (he sy&holo-y o3 so&%al %ns'%'u'%ons. Qew Hor2: 8a&m%llan.
Pan', I. (1;!G). *n'hroolo-%e %n $ra-ma'%s&her B%ns%&h' )*n'hroolo-y 3rom a
ra-ma'%& o%n' o3 6%ew, 8. J. Gre-or, (rans.+. (he Ba-ue, (he Qe'herlands: 8ar'%nus
Q%4ho33. (Lr%-%nal wor2 ubl%shed 1!;#).
Pan'or, J. >. (1;22). Bow %s so&%al sy&holo-y oss%bleW Journal o3 *bnormal and
@o&%al $sy&holo-y, 1!, 62"!#.
Par3, F. K. (1;32). *mer%&an so&%al sy&holo-y. Qew Hor2: 8&Graw7B%ll.
Pa'?, D., A @&han&2, >. (1;3#). @o&%al sy&holo-y. Qew Hor2: John .%ley.
Pelley, B. B., A Vol2ar', I. B. (1;=2). (he res%s'an&e 'o &han-e o3 -rou an&hored
a''%'udes. *mer%&an @o&%olo-%&al >e6%ew, 1;, G=3"G6=.
Pus&h, 8. (1;;;). $sy&holo-%&al 2nowled-e: * so&%al h%s'ory and h%losohy. Qew
Hor2: >ou'led-e.
Deahey, (. B. (1;!;). @ome'h%n- old, some'h%n- new: *''en'%on %n .und' and modern
&o-n%'%6e sy&holo-y. Journal o3 'he B%s'ory o3 'he Keha6%oral @&%en&es, 1=, 2G2"2=2.
Deary, D. I. (1;!;). .und' and a3'er: $sy&holo-y9s sh%3'%n- rela'%ons w%'h 'he na'ural
s&%en&es, so&%al s&%en&es and h%losohy. Journal o3 'he B%s'ory o3 'he Keha6%oral
@&%en&es, 1=, 231"2G1.
De Kon, G. (1#;6). Da sy&holo-%e des 3oules )(he &rowd: * s'udy o3 'he oular
m%nd+. Dondon: (. F%sher Mnw%n. (Lr%-%nal wor2 ubl%shed 1#;=).
Dur%a, *. >. (1;31). $sy&holo-%&al e0ed%'%on 'o :en'ral *s%a. @&%en&e, !G, 3#3"3#G.
Dur%a, *. >. (1;!6). :o-n%'%6e de6elomen': I's &ul'ural and so&%al 3ounda'%ons.
:ambr%d-e 8*: Bar6ard Mn%6ers%'y $ress.
8&Dou-all, .. (1;0#). In'rodu&'%on 'o so&%al sy&holo-y. Qew Hor2: Du&e.
8&Dou-all, .. (1;20). (he -rou m%nd. Qew Hor2: $u'nam.
8euller, :. G. (1;!;). @ome or%-%ns o3 sy&holo-y as a s&%en&e. *nnual >e6%ew o3
$sy&holo-y, 30, ;"20.
8%ll, J. @. (1#G3). * sys'em o3 lo-%&. Dondon: Don-mans Green.
Q%sbe'', >. I., A >oss, D. (1;#0). Buman %n3eren&e: @'ra'e-%es and shor'&om%n-s %n
so&%al 4ud-men'. In-lewood :l%33s, QJ: $ren'%&e Ball.
Q%sbe'', >. I., A .%lson, (. D. (1;!!). (ell%n- more 'han we &an 2now: Verbal reor's
on men'al ro&esses. $sy&holo-%&al >e6%ew, #G, 231"2=;. L6%d Full (e0'
>ob%nson, D. (1;;!). .%lhelm 6on Bumbold' and 'he German un%6ers%'y. In ..
Kr%n-mann, B. I. DO&2, >. 8%ller, A :. I. Iarly (Ids.), * %&'or%al h%s'ory o3
sy&holo-y. :h%&a-o: Vu%n'essen&e.
>oss, I. *. (1;0#). @o&%al sy&holo-y: *n ou'l%ne and sour&e boo2. Qew Hor2:
8a&m%llan.
@her%3, 8. (1;3=). * s'udy o3 some so&%al 3a&'ors %n er&e'%on. *r&h%6e o3 $sy&holo-y,
1#!
@hoo2, J. >. (1;;=). .%lhelm .und'9s &on'r%bu'%on 'o John Dewey9s 3un&'%onal
sy&holo-y. Journal o3 'he B%s'ory o3 'he Keha6%oral @&%en&es, 31, 3G!"36;.
@%e-al, *. I., A @%e-al, @. (1;=!). >e3eren&e -rous, membersh% -rous, and a''%'ude
&han-e. Journal o3 *bnormal and @o&%al $sy&holo-y, ==, 360"36G.
(arde, G. (1;03). Des lo%s de l9%m%'a'%on )(he laws o3 %m%'a'%on< I. :. $arsons, (rans.+.
Qew Hor2: Bol'. (Lr%-%nal wor2 ubl%shed 1#;0).
(%'&hener, I. K. (1;10). * 'e0'boo2 o3 sy&holo-y. Qew Hor2: 8a&m%llan
V%&o, G. K. (1;G#). (he new s&%en&e. I'ha&a, QH: :ornell Mn%6ers%'y $ress. (Lr%-%nal
wor2 ubl%shed 1!2=).
6on Bumbold', .. (1#36). Uber d%e Vers&h%edenhe%' des mens&hl%&hen @ra&hbaus und
%hren I%n3lu)be'a+ au3 d%e -e%s'%-e In'w%&2lun- des 8ens&hen-es&hle&h's. Kerl%n,
Germany: *&adam%e der .%ssen&ha3'en.
Vy-o's2y, D. @. (1;!#). 8%nd %n so&%e'y: (he de6elomen' o3 'he h%-her men'al
ro&esses 8. :ole, V. John7@'e%ner, @. @&r%bner, A I. @&huberman, Ids. and (rans.).
:ambr%d-e, 8*: Bar6ard Mn%6ers%'y $ress.
Vy-o's2y, D. @. (1;#6). (hou-h' and lan-ua-e (*. Po?ul%n, (rans.). :ambr%d-e, 8*:
8I( $ress. (Lr%-%nal wor2 ubl%shed 1;3G).
.oodward, .. (1;#2). .und'9s ro-ram 3or 'he new sy&holo-y: V%&%ss%'udes o3
e0er%men', 'heory, and sys'em. In .. .oodward A 8. *sh (Ids.), (he roblema'%&
s&%en&e: $sy&holo-y %n 1;'h &en'ury 'hou-h'. Qew Hor2: $rae-er.
.oodwor'h, >. @. (1;3#). I0er%men'al sy&holo-y. Qew Hor2: Bol'.
.und', .. (1#62). Ke%'rR-e ?ur (heor%e der @%nneswahrnehmun-. De%?%-, Germany:
.%n'er.
.und', .. (1#63). Vorlesun-en Ober d%e 8ens&hen7und (h%erseele (2 6ols.). De%?%-,
Germany: Voss.
.und', .. (1#;G). De&'ures on human and an%mal sy&holo-y ((rans. 3rom 2nd German
ed%'%on by J. I. :re%-h'on A I. K. (%'&hener). Qew Hor2: 8a&m%llan.
.und', .. (1;00"1;20). V5l2ersy&holo-%e (Vols. 1"10). De%?%-, Germany:
In-elmann.

.und', .. (1;01). V5l2ersy&holo-%e Vol. 1. De%?%-, Germany: In-elmann.
.und', .. (1;02). Lu'l%nes o3 sy&holo-y (:. B. Judd, (rans.). @'. :la%res @hores, 8I:
@&holarly $ress. (Lr%-%nal wor2 ubl%shed 1#;!).
.und', .. (1;0G). $r%n&%les o3 hys%olo-%&al sy&holo-y (I. K. (%'&hener, (rans.).
Qew Hor2: 8a&m%llan.
.und', .. (1;0!). Uber *us3ra-ee0er%men'e und Ober d%e 8e'hoden ?ur $sy&holo-%e
des Den2ens. $sy&holo-%s&he @'ud%en, 3, 301"360.
.und', .. (1;0#). Do-%& (Vol. 3, 3rd ed.). @'u''-ar', Germany: In2e.
.und', .. (1;11a). Grund?O-e der hys%olo-%s&hen $sy&holo-%e (Vol. 3). De%?%-,
Germany: In-elmann.
.und', .. (1;11b). V5l2ersy&holo-%e (Vol. 1, $ar' 1, 3rd re6. ed.). De%?%-, Germany:
Pr5ner.
.und', .. (1;16). Ilemen's o3 3ol2 sy&holo-y: Lu'l%nes o3 a sy&holo-%&al h%s'ory o3
'he de6elomen' o3 man2%nd (I. D. @&haub, (rans.). Qew Hor2: 8a&m%llan.
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
1
L'hers &%'e .und' as 'he h%s'or%&al an'%&%a'or o3 'he &on'emorary d%s&%l%ne 2nown as &ul'ural
sy&holo-y, wh%&h :ole (1;;6) &hara&'er%?ed as /'he on&e and 3u'ure d%s&%l%ne.1 For :ole, 'he
d%s&%l%ne 'ha' on&e was %s a h%s'or%&ally re&ons'ru&'ed 6ar%an' o3 .und'9s V5l2ersy&holo-%e. L3
&ourse, whe'her one 'rea's 'he V5l2ersy&holo-%e as a re&ursor o3 /so&%al1 or /&ul'ural1
sy&holo-y ar'ly deends on whe'her one %s %n&l%ned 'o 'ransla'e V5l2ersy&holo-%e as so&%al
or &ul'ural sy&holo-y (see 'he d%s&uss%on a' 'he end o3 'h%s %n'rodu&'ory se&'%on). I' also
deends on wha' one means by &ul'ural sy&holo-y (Greenwood, 1;;;).
2
(h%s e0lana'%on o3 'he ne-le&' o3 'he so&%al %n *mer%&an so&%al sy&holo-y %s doub'3ul on
%ndeenden' -rounds, -%6en 'he unamb%-uous (albe%' rare) e0er%men'al s'ud%es o3 so&%ally
en-a-ed 3orms o3 &o-n%'%on, emo'%on, and beha6%or 'ha' &an be %den'%3%ed %n *mer%&an so&%al
sy&holo-y (see, e.-., *s&h, 1;=1< *s&h, Klo&2, A Ber'?man, 1;3#< :har'ers A Qew&omb,
1;=2< Pelley A Vol2ar', 1;=2< @%e-al A @%e-al, 1;=!). For a de'a%led de3ense o3 'h%s &la%m, see
Greenwood (%n ress).
3
Bumbold' held 'h%s 6%ew be&ause he bel%e6ed 'ha' so&%al7de6elomen'al 'rans3orma'%ons o3
sy&holo-%&al henomena are med%a'ed by lan-ua-e, a os%'%on la'er de6eloed by De6
Vy-o's2y (1;3GJ1;#6, 1;!#) and *le0ander Dur%a (1;31, 1;!6).
G
(he 'erm V5l2ersy&holo-%e %'sel3 was aaren'ly &o%ned by Bumbold' (>ob%nson, 1;;!).
=
For a use3ul d%s&uss%on o3 .und'9s la&e %n 'h%s 'rad%'%on, see 'he &ha'ers %n Kr%n-mann and
(weney (1;#0).
6
8os' o3 .und'9s *mer%&an s'uden's who re'urned 'o &rea'e labora'or%es and sy&holo-y
ro-rams %n *mer%&a re4e&'ed 'he 'heore'%&al de'a%ls o3 .und'9s own /6olun'ar%s'%&1 %nd%6%dual
sy&holo-y o3 &rea'%6e /aer&e'%6e1 ro&esses, -rounded %n 'he al%en h%losoh%&al 'rad%'%on
o3 De%bn%? and Pan', and almos' &omle'ely %-nored 'he V5l2ersy&holo-%e (w%'h 'he no'able
e0&e'%on o3 Judd, 1;2=, 1;26). Qone'heless, many o3 'he early %oneers o3 s&%en'%3%&
sy&holo-y %n Qor'h *mer%&a, su&h as .%ll%am James (1#;0), James *n-ell (1;0#), and Idward
K. (%'&hener (1;10), 3ollowed .und' %n ma%n'a%n%n- 'he need 3or a so&%al sy&holo-y d%s'%n&'
3rom %nd%6%dual sy&holo-y (e6en %3 mos' d%d l%''le 'o ra&'%&ally romo'e su&h a d%s&%l%ne), and
many early *mer%&an so&%al sy&holo-%s's %den'%3%ed 'he s'udy o3 so&%ally held and en-a-ed
3orms o3 &o-n%'%on, emo'%on, and beha6%or as 'he d%s'%n&'%6e sub4e&' ma''er o3 so&%al sy&holo-y
(Ko-ardus, 1;2G< Dunla, 1;2=< Pan'or, 1;22< Pa'? A @&han&2, 1;3#< 8&Dou-all, 1;0#, 1;20<
>oss, 1;0#< see also Greenwood 2000, %n ress).
!
*nalo-ously, al'hou-h Dur2he%m (1#;3J1;G!) ma%n'a%ned 'ha' 'he /&ons&%en&e &olle&'%6e1 %s
/an en'%rely d%33eren' 'h%n- 3rom ar'%&ular &ons&%en&es,1 he ne6er'heless %ns%s'ed 'ha' /%' &an be
real%?ed only 'hrou-h 'hem1 (. !#).
#
I' m%-h' %n 3a&' be ar-ued 'ha' 'he &omara'%6e7h%s'or%&al me'hods o3 V5l2ersy&holo-%e are
more &losely analo-ous 'o 'he me'hods o3 na'ural s&%en&e 'han e0er%men'al sy&holo-y. * -ood
&ase &an be made on .und'%an -rounds.
;
.und' seems 'o ha6e 'hou-h' 'ha' su&h henomena are aroa&hable by e0er%men' %n an
e0'ended sense o3 'he 'erm< see 'he assa-e 3rom 'he V5l2ersy&holo-%e Cuo'ed a' 'he end o3
'h%s se&'%on.
10
Lne may doub' whe'her so&%al sy&holo-%&al henomena su&h as es'abl%shed lan-ua-es,
my'hs, and &us'oms are Cu%'e as /&ons'an'1 as .und' suosed, be&ause %3 'hey really were, 'hen
'he%r %nd%6%dual e0ress%ons would no' be as 6ar%able as .und' suosed. .und' may ha6e
merely mean' 'ha' %nd%6%dual sy&holo-%&al s'a'es are 'oo 6ar%able 'o 3orm an ob4e&'%6e bas%s 3or
%n3eren&es abou' sy&holo-%&al s'a'es by means o3 &omara'%6e7h%s'or%&al me'hods. He' 'ha'
lea6es en'%rely oen 'he Cues'%on o3 whe'her one &an s'udy so&%al sy&holo-%&al henomena
e0er%men'ally 'hrou-h 'he%r %nd%6%dual e0ress%ons.
11
Lne should no' read 'oo mu&h %n'o .und'9s use o3 'he 'erm e0er%men'al here, be&ause %'
aeals 'o a 6ery broad no'%on o3 e0er%men', a&&ord%n- 'o wh%&h d%33eren&es %n &ausal ro&esses
&an be le-%'%ma'ely %n3erred 3rom d%s&r%m%na'ed d%33eren&es %n e33e&'s. :omare, 3or e0amle,
.und'9s des&r%'%on o3 :oern%&us9s 'heore'%&al &on4e&'ures abou' 'he bas%s o3 lane'ary mo'%ons
as /e0er%men'al1 (1#;G, . 10). L3 &ourse, .und' ne6er den%ed 'ha' V5l2ersy&holo-%e %s
e0er%men'al %n 'h%s broad sense.
12
(h%s eCua'%on was also &ommon enou-h amon- .und'9s &on'emorar%es. @ee Bobhouse
(1;13), 3or e0amle, who ma%n'a%ned 'ha': /as soon as we be-%n 'o 3ollow 'he 'ra&2 o3 'he h%-her
de6elomen's o3 m%nd %n man 'he na'ure o3 'he enCu%ry &han-es. (he 3or&es 'o be &ons%dered are
now so&%al ra'her 'han sy&holo-%&al, or, more a&&ura'ely, are ma''ers o3 so&%al ra'her 'han
%nd%6%dual sy&holo-y1 (. 12). In &on'ras', a -ood many *mer%&an so&%al sy&holo-%s's &%'ed
reasonable -rounds 3or eCua'%n- 'he so&%al d%mens%ons o3 &o-n%'%on, emo'%on, and beha6%or w%'h
%rra'%onal%'y (*llor', 1;2G, 1;33, 1;3G< Jan%s, 1;6#), a os%'%on de6eloed 'o -rea' e33e&' by
Iuroean /&rowd1 'heor%s's su&h as Gabr%el (arde (1#;0J1;03) and Gus'a6 De Kon
(1#;=J1#;6).
13
.und'9s &r%'%Cue may ha6e been a ra'her e0'reme o6errea&'%on 'o 'he wor2 o3 or%-%nal d%s&%les
who aeared 'o ha6e s'rayed 'oo 3ar 3rom 'he r%-%d a'h orda%ned by 'he mas'er. Lr %' may ha6e
re3le&'ed .und'9s -row%n- ne-le&' o3 h%s own e0er%men'al ro-ram wh%le wor2%n- on 'he
mul'%6olume V5l2ersy&holo-%e. @%-n%3%&an'ly, a' 'he end o3 h%s &r%'%Cue, .und' o33ered h%s
re&ommenda'%on on how 'he .Or?bur-ers ou-h' 'o de6elo (no' abandon) 'he sy&holo-y o3
'hou-h': I0er%men'al sel37obser6a'%ons ou-h' 'o be &omb%ned w%'h (no' rela&ed by)
&omara'%6e7h%s'or%&al s'ud%es.
1G
(h%s ob4e&'%on, wh%&h -e's 'o 'he hear' o3 'he ma''er, was ra%sed by Pur' Dan?%-er.
1=
:on6ersely, many &omle0 /h%-her1 &o-n%'%6e ro&esses, su&h as lo-%&al reason%n- and
m%l%'ary lann%n-, may be en-a-ed %nd%6%dually (%.e., w%'hou' re3eren&e 'o 'he reresen'ed
&o-n%'%6e ro&esses o3 members o3 any so&%al -rou).
16
.und' &la%med 'ha' /'he &ond%'%ons o3 men'al re&%ro&%'y rodu&e new and se&%3%&
e0ress%ons o3 men'al 3or&es1 (1;0#, . 22!, &%'ed %n Pus&h, 1;;;, . 16;). Bowe6er, he -a6e no
reason 'o suose 'ha' 'hese /new and se&%3%& e0ress%ons1 are res'r%&'ed 'o /h%-her1 or /more
&omle01 men'al 3or&es. 8oreo6er, .und' ma%n'a%ned (w%'h Kaldw%n, 1#;!, and :ooley, 1;02)
'ha' 'he no'%on o3 an %sola'ed %nd%6%dual %s /only an arb%'rary abs'ra&'%on1 (1;0#, . 2;3, &%'ed %n
Dan?%-er, 2001) and 'ha' %nd%6%dual m%nds are 'hemsel6es /rodu&'s1 o3 &olle&'%6e m%nds
(1;11b, . 10, &%'ed %n Pus&h, 1;;;), wh%&h would aear 'o l%&ense so&%ally en-a-ed
&omlemen's o3 all 3orms o3 human sy&holo-y 'ha' are %nd%6%dually en-a-ed (s%mle or
&omle0).
1!
(he 3a&' 'ha' su&h /h%-her1 &o-n%'%6e (and so&%al sy&holo-%&al) ro&esses are
neurohys%olo-%&ally %n&arna'ed %s %'sel3 no reason 'o deny 'he%r sy&holo-%&alTor so&%al
sy&holo-%&alTna'ure and 'hus no reason 'o deny 'ha' 'hey &an be e0lored 'hrou-h
sy&holo-%&al e0er%men'a'%on. *s .und' (1#;G) u' %': /(h%s %s, o3 &ourse, no reason 3or
deny%n- 'o e0er%men' 'he &hara&'er o3 a sy&holo-%&al me'hod. I' %s s%mly due 'o 'he -eneral
&ond%'%on o3 our men'al l%3e, one ase&' o3 wh%&h %s %'s &ons'an' &onne&'%on w%'h 'he body1 (.
11).
1#
.und' may ha6e been r%-h' 'o %ns%s' 'ha' so&%al sy&holo-%&al %n3luen&es are no' s'r%&'ly
/e0'ernal,1 be&ause 'hey deend on a /shared sy&holo-%&al &ommun%'y1 (Dan?%-er, 2001, .
##) or a' leas' 'he reresen'a'%on o3 su&h a &ommun%'y. Bowe6er, 'h%s hardly re&ludes 'he%r
e0er%men'al e0lora'%on by means o3 s'%mulus resen'a'%on, as %llus'ra'ed by 'he &lass%&
e0er%men'al s'ud%es o3 *s&h (1;=1< *s&h e' al., 1;3#) and @her%3 (1;3=).
1;
(h%s %s no' 'o deny 'ha' e0er%men's %n so&%al sy&holo-y may reCu%re 'he se&%al ada'a'%on o3
'he e0er%men'al me'hod 'o 'he d%s'%n&'%6e 3ea'ures o3 'he henomena %n6es'%-a'ed (Greenwood,
1;#;). *s .und' (1#;G) h%msel3 no'ed, /.e mus' remember 'ha' %n e6ery dear'men' o3
%n6es'%-a'%on 'he e0er%men'al me'hod 'a2es on an ese&%al 3orm, a&&ord%n- 'o 'he na'ure o3 'he
3a&'s %n6es'%-a'ed1 (. 10).
20
I' resen's no more o3 a roblem 'han 'he 3a&' 'ha' human hys%olo-y resuoses a suor'%6e
b%oshere, wh%&h hardly re&ludes 'he e0er%men'al %n6es'%-a'%on o3 hys%olo-%&al ro&esses.
21
@ee Dan?%-er (2001, . ##"#;) and Pus&h (1;;;, . 1#0"1##) 3or s%m%lar 6ers%ons o3 'h%s
&omla%n'.
22
(h%s %s no' 'o deny 'ha' .und'9s aaren' re4e&'%on o3 'he oss%b%l%'y o3 an e0er%men'al
analys%s o3 'he so&%al d%mens%ons o3 &o-n%'%on, emo'%on, and beha6%or may ha6e layed a role %n
'he h%s'or%&al ne-le&' o3 'he so&%al d%mens%ons o3 sy&holo-%&al s'a'es and beha6%or by *mer%&an
so&%al sy&holo-%s's. @ome *mer%&an ra&'%'%oners may 6ery well ha6e a&&e'ed 'h%s a''r%bu'ed
.und'%an d%&'um and ressed on re-ardless w%'h an e0er%men'al sy&holo-y o3 %n'erersonal
sy&holo-%&al s'a'es and beha6%or (see Greenwood, %n ress).