How Animals Move

Chapter 20

20.1 Impacts/Issues
Bulking Up Muscles
Exercise makes muscles bigger, not by adding
cells but by adding proteins to existing cells
Certain hormones and other molecules regulate
this process
Testosterone and human growth hormone
increase muscle growth
Myostatin slows muscle growth

Effects of Myostatin
A normal whippet and one homozygous for a
mutation that prevents myostatin production

Video: Pumping up muscles

20.2 The Skeletal System

Muscles bring about movement by applying

contractile force against body fluids or structural
elements, such as bones
Three categories of skeletal systems are
common in animals hydrostatic skeletons,
exoskeletons, and endoskeletons

Three Types of Skeletons

Hydrostatic skeleton (earthworm)
Fluid-filled chamber that muscles act on,
redistributing the fluid

Exoskeleton (fly)
Hard external parts that muscles attach to

Endoskeleton (humans, other vertebrates)

Hard internal parts that muscles attach to

The Human Skeleton

The human skeleton consists of skull bones, a

vertebral column, a rib cage, a pelvic girdle, a
pectoral girdle, and paired limbs
The vertebral column consists of individual
segments called vertebrae, with intervertebral
disks between them

The Vertebral Column

Vertebral column
The backbone

Vertebrae
Bones of the backbone

Intervertebral disk
Cartilage disk between two vertebrae

Functions of the Vertebral Column

The spinal cord runs through the vertebral

column and connects with the brain through a
hole in the base of the skull
The shape of the human backbone is an
evolutionary adaptation to upright walking

The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs

Pectoral girdle
Scapula
Clavicle

Upper limb bones

Humerus
Radius and ulna

The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs

Pelvic girdle
Six fused bones

Lower limb bones

Femur
Tibia and fibula
Patella

The Human Skeleton

Skull
cranial bones
facial bones
Rib Cage
sternum
(breastbone)
ribs (12 pairs)
Vertebral Column
vertebrae
intervertebral disk
(cartilage)

Pectoral Girdle
clavicle (collarbone)
scapula
(shoulder blade)
Upper Limb Bones
humerus (upper arm bone)

ulna (forearm bone)

radius (fore-arm bone)
carpals (wrist bones)

Pelvic Girdle
(6 fused bones)
Lower Limb Bones

metacarpals (palm bones)

phalanges (finger
bones)

femur (thighbone)
patella (kneecap)
tibia (lower leg bone)
fibula (lower leg bone)
tarsals (ankle bones)
metatarsals (sole bones)

phalanges (toe bones)

Fig. 20-2, p. 405

Animation: Human skeletal system

Bone Structure and Function

Bones are collagen-rich, mineralized organs,
wrapped in connective tissue
Bones function in mineral storage, movement,
and protection and support of soft organs
Ongoing mineral deposits and removals help
maintain blood levels of calcium and phosphorus,
and also adjust bone strength
Some bones are sites of blood cell formation

Two Types of Bone

Compact bone
Dense, weight-bearing bone with thin concentric
layers of matrix surrounding canals for nerves
and blood vessels

Spongy bone
Lightweight bone with many internal spaces filled
with red or yellow marrow

Bone Marrow

Red marrow
Bone marrow that makes blood cells

Yellow marrow
Bone marrow that is mostly fat
Fills cavity in most long bones such as the femur

Structure of a Femur

Fig. 20-3a, p. 406

nutrient canal
location of
yellow marrow
compact
bone tissue
spongy
bone
tissue
Fig. 20-3a, p. 406

Fig. 20-3b, p. 406

spongy
bone
tissue

compact
bone tissue
blood vessel

outer layer
of dense
connective tissue
Fig. 20-3b, p. 406

Fig. 20-3c, p. 406

space occupied
by living bone cell

central canal

Fig. 20-3c, p. 406

Animation: Structure of a femur

Osteoporosis
Until about age 24, people produce bone matrix
faster than they break it down as people age,
bone density declines
Osteoporosis
Disorder in which bones lose calcium, weaken,
and are more likely to break
Increased by smoking, excess alcohol or cola

Where Bones Meet Skeletal Joints

Joint
Region where bones meet and interact

Different joints have different movements

Ball-and-socket joint (shoulder, hip)
Gliding joints (wrists, ankles)
Hinge joints (elbows, knees)

Fibrous and Cartilaginous Joints

Fibrous joints hold bones tightly in place;
cartilaginous joints let them move a bit
Fibrous joint
Joint where dense connective tissue holds bones
firmly in place (cranial bones)

Cartilaginous joint
Joint where pads of cartilage hold bones together
and provide cushioning, as between vertebrae

Synovial Joints
Synovial joints allow the most motion; ligaments
connect bones at synovial joints
Synovial joint
Joint such as the knee that is lubricated by fluid
and allows movement of bones around the joint

Ligament
Dense connective tissue that holds bones
together at a joint

Knee Joint
A hinge-type synovial joint, held together by
ligaments, stabilized by cartilage

femur
patella

cartilage

cruciate
ligaments
menisci
tibia

fibula
Fig. 20-4, p. 407

Joint Injuries
Common joint injuries include sprained ankles,
torn cruciate ligaments, and dislocations
Sprain
Ligaments of a joint are injured

Dislocation
Bones of a joint are out of place

Arthritis
Arthritis
Chronic inflammation and associated pain and
swelling of a joint

Two types of arthritis:

Osteoarthritis typically occurs in old age when
cartilage is worn down
Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disorder
which attacks all synovial joints

Animation: Fly wing action

Animation: Vertebrate skeletons

Animation: Long bone formation

Video: ABC News: Taller and taller

20.3 How Bones and Muscles Interact

Muscles and bones work like a lever system

When skeletal muscles contract, they transmit
force to a tendon that makes the bones move

Tendon
Strap of dense connective tissue that connects a
skeletal muscle to bone

How Skeletal Muscles Move

Muscles can only pull on bones, they cannot

push them

Skeletal muscles often work as opposing pairs

Action of one reverses the action of the other
Example: biceps and triceps

Opposition: Biceps and Triceps

biceps
radius

2
triceps

Fig. 20-5, p. 408

Animation: Human skeletal muscles

Animation: Structure of a sarcomere

20.4 Skeletal Muscle

Structure and Function

The internal organization of a skeletal muscle

promotes a strong, directional contraction
Many myofibrils make up a skeletal muscle fiber
A myofibril consists of units of sarcomeres, lined
up along its length
Each sarcomere has parallel arrays of actin and
myosin filaments

Skeletal Muscle Structure

Myofibrils
Threadlike, cross-banded skeletal muscle
components that consist of sarcomeres arranged
end to end

Sarcomere
Unit of skeletal muscle contraction, containing
actin and myosin filaments

Skeletal Muscle Structure

Actin
Globular protein
Thin filaments of muscle fibers
Works with myosin to contract muscles

Myosin
Motor protein with a club-shaped head
Thick filaments of muscle fibers
Works with actin to contract muscles

Skeletal Muscle Structure

Fig. 20-6 (left), p. 409

biceps
brachii
triceps
brachii
pectoralis
major
rectus
abdominis

deltoid
trapezius
latissimus
dorsi
gluteus
maximus
biceps
femoris

quadriceps
femoris
gastrocnemi
us
Achilles
tendon
Fig. 20-6 (left), p. 409

Fig. 20-6 (a-c), p. 409

Fig. 20-6a, p. 409

outer
sheath
of one
skeletal
muscle

one bundle of many

muscle fibers in parallel
inside the sheath

Fig. 20-6a, p. 409

Fig. 20-6b, p. 409

B one myofibril, made up of sarcomeres arranged end to end

sarcomere
Z line

sarcomere
Z line

Z line

Fig. 20-6b, p. 409

Fig. 20-6c, p. 409

Z line

Z line

C one sarcomere, with

parallel actin and
myosin filaments

actin
Z line

myosin

actin
Z line
Fig. 20-6c, p. 409

Animation: Structure of a skeletal muscle

Muscle Contraction

Skeletal muscles contract in response to signals

from the nervous system

Sliding-filament model
Explains how interactions of actin and myosin
filaments shorten a sarcomere and bring about
muscle contraction

How Sarcomeres Shorten

The sliding-filament model

Actin and myosin filaments lie close to each other

ATP activates myosin heads in thick filaments
Calcium is released; myosin binds to actin
Myosin heads tilt, sliding actin toward the center;
the sarcomere contracts
Binding of ATP releases myosin from actin; the
sarcomere relaxes

The Sliding Filament Model

Fig. 20-7a, p. 410

actin

myosin

actin

Sarcomere between contractions

Fig. 20-7a, p. 410

Fig. 20-7b, p. 410

myosin head

one of many myosin-binding sites on actin

cross-bridge

cross-bridge
Fig. 20-7b, p. 410

Fig. 20-7c, p. 410

Fig. 20-7d, p. 410

cross-bridge broken

cross-bridge broken

Same sarcomere, contracted

Fig. 20-7d, p. 410

Animation: Sliding filament model

Getting Energy For Contraction

Muscle fibers produce ATP needed for
contraction by three pathways:
Dephosphorylation of creatine phosphate (lasts 5
to 10 seconds)
Aerobic respiration of glycogen (another 5 to 10
minutes), then of blood glucose and fatty acids
(as long as oxygen is available)
Lactate fermentation (when oxygen is no longer
available)

Three Metabolic Pathways of ATP

pathway 1
dephosphorylation of
creatine phosphate

ADP + Pi

creatine

pathway 2
aerobic respiration

oxygen

pathway 3
lactate fermentation

glucose from bloodstream and

from glycogen breakdown in cells

Fig. 20-8a, p. 411

pathway 1
dephosphorylation of
creatine phosphate

ADP + Pi

creatine

pathway 2
aerobic respiration

oxygen

pathway 3
lactate fermentation

glucose from bloodstream and

from glycogen breakdown in cells

Stepped Art
Fig. 20-8a, p. 411

Fig. 20-8b, p. 411

Animation: Energy sources for

contraction

Animation: Opposing muscle action

Animation: Troponin and tropomyosin

Animation: Muscle contraction overview

20.5 Properties of Whole Muscles

Motor unit
One motor neuron and all muscle fibers that form
junctions with its endings
All fibers of a motor unit contract at the same time
Repeated stimulation of a motor unit results in a
strong, sustained contraction
Brief stimulation causes a muscle twitch

Muscle twitch
Brief muscle contraction and relaxation

Stimulation of a Motor Unit

Force

relaxation starts

stimulus contraction

Force

A A single, brief stimulus causes a twitch.

twitch

sustained
contraction

repeated stimulation
Time

B Repeated stimulation results in a sustained

contraction with several times the force of a twitch.
Fig. 20-9, p. 411

Animation: Types of contractions

Muscle Tension

Muscle tension is a mechanical force caused by

muscle contraction
Opposed by a load (weight of object or gravity)

Muscle tension
Force exerted by a contracting muscle
Affected by number of fibers recruited

Isotonic and Isometric Contraction

A muscle shortens only when muscle tension

exceeds an opposing load
Isotonically contracting muscles shorten and
move a load
Isometrically contracting muscles develop tension
but do not shorten or move a load

Isotonic and Isometric Contraction

Fig. 20-10a, p. 412

contracted
muscle can
shorten

Fig. 20-10a, p. 412

Fig. 20-10b, p. 412

contracted
muscle cannot
shorten

Fig. 20-10b, p. 412

Muscles and Exercise

Aerobic exercise increases blood supply and
number of mitochondria which makes muscles
more resistant to muscle fatigue
Strength training stimulates formation of more
actin and myosin, but muscles fatigue rapidly

Muscle fatigue
Decrease in a muscles ability to contract despite
ongoing stimulation

Muscles and Aging

Muscle strength decreases with age
Muscles shrink; number of muscle fibers declines
Injuries take longer to heal

Strength training and aerobic exercise are

helpful at any age
Slows loss of muscle tissue, improves circulation
Also good for the brain

Impaired Muscle Contraction

Some genetic disorders affect muscle structure
and impair muscle function
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (X-linked)

Some diseases and toxins affect motor neurons

Poliovirus kills motor neurons
Tetanus, caused by toxins of Clostridium tetani,
kills by locking skeletal muscles in contraction
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)

Muscular Dystrophy
Normal skeletal muscle and muscle with
muscular dystrophy

Tetanus

20.6 Impacts/Issues Revisited

Research on drugs that inhibit myostatin activity
may help slow muscle loss resulting from
muscular dystrophy, ALS, or even normal aging

Digging Into Data:

Building Stronger Bones