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Evaluation of Melter Slag as a Base Course Material

a

Craig C. Byers , Mofreh F. Saleh & Bryan D. Pidwerbesky

a

Opus International Consultants Ltd , Auckland, New Zealand

Department of Civil Engineering , University of Canterbury , Private Bag 4800,

Christchurch, New Zealand
c

Fulton Hogan Ltd , PO Box 39815, Christchurch, New Zealand

Published online: 15 Aug 2006.

To cite this article: Craig C. Byers , Mofreh F. Saleh & Bryan D. Pidwerbesky (2004) Evaluation of Melter Slag as a Base Course
Material, International Journal of Pavement Engineering, 5:4, 193-199, DOI: 10.1080/10298430412331320653
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The International Journal of Pavement Engineering, Vol. 5 (4), December 2004 pp. 193199

Evaluation of Melter Slag as a Base Course Material

CRAIG C. BYERSa, MOFREH F. SALEHb,* and BRYAN D. PIDWERBESKYc
a

Opus International Consultants Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand; bDepartment of Civil Engineering, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800,
Christchurch, New Zealand; cFulton Hogan Ltd, PO Box 39815, Christchurch, New Zealand

Downloaded by [Visvesvaraya Technological University - VTu] at 03:12 07 July 2015

(Received 5 February 2004; Revised 12 September 2004; In final form 28 September 2004)

The demand for quality natural aggregates for use in pavement construction is approaching a critical
state in some parts of New Zealand and other countries around the world. The search for alternative
sources of aggregate to minimize the utilization of natural aggregates and provide a high quality
substitute has led to slag. The purpose of this study was primarily to examine the engineering,
environmental and economical issues relating to the utilization of melter slag as a base course material.
New Zealand pavements are predominantly thin-surfaced unbound granular flexible pavements where
the main design criterion is the vertical compressive strain at the top of the subgrade imposed by each
axle load. Laboratory testing used Repeat Load Triaxial apparatus to determine the resilient modulus
and permanent deformation characteristics of the melter slag aggregate and two traditional aggregate
materials. The principles of multi-layer elastic theory were then used in a pavement design exercise to
determine the engineering and economic benefits of the slag. Additives were also attempted in the
laboratory testing to investigate the effect they would have on the melter slag aggregate. Results showed
the performance of the slag exceeds that of the natural aggregates in terms of both resilient modulus and
permanent deformation characteristics, and the addition of lime and cement binders enhanced these
characteristics even further. The study also investigated various environmental and economic factors
associated with the use of the slag and concluded that melter slag should be considered as an adequate
substitute for traditional premium aggregates in road construction.
Keywords: Slag; Aggregate; Base course; Resilient modulus; Permanent deformation; Slag as a base
course material

INTRODUCTION
The demand for quality natural aggregates for use in
pavement construction is approaching a critical state in
some parts of New Zealand, especially Auckland. Due to
the exhaustion of several existing quarries within the
region, Auckland is experiencing difficulties in sourcing
high quality aggregates for use in its growing road
network and the large corridor projects due to start in the
region. Consequently, the search has turned to investigating alternative sources of aggregate such as melter slag.
New Zealand has a road network of approximately
100,000 km including an 11,000 km state highway system.
This infrastructure is supported by a population of only 4
million, which means that road funds have always had to be
spread thinly. This has resulted in a form of pavement
construction comprised of a carefully specified unbound
granular base supported as necessary on a lower quality
unbound sub-base (to further reduce costs) and surfaced
with a one- or two-coat surface treatment. High quality
*Corresponding author. E-mail: mofreh.saleh@canterbury.ac.nz
ISSN 1029-8436 print/ISSN 1477-268X online q 2004 Taylor & Francis Ltd
DOI: 10.1080/10298430412331320653

aggregates are, therefore, required for the base course layer

of a pavement due to its proximity to the road surface. The
stress concentration due to traffic loads at the road surface is
at a maximum and the principal function of the base course
layer is to distribute these stresses to the underlying subbase
layer and subgrade at levels that they can support.
Melter slag, regarded as a by-product with limited
economic potential, has been identified as potentially
having material characteristics that make it suitable as a
base course aggregate and may provide an ideal solution to
help reduce the exhaustion of natural aggregate resources
while providing other various economic and environmental benefits. The reasons for New Zealands reluctance to
use melter slag as a roading construction material, is due
to the previous abundance of available high quality low
cost aggregates. Consequently, there is a lack of industry
knowledge and experience with the use of melter slag or
other by-products to confirm whether they meet Transit
New Zealand specifications in relation to material and
performance characteristics.

194

C.C. BYERS et al.

Research Objectives

TABLE II Material properties of aggregates used

. Determine whether the resilient modulus and permanent deformation behaviour of crushed melter slag
under loading is equivalent to or better than those of
natural aggregates that satisfy Transit New Zealands
specifications (1995) for base course aggregate.
. Provide information about melter slag to promote its
usage as a construction aggregate with confidence in
terms of its engineering, economic and environmental
impacts.

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SLAG PRODUCTION IN NEW ZEALAND

The slag that has been investigated in this report is melter
slag from the iron-making process at New Zealands
Glenbrook Steel Mill located 50 km south of Auckland.
The Mill utilizes the local iron sands found on the west
coast of the North Island of New Zealand. These black
sands are the largest reserves of metal ore in New
Zealand. The iron-making process occurs via the
reduction of iron ore through a multi-hearth furnace.
Iron melter slag is formed through the fusion of limestone,
ash and other fluxes such as silicon, aluminium and
titanium from the iron ore. The iron is made in a
continuous process where the two electric arc melters are
never turned off. Approximately 270,000 tonnes of melter
slag are produced annually. The melter slag differs in its
chemical composition from blast furnace and steel slag.
Table I indicates the chemical composition of melter slag
compared to common values for blast furnace slag and
steel slag.

TESTING METHODOLOGY
The bulk of the laboratory work involved testing the slag
aggregate in Repeat Load Triaxial apparatus to determine
its resilient modulus and permanent deformation characteristics and compare with common materials to determine
its suitability. The laboratory testing also included
stabilisation of the slag aggregates by cement, lime and
TABLE I Typical chemical composition values for Melter, blast furnace
and steel slag
Blast furnace slag (%)
Compounds
CaO
SiO2
Al2O3
MgO
Sulphur
FeO
MnO
TiO2
K20
Fe2O3

Steel slag (%)

Melter
slag (%)

Emery
(1982)

Jones
(1982)

Coventry et al.
(1999)

14
15
18
13

1
34

36 45
33 42
10 16
3.0 16
1.0 3.0
0.3 2.0
0.2 1.5

40.0
36.8
16.0
5.4
0.4
0.2
0.5
0.3
0.4

3150
1124
5.018
2.08.0

6.022

5.030

Material properties

Slag

Basalt

Greywacke

Specific gravity
Plastic limit
Plasticity index
Optimum moisture content (%)
L.A. abrasion no.
Sand equivalence
Maximum dry density (kg/m3)

3.20
N/A
N/A
3.5
29.2
100
2500

3.05
14.5
5.5
5.4
N/T
N/T
2242

2.70
18
4
6.5
N/T
N/T
2250

N/A Not Applicable N/T Not Tested

cationic slow setting emulsified asphalt (CSS-1) to

determine their effect on the resilient modulus and
permanent deformation characteristics. The amount of
stabilisation agent was calculated based on the dry mass of
the slag aggregate.
Two commonly used base course aggregates (a basalt
and greywacke) from the Auckland region, which satisfy
Transit New Zealands specifications, also underwent the
triaxial testing. All aggregates used were compliant with
Transit New Zealands grading envelope for a base course
of maximum aggregate size 40 mm, (AP-40). Table II
highlights the main material properties for each aggregate,
while Table III shows the stabilising agents used in this
investigation.

LABORATORY TESTING
MATerials Testing Apparatus (MATTA) capable of
undertaking both Resilient Modulus testing and Permanent Deformation testing was used in the Transportation
Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering, University
of Canterbury. Figure 1 shows the apparatus used in the
testing process.
Samples were placed within the triaxial cell and
positioned between the base plate and crosshead of the
testing machine. Axial stress was generated from a
feedback-controlled hydraulic actuator capable of accurately applying a loading stress pulse of rectangular shape.
A confining stress was generated by a closed loop
controlled actuator to simulate the support from
surrounding material as experienced in the road. The
confining pressure was applied by filling the triaxial cell
with water, leaving a small amount of air at the top to be
pressurized via a feedback controlled pressure regulator.
The machine imparted a vertical dynamic force of
rectangular waveform with a period of 3 s and a load
pulse of 1 s duration, in accordance with the requirements

TABLE III Stabilising agents used to modify slag specimens

Stabilising agent

Percentages added to slag

Portland cement
Hydrated lime
CSS-1 emulsion

2% of dry mass of slag

2 and 4% of dry mass of slag
1.5% of dry mass of slag

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EVALUATION OF MELTER SLAG

FIGURE 1 Triaxial test apparatus used in this investigation.

of AS1289.6.8.1-1995 (Australian Standard, 1995) and is

depicted in Figure 2.
Measurements were made via the load cell, an external
axial displacement transducer, a confining pressure gauge
and an externally mounted linear variable differential
transducer (LVDT) on top of the triaxial cell, which
measures deformations over the full length of the
specimen. These enabled the resultant stress and strain
in the sample to be determined.
The machine was controlled by a control and data
acquisition system (CDAS), which provided the control
signals, signal conditioning, data acquisition and communication facilities necessary to operate the MATTA.
The CDAS communicates with the computer, which
provided the interface for the testing software and stored
the raw test data.
Specimen Preparation
All three aggregates used in the laboratory testing had to
be compliant with Transit New Zealands M4 grading
envelope for an AP-40 base course aggregate. Gradation

195

information for the tested aggregates is presented in

Table IV. Aggregates were oven dried over 24 h and
allowed to cool for a further 12 h before being mixed to the
appropriate optimum moisture content, see Table II.
The percentage of water and any binders to be added to the
aggregate were calculated based on the dry mass of
the aggregate. The specimens were compacted in a threeway cylindrical split mould, of dimension 150 mm
diameter by 300 mm height, lined with a rubber
membrane. The specimens were compacted in six layers
by a vibrating hammer calibrated to provide compaction
equivalent to the Proctor Hammer.
Each specimen was compacted in six layers to ensure
uniform compaction along the total depth of the specimen.
Each layer was then scarified and the next lift hand placed
and compacted. The surface of the final lift was levelled
with fine material in order to reduce friction between the
loading cap and the end surface, and to increase the
uniformity of stress distribution at the end surface.
Specimen density was calculated by measuring the total
weight and height of the compacted specimen.
The specimen was sealed and left overnight before it
was removed from the split mould and transferred to the
bottom platen of the triaxial cell. Specimens that included
a stabilising agent were cured for 7 days as required by
Australian specification, AS1289.6.8.1-1995 (Australian
Standard, 1995) before they were transferred to the triaxial
cell. The top platen was placed on the sample and another
rubber membrane placed over the specimen and platens,
and sealed in place by O-rings at the top and bottom; this
prevented water from entering the sample and causing
premature failure during testing.
Resilient Modulus Results
The resilient modulus test characterised the material
response over a range of applied dynamic stress conditions
assuming isotropic behaviour, as required by Australian
Standard AS1289.6.8.1-1995. The Australian Standard is
equivalent to the AAHSTO method of testing the resilient
modulus of different materials. Specimens were preconditioned prior to testing by a sequence of cyclic loading.

FIGURE 2 The load waveform used in the triaxial test.

196

C.C. BYERS et al.

TABLE IV Comparison of particle size distribution of aggregates with

transit NZ specification envelope limits

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% Weight passing
Sieve size

TNZ M4 Spec.

Slag

Basalt

Greywacke

37.5 mm
19 mm
9.5 mm
4.75 mm
2.36 mm
1.18 mm
600 mm
300 mm
150 mm
75 mm

100
6681
4357
2843
1933
1225
719
314
010
07

100
80
55
39
28
21
10
6
1
0

100
79
56
40
26
17
12
9
7
5

100
72
50
33
22
14
9
6
4
3

The intent of the preconditioning loading phase of the

resilient modulus test was to induce any plastic strains that
are prone to occur, so that mostly the elastic strains remain
during resilient modulus loading. Three replicate samples
were tested in order to provide a statistically sound test
value for the resilient modulus from the mean of the three
samples.
The results of the testing can be seen in Figures 3 6.
Figure 3 indicates that the stress dependence can be
modelled quite reasonably for the slag aggregates by using
the K u model:
 K 2
u
Mr K 1
u0
where: Mr is resilient modulus in MPa; u is bulk stress
(s1 s2 s3) where (s2 s3); s1 is major principal

stress (axial stress); s3 is minor principal stress

( confining stress); u 0 is reference pressure
( 1 kPa); K1 and K2 are regression constants.
The K u model also provided a good fit for the stress
dependence for the other types of aggregates tested such
as the greywacke, the basalt and the lime modified slag.
However, for cement stabilized materials the K u model
does not provide a good fit probably due to the bonded
nature of the cement stabilised slag, instead the
logarithmic model logM r a bu=u0 provides a
much better match for the measured values.
Figure 4 shows the performance of the slag aggregate
relative to the reference aggregates of basalt and
greywacke. The slag aggregate provides a higher resilient
modulus than the greywacke and basalt for all the different
stress states applied on the specimens.
Figure 5 shows a comparison between the resilient
modulus values for the conventional slag sample and slag
stabilised with lime (at 2.0 and 4.0% by dry mass of slag) and
CSS-1 modified slag. Lime stabilisation improves the
resilient modulus of the slag, and the higher the percentage
of lime the higher the resilient modulus of the slag.
Unexpectedly the CSS-1 reduced the value of the resilient
modulus and the interpretation of this can be attributed to the
additional water content of the aggregate at compaction.
Because CSS-1 contains about 40% water, this amount of
water should be taken into account and the optimum water
content should be adjusted to avoid compaction at the wet
side of the water content-density curve.
Figure 6 shows a comparison between slag stabilised by
4% lime and that stabilised with 2% cement. Cement
stabilisation provided values of resilient modulus about

FIGURE 3 The relationship between bulk stress and the resilient modulus for slag aggregate.

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EVALUATION OF MELTER SLAG

197

FIGURE 4 Comparison between resilient moduli at different bulk stress

values for slag, greywacke, and basalt aggregates.

FIGURE 6 Comparison between slag resilient moduli at different bulk

stress values for two different stabilization methods.

three times higher than lime. The only concerns with

cement stabilisation were the drying shrinkage cracking
and the brittleness of the mix, and consequent loss of
fatigue resistance that may occur.

the resilient modulus test where the basalt provided the

lowest resilient modulus and yielded the greatest permanent
deformation while the melter slag provided the highest
modulus and underwent the least permanent deformation.

Permanent Deformation Results

ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS

The permanent deformation testing characterised the plastic

strain response at one stress level over a large number of
repetitions. The tests were conducted at a deviator stress of
500 kPa and a confining stress of 100 kPa. Arnold et al.
(2001) measured stresses within a test pavement, and
recommended that a deviator stress of 500 kPa and a
confining stress of 50 kPa more accurately represents what
would occur in the field. To ensure a testing stress level more
vigorous than the testing standard and closer to the
recommendations of Arnold et al. (2001), the aforementioned stress state was chosen. In accordance with
Australian Standard AS1289.6.8.1-1995 (Australian Standard, 1995) the test specimens were loaded for 50,000
cycles. Only the unstabilized specimens of melter slag,
basalt and greywacke aggregate were subjected to this test.
Figure 7 shows the permanent deformation characteristics of
the three test aggregates. It is clear from Figure 7 that the
permanent deformation occurring in the melter slag
aggregate is the smallest, compared with the greywacke
and the basalt. The results of this test are consistent with

The melter slag was subjected to the Iron Unsoundness

test as described by Emery (1982) and the Di-Calcium
Silicate Unsoundness test as reported in OECD (1997).
The Iron Unsoundness Test involves immersing 12 pieces
of slag in water at room temperature and observing
whether the slag particles display signs of disintegration,
cracking or flakiness. The Di-Calcium Silicate Unsoundness test uses the mass percentages of the chemical
elements in the slag to determine from previous
experience whether the slag would be likely to experience
chemical instability. The melter slag passed the requirements of these tests and showed no signs of being
susceptible to chemical breakdown. A report by the
Process and Environmental Engineering Department of
NZ Steel (1992) indicated that the slag had very limited
leaching potential when tested under acidic, neutral and
basic conditions. Weathered melter slag was continuously
leached with water of different pH levels for a period of
over two years in test rigs. The flow of the water through
the slag was 1 m3/m2/day and the resulting effluent for
each rig was collected and analysed using inductively
coupled plasma (ICP) spectroscopy. For further details on
the environmental tests and results please refer directly to
the report. The chemical stability of the slag was further
investigated by a report from Works Consultancy Services
(1996) that verifies the chemical composition of the slag is
very stable and there is little Calcium Oxide in its free
form that could potentially leach as a precipitate. These
two reports suggest there are minimal environmental risks
associated with the utilization of the melter slag.
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

FIGURE 5 Comparison between slag resilient moduli at different bulk

stress values for three different stabilization methods.

The use of approximate costs for processing, transportation, and construction enables one to make a gross

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198

C.C. BYERS et al.

FIGURE 7 Comparison between permanent deformation for the three different aggregates.

economic evaluation, which only within broad limits can

establish the feasibility of the melter slag aggregate for
use. More exact costs that would only come from actual
field trials of slag as a base course aggregate would be
required to make a better comparison with conventional
aggregates. The study concluded that transportation
by truck, in the vicinity of 80 km from the slag supply
source, is the only economically feasible utilisation,
otherwise costs become too high. A comparison of
aggregates in the Auckland market indicated that to be
competitive the slag would have to be in the price range
of NZ $12 $16 per tonne.
A pavement design exercise using the computer
program CIRCLY, based on linear elastic layer analysis
(Wardle and Rodway, 1998), enabled an economic
analysis to be performed. Using the resilient modulus
results from the laboratory testing the allowable pavement
thickness was calculated for each aggregate mix and the
cost to construct a section of pavement 3.5 m wide by
1000 m long (one lane-km) determined. Table V
summarises the results and indicates that the melter slag
pavement requires less material than the basalt or
greywacke pavement, and the addition of lime or cement
as binders reduces the pavement thickness and hence
the amount of material needed even further. Several

TABLE V Cost per lane/km for each base course mix

Mix
Melter slag
Basalt
Greywacke
1.5% Emulsion
2% Lime
4% Lime
2% Cement

Basecourse
thickness (mm)

Cost/lane/km ($)

Ratio
(cost/slag cost)

140
150
145
150
135
130
120

18,375
17,656
17,128
19,688
17,719
17,063
15,750

1.00
0.96
0.93
1.07
0.96
0.93
0.86

assumptions were made to allow for equal comparison,

these were:
. all materials have the same delivered cost ($15/tonne),
. all pavements take the same time to construct,
. all pavements have the same structure beneath the base
course (sub-base, subgrade),
. materials will compact to dry densities similar to that
shown in Table II.
The utilisation of melter slag may become more
economically viable if issues such as natural aggregate
taxes and subsidies for the use of by-products are considered.

RISKS AND CONSTRUCTION ISSUES

This study investigated the likely supply, performance and
market risks associated with the utilisation of the melter
slag as a base course material. All risks determined were
minimal and could be negated by the correct approach to
waste material utilisation involving laboratory and field
testing, and efficient information transfer between all
associated parties.
The use of melter slag as an aggregate requires no
special construction techniques compared to that for a
conventional road base to ensure optimum pavement
performance. As construction crews become experienced
with the product and good engineering site controls are
employed, the use of melter slag presents no significant
challenges or long-term effects.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The melter slag could be an adequate source of aggregate
for base course construction in terms of the engineering,

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EVALUATION OF MELTER SLAG

environmental and economic considerations covered in

this study.
The melter slag showed resilient modulus and
permanent deformation characteristics that exceeded that
of the traditional natural aggregates of basalt and
greywacke that were used as reference materials. The
addition of lime or cement as stabilising agents to the
melter slag improved the resilient modulus characteristics
of the melter slag. The addition of emulsion as a
stabilising agent did not perform as expected and
produced specimens with resilient modulus values below
that of the pure melter slag specimens and the problem
encountered was most likely related to the moisture
content of the specimens. Because of the fluid nature of
the emulsion, a less than optimum amount of moisture
content should be chosen so that the total moisture of
aggregates and emulsion will be the same as the virgin
aggregate optimum moisture content.
The inert melter slag, through its chemical composition,
indicates no environmental threats to water resources
from leaching or other chemical breakdown; any further
risk can be reduced by stockpiling the melter slag
before use.
A pavement design exercise showed that the initial
capital cost of melter slag may not be economically viable
unless the price per tonne will be offered at less price than
that of greywacke and basalt. However, the economic
benefits of using the melter slag may result from the
long term performance which is expected to be better than
both greywacke and basalt as shown from the resilient
modulus and permanent deformation results. Further
economic benefits may arise if issues such as natural
aggregate tax and subsidies for the use of by-products are
considered.
There is no major risk associated with the melter slag
and the correct approach to waste material utilisation will
ensure unexpected risks are minimised or non-existent.
The melter slag requires no unique techniques to be used
during pavement construction, and as experience is gained
with the melter slag aggregate, it can be utilised as
efficiently as traditional aggregate materials. The melter
slag exhibited good compaction characteristics compared
to the reference materials and this was confirmed with the
permanent deformation testing.

199

Recommendations for further melter slag research

include:
. the effect of using an emulsion as a binding agent for the
melter slag, but reducing the moisture content of the
aggregate to compensate for the water in the emulsion,
. the effect of using foamed bitumen as a binding agent
for the melter slag,
. the combination of sub-standard natural aggregates with
melter slag to produce a complying base course material,
. investigations into melter slag pavement composites,
using various waste material types and percentages to
create a satisfactory mix,
. the construction of large scale test sections where the
melter slag base course can be monitored and
performance data collected from the field for comparison
with laboratory data,
. an investigation into the skid resistance properties of
melter slag as a surfacing aggregate.
References
Arnold, G., Alabaster, D. and Steven, B. (2001) Prediciton of Pavement
Performance from Repeat Load Tri-Axial Tests on Granular Material
Transfund New Zealand Research Report 214, Transfund
New Zealand, Wellington.
Australian Standard (1995) Soil Strength and Consolidation Tests
Determination of the Resilient Modulus and Permanent Deformation
of Granular Unbound Pavement Materials, AS1289.6.8.1:1995.
Coventry, S., Woolveridge, C. and Hillier, S. (1999) The Reclaimed and
Recycled Construction Materials Handbook (Construction Industry
Research and Information Association, London).
Emery, J.J. (1982) Slag Utilization in Pavement Construction, Extending
aggregate resources: a symposium sponsored by ASTM Committee
D-4 on Road and Paving Materials, Orlando, USA.
Evaluation of Calcium Oxide in Glenbrook Melter Slag (1996)
Report No. GS 96/56 (Works Consultancy Services Ltd.,
Auckland, NZ).
Jones, D.E. (1982) Application of Steel Plant By-Products to Roadworks,
Proceedings Conference of the Australian Road Research Board,
v 11, 11th ARRB Conference.
OECD (1997) Recycling Strategies for Road Works (Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentRoad Transport
Research Programme, Paris, France).
Results of Leaching Trials Conducted on Melter Slag (1992) (Process &
Environmental Engineering Department, NZ Steel).
Transit New Zealand Standard (1995) Specification for Basecourse
Aggregates, TNZ M/4:1995.
Wardle, L.J. and Rodway, B. (1998) Layered Elastic Pavement Design
Recent Developments, Proceedings Transport 98, 19th ARRB
Conference, Sydney, Australia.