Well Logging Tools and Techniques

Magnetic Resonance Logs

INTRODUCTION
In this section, well review NMR concepts, compare NMR tools to other logging tools, discuss
current tool types, and briefly look at examples of NMR logs.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
IHRDC wishes to express their gratitude to Numar, a Halliburton Company, for graciously
contributing resources, technical input, and graphics pertaining to NMR theory, as well as
information on their MRIL logging tool and associated services. Further details on this subject can
be found in NMR Logging Principles and Applications, (1999) by Coates, Xiao, and Prammer.
(See the References section for a complete listing.) Additional information on Halliburton/Numar
MRIL services can be found on-line. Look under the Logging and Perforating section at
www.halliburton.com .
IHRDC also thanks Schlumberger for graphics and information pertaining to their CMR tool.
Additional information on the Schlumberger CMR tool can be found at www.connect.slb.com .

BACKGROUND
Since its discovery in 1946, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) has developed into a valuable
tool for physics, chemistry, biology, and medicine. The potential for applying this technology to
formation evaluation was identified during the 1950s. Early logging tools had very limited
application and the majority of the work was related to core analysis. With the invention of NMR
logging tools that use permanent magnets and pulsed radio frequencies, sophisticated laboratory
techniques were developed to enable in situ determination of formation properties. This capability
opens a new era in formation evaluation and core analysis, just as the introduction of NMR has
revolutionized the other scientific areas to which it has been applied.

CONCEPT
To understand the concept and applications for NMR in formation evaluation, it may be helpful to
review and compare the use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in the medical field.
MRI is one of the most valuable clinical diagnostic tools in health care today. With a patient placed
in the whole-body compartment of an MRI system, magnetic resonance signals from hydrogen
nuclei at specific locations in the body can be detected and used to construct an image of the
interior structure of the body. These images may reveal physical abnormalities and thereby aid in
the diagnosis of injury and disease.
The MRI of the human head in Figure 1 (Medical MRI presentation) demonstrates two important
MRI characteristics.

Figure 1

First, the signals used to create each image come from a well-defined location, typically a
thin slice or cross section of the target. Because of the physical principles underlying NMR
technology, each image is sharp, containing only information from the imaged cross section,
with material in front or behind being essentially invisible.

Second, only fluids (seen in blood vessels, body cavities, and soft tissues) are visible,
while solids (such as bone) produce a signal that typically decays too fast to be recorded. By
taking advantage of these two characteristics, physicians have been able to make valuable
diagnostic use of MRI -without needing to understand complex NMR principles.
These same NMR principles, instead of being used to diagnose anomalies in the human body, can
be used to analyze the fluids held in the pore spaces of reservoir rocks. And, just as physicians do
not need to be NMR experts to use MRI technology for effective medical diagnosis, neither do
geologists, geophysicists, petroleum engineers, nor reservoir engineers need to be NMR experts
to use MRI logging technology for reliable formation evaluation.
In an NMR Logging tool, a permanent magnet produces a magnetic field that excites formation
materials. An antenna transmits into the formation precisely timed bursts of radio-frequency
energy in the form of an oscillating magnetic field. Between these pulses, the antenna is used to
listen for the decaying echo signal from those hydrogen protons that are in resonance with the
field from the permanent magnet. Since this magnetic resonant frequency depends on the local
strength of the magnetic field, the measurement zone of the tool is a function of the magnetic field
generated, and the radio frequency used. These tool operations will be discussed in more detail in
the sections to follow.

COMPARING NMR TOOLS TO OTHER LOGGING TOOLS

Because only fluids are visible to NMR, the porosity measured by an NMR tool contains no
contribution from the matrix materials, and therefore does not need to be calibrated to formation

lithology. This response characteristic makes NMR tools fundamentally different from conventional
logging tools.
The conventional neutron, bulk-density, and acoustic-travel-time porosity-logging tools are
influenced by components of the reservoir rock. Because reservoir rocks typically have more rock
framework than fluid-filled space, these conventional tools tend to be much more sensitive to the
matrix materials than to the pore fluids.
Conventional resistivity-logging tools, while being extremely sensitive to the fluid-filled space and
traditionally used to estimate the amount of water present in reservoir rocks, cannot be regarded
as true fluid-logging devices. These tools are strongly influenced by the presence of conductive
minerals and, for the responses of these tools to be properly interpreted, a detailed knowledge of
the properties of both the formation and the water in the pore space is required.

Unique Formation Measurements

NMR tools can provide three types of information, each of which make these tools unique among
logging devices:

information about the quantities of the fluids in the rock,

information about the properties of these fluids, and

information about the sizes of the pores that contain these fluids.

Current Tool Types

Magnetic Resonance Imaging Logging (MRIL), introduced by NUMAR in 1991, takes the medical
MRI or laboratory NMR equipment and turns it inside-out. So, rather than placing the subject to be
analyzed at the center of the instrument, the instrument itself is placed, in a wellbore, at the center
of the formation to be analyzed. This tool is used by Numar, a Halliburton company and by Baker
Atlas, a Baker Hughes company.
The Schlumberger tool, the Combinable Magnetic Resonance tool (CMR), follows on from earlier
Schlumberger NMR tools that date back to the 1970s. The CMR is a pad-type tool, which uses a
directional antenna sandwiched between a pair of bar magnets to focus the CMR measurement
on a 6-in. [15-cm] long zone inside the formationthe same rock volume scanned by other
essential logging tools.

LOG EXAMPLES
This first example, shown in Figure 2 (Example of CMR porosity log) demonstrates how NMR
porosity (in this case from a Schlumberger CMR tool) is independent of lithology,

Figure 2

overlaying the density porosity plotted on a dolomite scale in the dolomite sections and overlaying
the density porosity on a limestone scale in the limestone sections.
The second example, Figure 3 (Interpreting Numar MRIL Data), shows the breadth of information
gained by interpreting NMR data in conjunction with conventional logs.

Figure 3

In this case, the NMR data is from a Numar MRIL tool interpreted using the MRIAN analysis
program. MRIAN is a proprietary computer based analysis developed by NUMAR that uses MRIL
measurements to augment the conventional resistivity and porosity logs within the Dual Water
Model system of equations. The MRIL is especially effective in cation exchange capacity (CEC)
models because the quantity of clay bound water (Swb) is easily obtained by direct measurement
utilizing the MRIL C/TP. (For definitions of these terms, refer to the glossary. Other NMR terms are
described in more detail in later sections of the module.)
Track 1 Gamma Ray, SP, and Caliper measurements (from conventional logs), and MRIL
formation porosity, divided into eight T2 defined bins. The first bin represents the shortest T2 time
group (typically 4 ms), in gray, and the last bin represents the longest T 2 time group (typically 512
ms), shown in cyan.
Track 2 The Resistivity curves (deep, medium, and shallow) and core permeability are
displayed along with the permeability that is derived from the MRIL measurements of porosity,
irreducible fluid, and free fluid volumes.
Track 3 The T2 distribution, also presented in Track 1 in a bin format, is illustrated in this track in
a variable density format. T2 time is logarithmically spaced across the track from 0.2 ms on the left
edge to 2048 ms on the right edge of the track. The amount of porosity that is represented by each
T2 value (partial porosity) is illustrated by color; blue represents zero partial porosity and red
represents the highest partial porosity. Since the bound (clay or capillary) fluids are represented by
the short T2 times, they will be seen on the left portion of the track, while increasing volumes are
represented by the colors shown. The free fluids are represented by longer T 2 times and are seen
in the middle and the right portions of the track.

Track 4 The results of the Differential Spectrum Method (DSM) are displayed in this VDL format.
The difference between two T2 spectra, each taken at a different wait time (Tw), yields the
hydrocarbon signal. Relative position indicates hydrocarbon type, and color is proportional to
volume.
Track 5 Time Domain Analysis (TDA) computes an MRIL only result yielding all the major fluid
volumes. In addition to these MRIL volumes, fluid typing indicates, independently, gas (red), oil
(green), and water (blue), and where fluid contacts may exist.
Track 6 This track contains a playback of the conventional neutron and density porosity curves
along with the MRIL. These porosities are further divided into four volumes: the irreducible fluid
volume (light gray), the hydrocarbon filled portion (red), moveable water (blue), and clay bound
water (dark gray). The Dual Water Model is used to compute both the total and effective volumes
of water, using only conventional log data, then the effective water volume is compared with the
irreducible volume from the MRIL. When the computed effective volume of water is greater than
the MRIL irreducible volume of water, water production is inferred.

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
This section provides an overview of NMR Fundamentals, Logging Basics, Relaxation
mechanisms, and Pore Fluid Effects

NMR FUNDAMENTALS
Nuclear magnetic resonance refers to the way in which nuclei respond to a magnetic field. Many
nuclei have a magnetic moment -they behave like spinning bar magnets. These spinning magnets
can interact with externally applied magnetic fields, producing measurable signals. For most
elements the detected signals are small. However, hydrogen, which makes up a significant
component of both water and hydrocarbons in the pore spaces of rock, has a relatively large
magnetic moment.

NMR LOGGING BASICS

Before a formation is logged by an NMR logging tool, the protons in the formation fluids are
randomly oriented. When the tool passes through the formation, the tool generates magnetic fields
that activate those protons.
First, the tool's permanent magnetic field aligns, or polarizes, the spin axes of the protons in a
particular direction. This process, called polarization, increases exponentially in time with a time
constant, designated as T1.
Next, the tool's oscillating field is applied to tip these protons away from their new equilibrium
position in the same way a childs spinning top precesses in the Earths gravitational field.
Precession occurs as a body rotating about one axis slowly rotates around a second axis. In the
NMR case, this second axis is the static magnetic field. This is shown in Figure 1 (Spin
precession).

Figure 1

When the oscillating field is subsequently removed, the protons begin tipping back toward the
original direction in which the static magnetic field aligned them. In NMR terminology, this tippingback motion is called relaxing, and measurement of the relaxation time is the fundamental
measurement of NMR logging tools.

Relaxation mechanisms
The primary NMR relaxation mechanism is grain surface relaxation, in which a molecule in the
fluid hits the grain surface due to Brownian motion and transfers nuclear spin energy to the grain
surface (Figure 2: Relaxation mechanisms).

Figure 2

The effectiveness of the process depends on the surface: sandstones are about 3 times as
efficient at relaxing pore water as carbonates.

Bulk fluid relaxation occurs in the absence of pore surface interaction. It is significant in large pore
spaces such as vuggy carbonates, and also when hydrocarbons are present. Bulk fluid relaxation
is seen in hydrocarbons because the non-wetting phase does not contact the pore surface, so it
cannot be relaxed by the surface relaxation method.
Specified pulse sequences are used to generate a series of so-called spin echoes, which are
measured by the NMR logging tool and are displayed on logs as spin-echo trains. These spinecho trains constitute the raw NMR data.
To generate a spin-echo train, the NMR tool measures the amplitude of the spin echoes as a
function of time (Figure 3 : Spin-echo train display).

Figure 3

Because the spin echoes are measured over a short time, the NMR tool travels no more than a
few inches in the well while recording the spin-echo train. The recorded spin-echo trains can be
displayed on a log as a function of depth.
The initial amplitude of the spin-echo train is proportional to the number of hydrogen nuclei
associated with the fluids in the pores within the sensitive volume. Thus, this amplitude can be
calibrated to provide porosity.
The observed echo train can be linked both to data-acquisition parameters and to properties of the
pore fluids located in the measurement volumes. Data acquisition parameters include inter-echo
spacing (TE) and polarization time (TW). TE represents the time between the individual echoes in
an echo train. TW represents the time between the cessation of measurement of one echo train
and the beginning of measurement of the next echo train. Both TE and TW can be adjusted to
change the information content of the acquired data.

Pore Fluid Effects

Properties of the pore fluids that affect the echo trains are the:

Hydrogen Index (HI): a measure of the density of hydrogen atoms in the fluid

Longitudinal Relaxation Time (T1): an indication of how fast the tipped protons in the
fluids relax longitudinally (relative to the axis of the static magnetic field)

Transverse Relaxation Time (T2): an indication of how fast the tipped protons in the
fluids relax transversely (again, relative to the axis of the static magnetic field)

Diffusivity (D): a measure of the extent to which molecules move at random in the fluid.

TOOL DESCRIPTION
This section describes NMR logging tools developed by Numar and by Schlumberger.

NUMARS MRIL TOOL

Magnetic Resonance Imaging Logging (MRIL), introduced by NUMAR in 1991, takes the medical
MRI or laboratory NMR equipment, and turns it inside-out. Rather than placing the subject to be
analyzed at the center of the instrument, the instrument itself is placed in the wellbore, at the
center of the formation to be analyzed. MRIL services are provided by Numar, a Halliburton
company and by Baker Atlas, a Baker Hughes company.
At the center of the MRIL tool, a permanent magnet produces a magnetic field that excites
formation materials. An antenna surrounding this magnet transmits into the formation precisely
timed bursts of radio-frequency energy in the form of an oscillating magnetic field. Between these
pulses, the antenna is used to listen for the decaying echo signal from those hydrogen protons
that are in resonance with the field created by the permanent magnet.
Because a linear relationship exists between the proton resonance frequency and the strength of
the permanent magnetic field, the frequency of the transmitted and received energy can be tuned
to investigate cylindrical regions at different diameters around the MRIL tool. This tuning of the
MRI probe to be sensitive to a specific frequency allows MRI instruments to image narrow slices of
the rock formation.
Figure 1 (Cylinders of investigation) illustrates the measurement concept behind Numars MRIL-

Prime tool, which was introduced in 1998.

Figure 1

The diameter and thickness of each thin cylindrical region are selected by simply specifying the
central frequency and bandwidth to which the MRIL transmitter and receiver are tuned. The
diameter of the cylinder is temperature dependent, but typically ranges from approximately 14 to
16 inches.

SCHLUMBERGERS CMR TOOL

The Schlumberger Combinable Magnetic Resonance tool (designated as the CMR tool) follows on
from earlier Schlumberger NMR tools that date back to the 1970s. It uses a directional antenna
sandwiched between a pair of bar magnets to focus the CMR measurement on a 6-in. [15-cm]
zone inside the formationthe same rock volume scanned by other essential logging
measurements. As shown in Figure 2 (CMR tool), it is a compact skid-mounted tool that was
designed to be combinable with many other standard logging tools.

Figure 2

The vertical resolution of the CMR measurement makes it sensitive to rapid porosity variations, as
often seen in laminated shale and sand sequences.
The first pulsed-echo NMR logging tools introduced in the early 1990s, were unable to detect the
fast components of resonance decay. The shortest T2 was limited to the 3 to 5 msec range, which
allowed measurement of capillary-bound water and free fluids together, to derive effective
porosity. However, clay-bound water, being more tightly bound, is believed to decay at a much
faster rate than was measurable with these tools. The latest improvements in these tools measure
decay rates at a much higher speed -by a factor of ten. Now, measuring T2 decay components in
the 0.1 to 0.5-msec range is possible. These improvements include electronic upgrades, more
efficient data acquisition, and new signal-processing techniques that take advantage of the earlytime information. The CMR tool is run in an eccentered configuration.
The sensitive region of the tool is shown in red in Figure 3 (Cross-section of the CMR tool).

Figure 3

This region is approximately 0.5 x 0.5 by 6 long, and is located about 1.1 inches inside the
formation.

NMR INTERPRETATION
OVERVIEW

All NMR measurements made by current tools are summarized by the T2 distribution. The
petrophysical applications of this distribution can be summarized as follows:

The area under the distribution curve equals NMR porosity

T2 distribution mimics pore size distribution in water-saturated rocks

Permeability is estimated from logarithmic-mean T2 and NMR porosity

Empirically derived cutoffs separate the T2 distribution into areas equal to free-fluid
porosity and irreducible water porosity

Multiple T2 data sets acquired with different acquisition parameters can differentiate
between formation fluids

Properly defined, the area under the T2 distribution curve is equal to the initial amplitude of the
spin-echo train. Hence, the T2 distribution can be directly calibrated in terms of water-filled
porosity. In essence, a key function of the NMR tool and its associated data-acquisition software is
to provide an accurate description of the T2 distribution at every depth in the wellbore.
The basic physics behind NMR interpretation is common to all the data, however, each of the
current NMR logging service companies - Baker Atlas, Numar, and Schlumberger have their own
proprietary interpretation methods. In addition, there are now several companies that specialize in
the interpretation of NMR data, including NuTech and NMR+.

POROSITY
The initial amplitude of the raw decay curve is directly proportional to the number of polarized
hydrogen nuclei within the pore fluid.
The raw reported porosity is provided by the ratio of the initial amplitude of the raw decay to the
tool response in a water tank (which provides a medium having 100% porosity). This porosity is
independent of the lithology of the rock matrix, and can be validated by comparing laboratory NMR
measurements on cores with conventional laboratory porosity measurements.
The accuracy of the raw reported porosity depends primarily on three factors:

a sufficiently long TW, to achieve complete polarization of the hydrogen nuclei in the fluids

a sufficiently short TE, to record the decays for fluids associated with clay pores and other
pores of similar size

the number of hydrogen nuclei in the fluid being equal to the number in an equivalent
volume of water, that is, HI = 1.
Provided the preceding conditions are satisfied, the NMR porosity is the most accurate porosity
reading available in the logging industry.
The first and third factors are only important for gas or light hydrocarbons. In these cases, special
activations can be run to provide information to correct the porosity. The second factor was a
problem in earlier generations of tools, because they could not, in general, see most of the fluids
associated with clay minerals.

Terminology
Through this text we have used generic terminology where it makes sense, and used tool-specific
terminology as applicable. The following table summarizes the main terms used with reference to
NMR logging measurements:

Generic Term

Description

Numar

Schlumberger

nmr

Total Porosity

MSIG

CMRP

effr

Effective Porosity

MPHI

FFInmr

Free Fluid Index

MFFI

CMFF

CBVnmr

Clay Bound Volume

MCBW or BVI

BFV

NMR
Evaluation

Automated Computer
Interpretation

MRIAN

ELAN

A glossary of many terms used in NMR logging and interpretation is included under a separate
heading within this subtopic.
Because in shaly sand analysis, the non-clay porosity is referred to as effective porosity, the
historical NMR porosity was also called effective porosity ( eff). Current NMR tools now capture a
total porosity( nmr). The difference between total and effective porosity is taken as the clay-bound
volume (CBVnmr). This division of porosity is useful in analysis, and often corresponds to other
measures of effective porosity and clay-bound volume. The division of porosity into clay-bound
porosity and effective porosity depends to some extent on the method used; thus, other methods
may break out clay-bound porosity and effective porosity differently, or may assign different
weights to each, and therefore may provide different values than that measured by NMR.

NMR T2 Distribution
In water-saturated rocks, it can be proven mathematically that the decay curve associated with a
single pore will be a single exponential with a decay constant proportional to pore size, such that
small pores have small T2 values, and large pores have large T2 values.
At any depth in the wellbore, the rock samples probed by the NMR tool will have a distribution of
pore sizes. Each pore size generates a corresponding T2 value. As seen previously, the total of all
the T2 signals in the measurement volume creates a decay train, as shown in Figure 1 (T2 Spinecho decay train)

Figure 1

The amplitude of the spin-echo-train decay can be fit very well by a sum of decaying exponentials,
each with a different decay constant. The set of all the decay constants forms the decay spectrum
or transverse-relaxation-time (T2) distribution.
Hence, the multi-exponential decay represents the distribution of pore sizes at that depth, with
each T2 value corresponding to a different pore size. Figure 2 (T2 distribution) was derived from
the previous figures spin-echo train.

Figure 2

The NMR T2 distribution can be displayed in several different ways: Each visualization represents
the distribution of the porosity over T2 values and, hence, over the pore sizes.
Figure 3 (MRIL Log) shows a typical NUMAR MRIL presentation.

Figure 3

On the MRIL log, T2 distributions are displayed in three ways: A plot of the cumulative amplitudes
from the binned T2-distribution is shown in Track 1, a color image of the binned T2-distribution is
in Track 3, and a waveform presentation of the same information is in Track 4. The T2-distribution
typically displayed for MRIL data corresponds to binned amplitudes for exponential decays at 0.5,
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, and 1024 ms when MSIG is shown, and from 4 ms to 1024
ms when MPHI is shown. The 8-ms bin, for example, corresponds to measurements made
between 6 and 12 ms. Because logging data are much noisier than laboratory data, only a
comparatively coarse T2-distribution can be created from NMR log data.
Figure 4 (CMR Log) shows an example of a typical Schlumberger CMR presentation.

Figure 4

Effective porosity
Early NMR tools were unable to measure the short relaxation times associated with bound water,
and thus the reported porosity was based on the porosity above a T2 cutoff (typically 4ms). This
reported porosity was referred to as effective porosity or FFI For current tools, this has now been
superceded by measurements of bulk volume irreducible and free fluid index which together
comprise total porosity.

Free Fluid & Clay Bound Volume

The porosity and pore-size information from NMR measurements can be used to estimate both
the permeability and the potentially producible porosity (that is, the movable fluids).
The NMR estimate of producible porosity is called the free-fluid index (FFInmr ). The estimate of
FFInmr is based on the assumption that the producible fluids reside in large pores, whereas the
bound fluids reside in small pores. Because T2 values can be related to pore sizes, a T2 value can
be selected below which the corresponding fluids are expected to reside in small pores, and
above which the corresponding fluids are expected to reside in larger pores. This T2 value is called
the T2 cutoff (T2cutoff).
Through partitioning of the T2 distribution, T2cutoff divides nmr into free-fluid index and bound-fluid
porosity, or bulk volume irreducible or clay bound volume (CBVnmr), shown in Figure 5 (T2
distribution).

Figure 5

The T2cutoff can be determined with NMR measurements on water-saturated core samples.
Specifically, a comparison is made between the T2 distribution of a sample in a fully watersaturated state, and the same sample in a partially saturated state, the latter typically being
attained by centrifuging the core at a specified air-brine capillary pressure.
Although capillary pressure, lithology, and pore characteristics all affect T2cutoff values, common
practice establishes local field values for T2cutoff. For example, in the Gulf of Mexico, T2cutoff values of
33 and 92 ms are generally appropriate for sandstones and carbonates, respectively. Generally
though, the best values can be obtained by measuring core samples corresponding to the actual
interval logged by an NMR tool.

PERMEABILITY
NMR relaxation properties of rock samples are dependent on porosity, pore size, pore-fluid
properties and mineralogy. The NMR estimate of permeability is based on theoretical models,
which show that permeability increases with both increasing porosity and increasing pore size.
Two related kinds of permeability models have been developed.

The Free-fluid or Coates model can be applied in formations containing water and/or
hydrocarbons.

The average-T2 model Schlumberger-Doll-Research model (SDR) -can be applied to pore

systems containing only water.
Measurements on core samples are necessary to refine these models and produce a model
customized for local use. Figure 6 (Decay of spin echo train) shows information related to

formation permeability.

Figure 6

Two echo trains were obtained from formations having different permeabilities. Both formations
have the same porosity, but also have different pore sizes. This difference leads to shifted T2
distributions, and therefore to different values of the ratio of MFFI to BVI. Also indicated in the
Figure are the permeabilities computed from the Coates model
k = [(MPHI / C)2 (MFFI / BVI)]2,
where
k is formation permeability and
C is a constant that depends on the formation
Figure 7

Figure 7

(Core permeability crossplot) shows how laboratory core data can be calibrated to determine the
constant C in the Coates permeability model. Track 2 of the log in Figure 8 (MRIL permeability
display) demonstrates MRIL permeability derived from a customized Coates model.

Figure 8

NMR PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR FLUIDS

Clay-bound water, capillary-bound water, and movable water occupy different pore sizes and
locations. Hydrocarbon fluids differ from brine in their locations in the pore space, usually
occupying the larger pores. They also differ from each other and brine in viscosity and diffusivity.
NMR logging uses these differences to characterize the fluids in the pore space.
Figure 9 (Typical qualitative values of T1,

Figure 9

T2, and D for different fluid types and rock pore sizes demonstrate the variability and complexity of
the T1 and T2 relaxation measurements.) qualitatively indicates the NMR properties of different
fluids found in rock pores. In general, bound fluids have very short T1 and T2 times, along with slow
diffusion (small D) that is due to the restriction of molecular movement in small pores. Free water
commonly exhibits medium T1, T2, and D values. Hydrocarbons, such as natural gas, light oil,
medium-viscosity oil, and heavy oil, also have very different NMR characteristics. Natural gas
exhibits very long T1 times but short T2 times and a single-exponential type of relaxation decay.
NMR characteristics of oils are quite variable and are largely dependent on oil viscosities. Lighter
oils are highly diffusive, have long T1 and T2 times, and often exhibit a single-exponential decay. As
viscosity increases and the hydrocarbon mix becomes more complex, diffusion decreases, as do
the T1 and T2 times, and events are accompanied by increasingly complex multi-exponential
decays. Based on the unique NMR characteristics of the signals from the pore fluids, applications
have been developed to identify and, in some cases, quantify the type of hydrocarbon present.

NMR Hydrocarbon Typing

Despite variabilities in the NMR properties of fluids, the locations of signals from different types of
fluids in the T2 distribution can often be predicted or, if measured data are available, identified.
This capability provides important information for NMR data interpretation and makes many
applications practical.
Figure 10 (Different T2 distributions)

Figure 10

shows two methods for differentiating fluids. In Part a of this figure, different TW values are used
with a T1-weighted mechanism to differentiate light hydrocarbons (light oil or gas, or both) from
water. In Part b of this figure, different TE values are used with a diffusivity-weighted mechanism
in a well-defined gradient magnetic field to differentiate viscous oil from water, or to differentiate
gas from liquid.
By varying water saturation, it is also possible to produce different T2 distributions, as shown in
Figure 11 (Water saturation effects on T2).

Figure 11

CORE ANALYSIS
NMR measurements on rock cores are routinely performed in the laboratory. The porosity can be
measured with sufficiently short TE and sufficiently long TW to capture all the NMR-visible
porosity.
Thousands of lab measurements on cores verify that agreement between the NMR porosity and a
Helium Boyles Law porosity is better than 1 porosity unit. Figure 12

Figure 12

(NMR-core porosity plot) illustrates such an agreement.

As exemplified in this figure, with a set of clean sandstones, good agreement is typically observed
between porosity derived from laboratory NMR measurements and porosity derived from
conventional core analysis. NMR-porosity values typically fall within 1 p.u. of the measured coreporosity values. The Figure shows NMR laboratory data measured at two different TE values,
namely, 0.5 and 1.2 ms. A comparison of core data to NMR data provides an indication as to
whether micro-porosity is present. (Fluid in micro-pores exhibits a fast T2 that can be observed
when TE = 0.5 ms, but not when TE = 1.2 ms.) In this case, because no evidence exists for microporosity, the NMR effective porosity eff and total porosity nmr would be the same.

Laboratory NMR Measurements

The most important aspect of laboratory NMR measurements is that they duplicate the downhole
NMR measurement, providing an opportunity to link laboratory measured properties directly to the
downhole tool response.
NMR measurements are nondestructive. This means that they can be incorporated into any
laboratory process used to acquire petrophysical parameters such as capillary bound water,
permeability and porosity.
Following the acquisition of petrophysical data, models can then be developed and used to directly
interpret the downhole measurements. NMR laboratory measurements have several objectives:

Refining Capillary Bound Water Determination

The nominal cutoff T2 value used to separate free fluid from bound water can be refined in the
laboratory by first performing NMR analysis on a fully brine-saturated core sample. The sample is
then processed using standard core analysis techniques to reduce the water saturation to a point
where only the capillary bound water remains. The NMR measurement is then repeated, and the

difference between the T2 distributions can be used to refine the appropriate T2 cutoff. This is
shown in Figure 13

Figure 13

(Capillary based water saturation).The complete process can identify the relaxation time cutoff
required to determine CBVnmr.

Refining the Permeability Model

Permeability is directly proportional to the interconnected pore sizes. Downhole NMR tools
measure pore size distribution, but the model relating this to permeability requires an area-specific
calibration coefficient. This can be directly determined from a combination of laboratory NMR
measurements and standard core analysis permeability measurements on the same samples.
This is shown in Figure 14 (Core permeability modeling).

Figure 14

Having estimated the relaxation time cutoff for an enhanced CBVnmr determination, the directly
measured core sample permeability can be compared to the NMR permeability model. Using this
refined model, a more accurate representation for the downhole measurements can be provided.

Characterize Bulk Fluid Effects to Improve NMR Log Interpretation

Selecting the correct data acquisition parameters is vital for accurate, efficient NMR logging. If
insufficient recovery time (TW ) is allowed, the resulting porosity will be too low. However wait times
that are too long can slow down the downhole logging speeds. Laboratory measurements using
different acquisition parameters can be compared with standard core porosity measurements to
determine the optimum wait time (TW). An example of this is shown in Figure 15 (Core recovery
time).

Figure 15

Here, we see that if the recovery time is too short, the resulting NMR porosities will be too low.
This analysis indicates that a recovery time between 6 and 8 seconds is required to recover all the
hydrogen protons for an accurate NMR porosity.

Refine Parameters Needed to Identify and Type Hydrocarbons

NMR logging can be used to identify and type hydrocarbons based on bulk relaxation times and
diffusion rates. Oil can exhibit a wide range of relaxation times and diffusion constants, most of
which are less than bulk water. Hydrocarbon gas has a diffusion mechanism that is significantly
greater than water. Laboratory NMR measurements on bulk formation samples can be used to
determine the NMR properties of formation hydrocarbons and thus significantly enhance NMR log
interpretation.
Figure 16 (Core diffusion effects) shown in both the time domain (top) and the T2 spectrum

(bottom),the effects of diffusion can be investigated by changing the spacing of the echoes, which
helps determine a fluids diffusion constant.

Figure 16

JOB PLANNING AND

LOG QUALITY CONTROL
In this section, we will discuss important issues pertaining to both the CMR and the MRIL logging
jobs. We will start with a discussion of planning the job, then move on to quality control, both
during and after the log run.

JOB PLANNING
Reliable and accurate NMR measurements of reservoir properties require careful, early job
planning. Such planning is critical for the success of the logging run. Specific formation and fluid
properties can be utilized to design an acquisition scheme that provides access to yet unknown
reservoir characteristics, and which optimizes the acquisition process and thus improves the
answers derived from the data. If acquisition parameters are not selected properly, answer
products may provide properties that differ significantly from the actual reservoir properties, as is
demonstrated in Figure 1 (Acquisition parameter effects).

Figure 1

This example shows a significant difference in T2 spectra, caused by changes in acquisition

parameters. In this figure, the red curve represents results obtained using inadequate acquisition
parameters. The results graphed by the blue curve were obtained using optimized acquisition
parameters.
In the final analysis of any logging job, it is often the planning that takes place before the log run
which determines the success of the job. The Service Company Representative is usually in the
best position to suggest which suite of logging tools will provide the best answers to the Operators
problems. During the pre-job planning phase, it is in the Operators best interest to anticipate
where ambiguities may develop, and to show the Representative examples where previous logs
provided only vague answers. In this way, the Operator and Representative can work together to
formulate logging strategies that will provide the best answers in the shortest time possible.

MRIL JOB PLANNING

A clear definition of the logging objectives is essential in MRIL job planning and preparation.
Limited objectives for porosity and permeability measurement can be met using standard data
acquisition (activations), which allow easy and relatively fast logging. Supplemental objectives for
hydrocarbon typing, however, call for advanced activations, which need to be run at reduced
logging speed. Estimates of in-situ conditions are required to judge the applicability of the
preferred type of activation, and to optimize the acquisition parameters and enhance the value of
the outcome.
MRIL job planning can be executed in three basic steps:
1.

Determine NMR fluid properties (T1, bulk, T2, bulk, D0, and HI). This step is straightforward if
samples of formation fluid are available. Alternatively, these properties can be estimated
from global correlations based on estimated formation conditions.

2.

Assess expected NMR responses (decay spectrum, polarization, apparent porosity) over
the intervals to be logged. Again these may be estimated from available information on
formation and fluid properties. In many cases, only a crude idea of the rock properties is
necessary for job planning.

3.

Select activation sets and determine appropriate activation parameters for TW, TE, and
NE. (This step is covered in greater detail below.)

Selection of the Activation Set

Based on the current understanding of NMR physics and the behavior of fluids contained in
porous media at elevated pressures and temperatures, three families of activations have been
developed to cover the full range of major logging objectives, as illustrated in Figure 2 : Selection
of acquisition parameters.

Figure 2

Standard T2 activations provide data to determine porosity, permeability, and productivity

(mobile fluids).

Dual-TW activations provide data to determine porosity, permeability, and productivity

(mobile fluids) and to perform some direct hydrocarbon typing and quantification.

Dual-TE activations require slower logging speeds and provide data to determine porosity,
permeability, and productivity (mobile fluids,) and to perform direct hydrocarbon typing,
including viscous oil.

CMR JOB PLANNING

For CMR logging, the following issues should be addressed prior to running the tool in the hole:

What is the objective of running the NMR tool?

What are the accuracy, precision and vertical resolution requirements?

What are the expected properties of the mud and formation fluids?

Mud type,

Hydrocarbon viscosity,

Formation pressure and

Temperature

What is the lithology?

Mineralogy

Texture, pore size and grain size

The answers (or best estimates) to these questions will aid in selecting the best logging parameter
values.

LOG QUALITY CONTROL

This section describes quality control measures for the Numar and the Schlumberger magnetic
resonance logging tools.

NUMAR MRIL LOG QUALITY CONTROL

Quality control is essential to obtaining accurate information from the MRIL log. A system of toolintegrity and log-quality indicators is used to assure the highest level of data quality. The MRIL
quality-control procedures include calibration before and after the survey, operational set-up, log
recording, display of quality indicators, and a final quality check.

MRIL Quality Control During Logging

Logging Speed and Running Average
The logging speed of MRIL is affected by many factors. Speed charts, which determine the
logging speed, are based on

gain

activation

polarization time

tool type

tool size

desired vertical resolution

operating frequency

Information from the speed chart is essential for selecting the correct (minimum) running average,
based on tool gain.

MRIL Log Quality Display

All of the quality indicators are recorded in the raw data file, and are available for playback
whenever needed. MRIL log quality can be displayed in a variety of formats. All quality indicators

should be checked. This is easily achieved, because indicators have certain shadings if their
values are outside of their allowable ranges.

Post-MRIL Logging Quality Checks

The MRIL responses should be checked against other logs when available. Two equations are
essential for understanding MRIL tool responses and their relationships to petrophysical
parameters:

MPHI e HI [1 e

( TW
)
T
1

MSIG MPHI CBW

where
MPHI

= effective porosity measured by the MRIL tool

= effective porosity of the formation

HI

= hydrogen index of the fluid in the effective porosity system

TW

= polarization time used during logging

T1

= longitudinal relaxation time of the fluid in the effective porosity system

MSIG

= total porosity measured by MRIL total-porosity logging

CBW

= clay-bound water measured by the MRIL tool with TE = 0.6 ms and partialpolarization activation

Agreement of MPHI with XPHI in Clean, Water-Bearing Formations

In clean, water-filled formations, MPHI should be approximately equal to XPHI (the densityneutron cross-plot porosity). In shaly sands, MPHI should approximately equal density porosity
calculated with the correct grain density.
Knowing the mud type is also essential for analyzing the response of an MRIL tool. Because of the
tools relatively shallow depth of investigation, the tool investigates primarily the flushed zone.

Effects of Hydrogen Index and Polarization Time on MPHI

MPHI may not equal effective porosity because of the effects of both hydrogen index and long T1
components. The MRIL Prime measurement process usually eliminates the porosity
underestimation that results from T1 effects. The measurements are still affected by the hydrogen
index (HI). In clean gas zones, MPHI values obtained from stationary measurements should be
close to neutron porosity values calculated with the correct matrix.

MPHI Relation to MSIG on Total-Porosity Logs

MRIL effective porosity (MPHI) is always less than MRIL total porosity (MSIG), except in very
clean formations. In the latter case, clay-bound-water porosity (CBW) is zero, thus MPHI equals
MSIG. In general, MPHI MSIG.

MPHITES Relation to MPHITEL on Dual-TW logs

Porosity measured with a short polarization time (MPHITwS) is usually underestimated, and thus will
be less than porosity measured with a longer polarization time (MPHITwL). Such is the case even if
TWL is not long enough for full polarization. This underestimation is especially prevalent in
hydrocarbon-bearing zones. So, in general, MPHITwS MPHITwL.

MPHITES Relation to MPHITEL on Dual-TE logs

Because of diffusion effects, a T2 distribution obtained with a long TE will appear to be shifted to
the left of a distribution obtained with a shorter TE. Because some of the T2 components may be
shifted out of the very early bins, some porosity in the early bins will not be recorded with a long
TE. Therefore, in general, MPHITEL MPHITES.

SCHLUMBERGER CMR LOG QUALITY CONTROL

Quality control is essential for obtaining accurate information from the CMR log. Since skid contact
with the formation is essential, the CMR tool must be run eccentered.

CMR Quality Control During Logging

Logging Speed and Running Average
Maximum logging speeds are automatically calculated by the MAXIS computer, based on the
tools pulse sequence and sample rate. This maximum logging speed ensures that a new
measurement is properly acquired during each sample interval.

CMR Log Quality Display

All of the quality indicators are recorded in the raw data file, and are available for playback
whenever needed. Field CMR logs include the following log quality controls related to logging
conditions:

Bad-hole flag

Insufficient wait time flag

Post-CMR Logging Quality Checks

The CMR porosity logs should be checked for correct response in the following environments:

Clean, water-saturated formations or formations where the fluid hydrogen index =

1. The CMR porosity is comparable to neutron and density porosities in clean sandstones
and carbonates.

Shaly Formations: Free fluid porosity is much lower than CMR porosity in shaly
formations

Shales: In shales the CMR free fluid porosity reads low (close to 0 p.u.)

Gas Zones: In clean gas zones, the CMR porosity is much lower than the density
porosity and is typically comparable to neutron porosity. The CMR response in gas zones
depends on invasion, wait time and the hydrogen index of the gas.

Heavy Oil Zones: CMR porosity does not include the volume of heavy oil (or bitumen).
The CMR is lower than neutron and density porosities where heavy oil is present.

NMR APPLICATIONS
The broad range of data available from the current generation of NMR logging tools enables the
tool to be utilized in a variety of applications. The most fundamental of these is the measurement
of total porosity, independent of formation type. Directly leading on from this are applications
based on analysis of the porosity distribution to provide permeability information and the
quantification of producible fluid versus bound fluid. A further range of applications is based on the
evaluation of fluid type, differentiating between water, light or viscous oil and gas. These
applications are shown in the following sections, using examples obtained by Numars MRIL tool
and Schlumbergers CMR tool.

POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY

POROSITY EXAMPLE FROM NUMAR MRIL LOG
Figure 1 (MRIL log) presents data from a well that was drilled through a shaly sand in Egypt.

Figure 1

Track 1 contains MRIL permeability (green curve) and core permeability (red asterisks). Track 2
contains MRIL porosity (blue curve), neutron and density porosity (green curves), and core
porosity (red asterisks).
In this reservoir, the highly variable grain sizes resulted in considerable variation in rock
permeability. Capillary-pressure measurements on rock samples yielded a good correlation
between pore bodies and the pore throat structures. This correlation indicates that the NMR T2
distribution provides a good representation of the pore-size distribution when pores are 100%
water saturated.

PERMEABILITY EXAMPLE FROM NUMAR MRIL LOG

Figure 2 (Australian MRIL log presentation) shows MRIL log data acquired through a massive

sandstone reservoir in Australias Cooper basin.

Figure 2

This reservoir exhibits low-porosity (approximately 10 p.u.) and low-permeability (approximately 1

to 100 md).
Track 1 displays gamma ray and caliper curves. Track 2 shows deep-and shallow-reading
resistivity logs. Track 3 presents the MRIL calculated permeability and shows core permeability
measurements for easy comparison between the two methods. Track 4 shows the MRIL porosity
response, neutron and density porosity readings (based on a sandstone matrix), as well as core
porosity.
This well was drilled with a potassium chloride (KCl) polymer mud [48-kppm sodium chloride
(NaCl) equivalent] and 8.5-in. bit. MRIL data were acquired with TW = 12 seconds and TE = 1.2
ms.
Over the interval depicted, the log shows a clean sandstone formation at the top, a shaly
sandstone at the bottom, and an intervening shale between the two sandstones. Agreement
between MPHI and the core porosity is good. The slight underestimation of MPHI relative to core
porosity is attributed to residual gas within the flushed zone. The MRIL permeability curve was
computed using a model customized to this area. The agreement between MRIL permeability and
core permeability is very good.

HYDROCARBON TYPING
SCHLUMBERGER CMR LOG EXAMPLE

Figure 3 (CMR tar zone) shows how tar zones presented on the CMR log.

Figure 3

In water, gas or oil, the CMR tool has a clear tar signature as seen in Zone Ca suppression of
the long T2 components (track 5) and a reduction in total porosity (track 4). In this well, the CMR
tool is able to confirmby the presence of large T2 contributions from oil and no reduction in total
CMR porositythat the lower oil zone (Zone E) is not tar, but mobile oil, which may have been
trapped by a local stratigraphic closure.

NMR ENHANCED WATER SATURATION WITH

RESISTIVITY DATA
NUMAR MRIL LOG EXAMPLE
Because resistivity tools have a large depth of investigation, a resistivity-based water-saturation
model is preferred for determining water saturation in the virgin zone of a formation. However,
resistivity measurements cannot distinguish between capillary-bound water and movable water.
This lack of contrast makes it difficult to recognize hydrocarbon-productive low-resistivity and/or
low-contrast pay zones from data provided by traditional logging suites.
The unique information, such as CBVnmr and FFInmr, provided by NMR logging can significantly
enhance the estimation of resistivity-based water-saturation, and can greatly assist in the
recognition of pay zones that will produce water-free.

Through an MRI analysis process known as MRIAN, the NMR data are integrated with the deepresistivity data to determine whether producible water is in the virgin zone, or whether an interval
showing high water saturation may actually produce water-free hydrocarbons. The log shown in
Figure 4 (MRIAN log presentation) shows how the combination of conventional deep-resistivity
data with NMR-derived MCBW, BVI,

Figure 4

MFFI, and MPHI can greatly enhance petrophysical estimations of effective pore volume, water
cut, and permeability. The MRIAN analysis results displayed in Track 5 show that the whole
interval from XX160 to XX255 has a BVI almost identical to the water saturation interpreted from
the resistivity log. This zone will likely produce water-free because of this high BVI.

TEST ZONE IDENTIFICATION

SCHLUMBERGER CMR EXAMPLE
A combination of the Combinable Magnetic Resonance (CMR) and Modular Formation Dynamics
Tester (MDT) tools provides independent complementary information on reservoir producibility.
These answers--permeability, fluid identification and fluid contacts--optimize decisions on well
tests and reservoir exploitation. Savings can be realized when both tools are run together on a
single wireline-or pipe-conveyed descent.

ANSWERS IN COMBINATION

CMR permeability data give a continuous interpretation of reservoir permeability and determine
the best location to set the MDT tool. Subsequent MDT data confirm and refine the initial CMR
interpretation. The combination of data from these two independent sources gives an enhanced
permeability evaluation over the entire reservoir section. Figure 5 (CMR / MDT combination)
shows how the CMR high-resolution permeability indicator is used to identify permeability streaks
in a laminated sand-shale sequence, this information is used for positioning of the MDT tool.

Figure 5

Fluid identification Data from CMR, resistivity, density and neutron logs, combined with MDT
pressure measurements and fluid samples, yield positive identification of formation fluids. Realtime optical fluid analysis from the MDT tool provides in-situ crude oil typing for estimates of gasoil ratio, API gravity and coloration. There is minimal contamination before sampling because the
OFA Optical Fluid Analyzer module allows uninterrupted monitoring of the flowline fluids and
therefore optimal filtrate cleanup. Fluid contact changes in the CMR log reflect the tools response
to different formation fluids, and the MDT tool provides pressure gradients. These two independent
measurements of fluid type confirm gas, oil and water contacts. The CMR bound-and free-fluid
answers can be used to determine the best points for obtaining MDT formation pressure
measurements and samples.

SINGLE LOGGING RUN

One run is eliminated and efficiency is improved when the MDT and CMR tools are combined in
one trip, even though they are operated sequentially, rather than simultaneously. Time savings are
significant and greatly improve the efficiency of sampling operations. Less time spent in sampling
lowers the probability of deteriorating well conditions and stuck tools.

CASE HISTORIES
In this section, we will see how NMR logs were able to differentiate between productive and nonproductive zones in cases where conventional logging suites were unable to properly discern the
difference.

LOW-RESISTIVITY-RESERVOIR EVALUATION USING

NUMARS MRIL TOOL
In this example, we see how Numars MRIL data were used to provide a better understanding of
reservoir lithology to improve production in a zone that would have otherwise been considered
non-productive.

SETTING
The reservoir penetrated by this well consists of a massive, medium-to fine-grained sandstone
formation, developed from marine shelf sediments that were subjected to intense bioturbation. Air
permeability typically ranges between 1 and 200 md, with core porosity varying between 20 and
30 p.u.
The upper portion of the reservoir (Zone A) has higher resistivity (approximately 1 ohmm) than
that of the lower reservoir (Zone B, approximately 0.5 ohmm). Produced hydrocarbons consist of
light oil with viscosity from 1 to 2 cp.

The Operators Dilemma

The well was drilled with water-based mud. Conventional logs are shown in Figure 1: SP,
Resistivity and Neutron/Density logs.

Figure 1

These logs suggest that the upper part of the sand (XX160 to XX185) would possibly produce with
a high water cut, but that the lower part of the sand (XX185 to XX257) is probably wet.
The operator was concerned by the decrease in resistivity seen within the lower portion of the
reservoir. The operator needed to know whether the decrease was due to

textural changes (smaller grain sizes, in which case the well might produce free of water)

or

an increase in the volume of movable water.

The ability to reliably answer this question would make a significant impact on reserve
calculations, well-completion options, and future field-development decisions.
An additional piece of important information for this reservoir is that actual cumulative production
often far exceeds the initial calculated recoverable reserves, based on a water-saturation cutoff of
60%. If the entire zone in question were actually at irreducible water saturation, then the total net
productive interval could be increased from 25 to 70 ft. This gain would result in increased net
hydrocarbon pore volume by more than 200%, accompanied by significant increases in expected
recoverable reserves.
MRIL logs were incorporated into the logging suite for two principle reasons:

to distinguish zones of likely hydrocarbon production from zones of likely water production
by establishing the bulk volume of irreducible water (bvi) and the volume of free fluids (mffi)

to improve the estimation of recoverable reserves by defining the producible interval

MRIL Solution
The MRIL data acquired in this well included total porosity to determine clay-bound water,
capillary-bound water, and free fluids. MRIL results from both TDA and MRIAN are illustrated in
Figure 2: MRIL log presentation.

Figure 2

Dual-TW logging was to be used to distinguish and quantify hydrocarbons. The MRIL data
interpretation provided the basis for revising details in the reservoirs depositional model, and
resulted in an improved understanding of this reservoirs lithology.

Interpretation of MRIL Data

MRIL data were acquired in the well and were used in DSM, TDA, and MRIAN analyses. The
MRIL data in Figure 2 (MRIL log presentation) helped the Operator to determine that the resistivity
reduction was due to a change in grain size and not to the presence of movable water. The
two potential types of irreducible water that can cause a reduction in measured resistivity are claybound water (whose volume is designated by MCBW) and capillary-bound water (whose volume is
indicated by BVI). The MRIL clay-bound-water measurement (Track 3) indicates that the entire
reservoir has very low MCBW. The MRIL BVI curve (Track 7) indicates a coarsening-upward
sequence (BVI increases with depth). The increase in BVI and the corresponding reduction in
resistivity are thus attributed to the textural change. The TDA analysis (Track 6) determined oil
saturation in the flushed zone to be in the 35-to-45% range. Results of the TDA (Track 6) and
TDA/MRIAN (Track 7) combination analysis imply that the entire reservoir contains no significant
amount of movable water and is at irreducible condition. The MRIAN results (Track 7) indicate that
both the upper and lower intervals have high water saturation, but that the formation water is at

irreducible conditions. Thus, the zone should not produce any formation water. The entire zone
has permeability in excess of 100 md (Track 2). Based on these results, the operator perforated
the interval from XX163 to XX234. The initial production of 2,000 BOPD was water-free and thus
confirmed the MRIL analysis.
Note the difference between the TDA and TDA/MRIAN results in the MRIL log presentation. The
TDA shows that the free fluids include both light oil and water, whereas the TDA/MRIAN results
show that all of the free fluids are hydrocarbons. This apparent discrepancy is simply due to the
different depth of investigation of the various logging measurements. TDA saturation reflects the
flushed-zone as seen by MRIL measurement. The TDA/MRIAN combination saturation reflects the
virgin zone as seen by deep-resistivity measurements. Because water-based mud was used in
this well, some of the movable hydrocarbons were displaced in the invaded zone by the filtrate
from the water-based mud.

EVALUATION OF RESERVOIR PRODUCIBILITY USING

SCHLUMBERGERS CMR TOOL
In this example, we see how Schlumbergers CMR data were integrated with conventional logging
and pressure data to differentiate between gas, oil, and tar within a complex reservoir.

SETTING
This well was drilled with oil-base mud in eastern Venezuela. In this reservoir, the Operator
needed to identify gas, oil and tar zones. The Operator chose a suite of logs which included
Schlumbergers CMR tool in order to successfully determine the producibility of each zone within
the reservoir.

CMR Answers
Figure 3 (Evaluation of CMR reservoir producibility) shows the results from the log run.

Figure 3

The CMR-MDT log helped to sharply define the fluid types inferred by the density-neutron data.
The CMR and density-neutron data confirmed gas in Zones A and H. The other zones had no
density-neutron crossover (interpreted as oil), but several zones had a CMR porosity deficit
(identified by the blue shading on the log example). The CMR porosity deficit, as compared to the
density-neutron porosity, was attributed to the presence of tar in Zones B, D, E, F and I. The
resistivity log showed no contrast between the tar and hydrocarbon zones in this oil-base mud
environment.
The MDT pressure points independently confirmed the presence of tar. All four pressure tests
attempted within the tar zones produced dry test results. In contrast, all pressure points attempted
in the gas or light-oil zones produced good pressure and mobility readings. The CMR-MDT data,
together with the triple combo data provided a conclusive petrophysical analysis of this complex
gas, oil and tar system.

IMPROVED TESTING EFFICIENCY WITH SCHLUMBERGERS CMR

TOOL
This example shows how Schlumbergers CMR tool was used to identify zones for further testing.

Setting
The Operator was drilling a well in waters offshore of China. Previous logs within this reservoir
showed an unconsolidated shaly sand formation with little variation in the resistivity and densityneutron porosity curves. Pressure testing had proven problematic in the past.

CMR Answers
The Operator chose to run a CMR tool in order to define permeable zones that would merit further
testing (Figure 4: MDT Test zone identification).

Figure 4

The CMR bound and free-fluid porosity curves showed good definition, and easily identified the
more permeable intervals. The MDT points were selected on the basis of the higher permeability
areas (low bound-fluid volume), thereby avoiding the low-permeability zones and potential probe
plugging.
Six successful pressure tests were obtained, and three samples were recovered in an
environment where MDT testing had previously been quite troublesome.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Activation
Programmed command sequences that control how MRIL tools polarize formations and measure
NMR properties of those formations. Activations may contain single or multiple CPMG sequences.

Activation, Dual-TE
An activation that enables the acquisition of two CPMG echo trains at different echo spacings (TE)
but at identical re-polarization times (TW). Data acquired with dual-TE activations are used for
hydrocarbon identification, and this activation has been successfully used in detecting and
quantifying medium-viscosity oils.. The hydrocarbon identification technique takes advantage of

the different diffusivities of the various reservoir fluids. Because the MRIL tool produces a
magnetic field gradient, the T2 of each fluid has a component that depends on its diffusivity T2D,
and on the TE used in the NMR measurements. Increases in TE will shift the T2 spectrum toward
smaller T2 values, and the shift will be different for each fluid type. Separation in T2 space follows
from

D ( G TE ) 2
.
12

Activation, Dual-TW
An activation that enables the acquisition of two CPMG echo trains at different wait times (TW)
and identical echo spacings (TE). Data acquired with dual-TW activations are used to improve
detection of gas and light oils. This detection is based on the fact that the T1 of gas and light oils is
much larger than the T1 of water in a formation.
Polarization p is proportional to TW, i.e.,

p 1 e

TW

T1

The smaller TW is chosen such that the NMR signal from the formation water is completely
polarized, but the oil and/or gas signals are not. The longer TW is chosen so that most of the
hydrocarbon signals are also polarized. The signal left after the subtraction of the two echo trains
or the two resulting T2 distributions contains only signal from the hydrocarbon. This method can be
used to quantify oil and gas volumes when the T1 values of oil and gas are known.

Activation, Standard-T2
An activation that enables the acquisition of a CPMG echo train with a TW with which formation
fluids can be fully polarized, and with a TE with which the diffusion effects on T2 can be eliminated.
Typical values for this activation are TE = 1.2 ms, 3 s TW 6 s, and
NE = 300. This activation is mainly used for determining "effective" porosity and permeability.

Activation, Total-Porosity
An activation that enables the acquisition of two CPMG echo trains with different echo spacings
(TE) and different wait times (TW). One echo train is acquired with TE = 0.6 ms and TW = 20 ms
(only partial polarization is achieved) and is used for quantifying the small pores which are at least
in part associated with clay-bound water. The other echo train is acquired with TE = 0.9 or 1.2 ms
and with a TW that is sufficiently long so that full polarization is achieved. This echo train is used
to determine effective porosity, and the summation of the two porosities (clay-bound and effective)
provides total porosity information. The combination of TE and TW used to acquire the latter echo
train constitutes a Standard T2 activation.

B0
Static magnetic field generated by the NMR tool. It may also be designated as B z.

B1
Oscillating magnetic field generated by a radio-frequency (RF) resonant circuit. This field is
applied in the plane perpendicular to B0 and is used to flip the magnetization by 90 and 180.

BFV
CMR Bound fluid volume

Bound Water
A somewhat loosely defined term that can refer either to water that is not producible or to water
that is not displaceable by hydrocarbons. Bound water is defined in many references as water that
has become adsorbed on the surface of solid particles or grains. Under natural conditions, this
water is viscous-like and immobile, but might not have lost its electrolytic properties. Bound water
consists of both capillary-bound water and clay-bound water.

Bound Water Saturation (SWB)

The fraction of porosity containing clay mineral associated irreducible water.

Brownian Motion
Random thermal motion of molecules in a fluid

Bulk Volume Irreducible (BVI)

The fractional part of formation bulk volume occupied by immobile, capillary-bound water. This
bound water is normally not producible, due to capillarity.

Bulk Volume Irreducible, Cutoff (CBVI)

BVI is estimated by summing the MRIL T2 distribution up to the time T2cutoff.

Bulk Volume Irreducible, Spectral (SBVI)

BVI obtained by the MRIL spectral method. This BVI estimate is determined from a model that
assigns a percent of the porosity in each spectral bin to bound water. Various models are available
for use with this method.

Bulk Volume Movable (BVM)

The fractional part of formation volume occupied by moveable fluids, also referred to as free fluid
index (FFI). It can be water, oil, gas, or their combination.

Bulk Volume Water (BVW)

The fractional part of formation volume occupied by water. BVW is the product of water saturation
and total porosity. Typically expressed as a percentage, it includes clay mineral associated water.

Bz
See B0

Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill Pulse Sequence (CPMG)

A pulse sequence used to measure T2 relaxation time. The sequence begins with a 90 pulse
followed by a series of 180 pulses. The first two pulses are separated by a time period , whereas
the remaining pulses are spaced 2 apart. Echoes occur halfway between 180 pulses at times
2, 4..., where 2 equals TE, the echo spacing. Decay data is collected at these echo times. This
pulse sequence compensates for the effects of magnetic field inhomogeneity and gradients in the
limit of no diffusion, and reduces the accumulation of effects of imperfections in the 180 pulses as
well. Named after the authors of the paper that described this technique: Carr, Purcell, Meiboom
and Gill.

CBVI
See Bulk Volume Irreducible, Cutoff.

Clay-Bound Water (CBW)

Immobile structurally bound water on the surface of clay minerals; the volume of water that is
ionically bound to clay minerals present in the formation. Clay surfaces are electrically charged
due to ionic substitutions in the clay structure, which allows them to hold substantial amounts of
ionically bound water. This water is referred to as water of adsorption or surficially bound water.
Clay bound water also includes water of capillary condensation in the micropores in clay
aggregates. CBW is a function both of the surface area of the clay and the charge density on its
surface. Clay consists of extremely fine particles, so has a very high surface area. CBW
contributes to the electrical conductivity of the sand, but not its hydraulic conductivity. Clay-bound
water cannot be displaced by hydrocarbons and will not flow. It has very short T1 and T2 times.

CMR

The Schlumberger Combinable Magnetic Resonance tool, follows on from earlier Schlumberger
NMR tools that date back to the 1970s. It uses a directional antenna sandwiched between a pair
of bar magnets to focus the CMR measurement on a 6-in. [15-cm] zone inside the formationthe
same rock volume scanned by other essential logging measurements. measuring T2 decay
components in the 0.1 to 0.5 msec range is possible. These improvements include electronic
upgrades, more efficient data acquisition and new signal-processing techniques that take
advantage of the early-time information. The CMR is a compact skid tool that is run eccentred.
Vertical resolution is 18 inches in standard logging mode, 9 inches in HIRS logging.

CMR-200
A later version of the Schlumberger CMR tool

CPMG
See Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill Pulse Sequence

D
See Diffusion Constant.

DIFAN
See Diffusion Analysis.

Differential Spectrum Method (DSM)

An interpretation method based on dual-TW measurements. DSM relies on the T1 contrast
between water and light hydrocarbon to type and quantify light hydrocarbons. The differential
spectrum is the difference between the two T2 distributions (spectra) obtained from dual-TW
measurements with identical TE. DSM interpretation is performed in the T2 domain.

Diffusion
Process by which molecules or other particles intermingle and migrate because of their random
thermally activated (Brownian) motion. Diffusion in a gradient magnetic field causes a reduction in
the apparent T2 measured by the CPMG process.

Diffusion Analysis (DIFAN)

An interpretation method based on dual-TE measurements. DIFAN relies on the diffusion contrasts
between water and medium-viscosity oil to type and quantify oils. The data for DIFAN are acquired
through dual-TE logging with a single, long polarization time.

Diffusion Constant (D)

Also known as diffusivity. D is the mean square displacement of molecules observed during a
period. D varies with fluid type and temperature. For gas, D also varies with density and is
therefore pressure dependent. D can be measured by NMR techniques, in particular by acquiring
several CPMG echo trains with different echo spacings in a gradient magnetic field.

Diffusion Relaxation
A relaxation mechanism caused by molecular diffusion in a gradient field during a CPMG
measurement. Molecular diffusion during a CPMG or other spin echo pulse sequence causes
signal attenuation and a decrease in the apparent T2. This attenuation can be quantified and the
fluid diffusion coefficient measured if a known magnetic field gradient is applied during the pulse
sequence. Diffusion only affects the T2 measurement, not the T1 measurement.

Diffusion, Restricted
Effect of geometrical confinement of pore walls on molecular diffusive displacement. NMR
diffusion measurements estimate the diffusion constant from the attenuation caused by molecular
motion over a very precise time interval. If the time interval (TE in the CPMG sequence) is large

enough, molecules will encounter the pore wall or other barrier and become restricted. The
apparent diffusion constant will then decrease.

Diffusion Limit, Fast

The case where protons carried across a pore by diffusion to the surface layer relax at the surface
layer at a rate limited by the relaxers at the surface and not by the rate at which the protons arrive
at the surface. The diffusion process happens much faster than that of the fluid protons relaxing in
a pore. Thus, the magnetization in the pore remains uniform, and a single T1 or T2 can be used to
describe the magnetization polarization or decay for an individual pore. This assumption is the
basis of the conversion of T1 and T2 distributions to pore-size distributions.

Diffusion Limit, Slow

The case where protons carried across a pore by diffusion to the surface layer relax at the surface
layer at a rate limited not by the relaxers at the surface but by the rate at which the protons arrive
at the surface. Thus, diffusion does not homogenize the magnetization in the pore space. Multiple
exponential decays then are needed to characterize the relaxation process within a single pore.

Diffusivity
A measure of the extent to which molecules move at random in the fluid

Direct Hydrocarbon Typing (DHT)

A method to determination of the type of hydrocarbons present using MR measurements to exploit
the contrast in T1 relaxation and using diffusion principles to recognize fluid types.

Echo Spacing (TE)

In a CPMG sequence, the time between 180 pulses. This time is identical to the time between
adjacent echoes.

Effective Porosity
A somewhat arbitrary term sometimes used to refer to the fractional part of formation volume
occupied by connected porosity, and excluding the volume of water associated with clay. It can be
thought of as the total porosity less the porosity filled with clay mineral bound water. In NMR
logging, the term has usually been associated with porosity that decays with T2 greater than 4 ms.
Effective porosity often refers to the interconnected pore volume occupied by movable fluids,
excluding isolated pores and pore volume occupied by adsorbed water. Effective porosity contains
fluid that may be immovable at a given saturation or capillary pressure. In petroleum engineering,
the term porosity usually refers to effective porosity.
For shaly sands, effective porosity is the fractional volume of a formation occupied by only fluids
that are not clay bound and whose hydrogen indexes are 1.

Enhanced Diffusion Method (EDM)

An interpretation method based on diffusion contrasts between different fluids; used to identify oil
and quantify how much is present. A maximum relaxation time for water based on its bulk and
diffusion relaxation is computed, so any signal that is observed beyond this time is interpreted as
oil. Enhancement of the diffusion effect during echo-data acquisition allows water and oil to be
separated on a T2 distribution generated from data acquired with a selected long TE. For typing
medium-viscosity oils, EDM uses CPMG measurements acquired through standard T2 logging with
a long TE. For quantifying fluids, EDM needs data acquired through dual-TW logging with a long
TE or through dual-TE logging with a long TW.

f0
See Larmour frequency.

Free Fluid Index (FFI)

The fractional part of formation volume occupied by fluids that are free to flow. A distinction must
be made between fluids that can be displaced by capillary forces, and fluids that will be produced
at a given saturation. In MRIL logging, FFI is the BVM estimate obtained by summing the T2
distribution over T2 values greater than or equal to T2cutoff.

Free Induction Decay (FID)

The transient NMR signal resulting from the stimulation of the nuclei at the Larmor frequency,
usually after a single RF pulse. The characteristic time constant for an FID signal decay is called
T2*. T2* is always significantly shorter than T2.

Gauss
Unit of magnetic field strength. 10,000 gauss = 1 tesla. The earths magnetic field strength is
approximately 0.5 gauss.

Gradient
Amount and direction of the rate of change in space of some quantity such as magnetic field
strength.

Gradient Magnetic Field

A magnetic field whose strength varies with position. The MRIL tool generates a gradient magnetic
field that varies in the radial direction. Within the small sensitive volume of the MRIL tool, this
gradient can be regarded as linear and is usually expressed in Gauss/cm or Hz/mm.

Gyromagnetic Ratio (g)

Ratio of the magnetic moment to the angular momentum of a particle. A measure of the strength of
the nuclear magnetism. It is a constant for a given type of nucleus. For the proton, = 42.58
MHz/Tesla.

Hydrogen Index (HI)

The ratio of the number of hydrogen atoms per unit volume of a material to the number hydrogen
atoms per unit volume of pure water at equal temperature and pressure. The HI of gas is a
function of temperature and pressure.

Inversion Recovery
A pulse sequence employed to measure T1 relaxation time.

The sequence is 180 -i -90-Acquisition -TW, where i = 1 N.

The first 180 pulse inverts the magnetization 180 relative to the static magnetic field. After a
specific wait time (i , the inversion time), a 90 pulse rotates the magnetization into the transverse
plane, and the degree of recovery of the initial magnetization is measured. After a wait time TW to
return to full polarization, the sequence is repeated. To produce sufficient data for measurement of
T1, this sequence must be repeated many times with different

and thus is very time consuming.

I

Irreducible Water Saturation (SWIRR)

The fraction of the porosity, either total or effective, filled with irreducible water.

IWT
Initial wait time

See Magnetic Susceptibility

ksdr
SDR model permeability

Ktim
Timur Coates model permeability

Larmor Equation

This equation states that the frequency of precession of the nuclear magnetic moment in a
magnetic field is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field.

Larmor Frequency
The frequency at which the nuclear spins precess about the static magnetic field, or the frequency
at which magnetic resonance can be excited. This frequency is determined from the Larmor
equation.

M
Net magnetization vector. See magnetization.

M0
Equilibrium value of the net magnetization vector directed along the static magnetic field.

Magnetic Moment
A measure of the magnetic properties of an object or particle (the proton for example) that causes
the object or particle to align with the static magnetic field.

Magnetic Resonance (MR)

Magnetic resonance describes a group of phenomena more general than NMR. It also includes
nuclear quadruple resonance (NQR) and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). Because the
term nuclear is often related with radioactivity, the term MR is used to avoid this connotation.
(NMR means nuclear magnetic resonance, i.e., the term nuclear refers to the magnetic resonance
of an atomic nucleus.) Magnetic Resonance Technology uses magnetic fields to influence and
measure nuclei spins of hydrogen.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Refers to imaging with NMR techniques. Most MRI machines use a pulsed gradient magnetic field
that permits one to localize the NMR signals in space. MRI is used on core samples and in core
flooding or flow mechanism studies.

Magnetic Resonance Image Logging (MRIL)

The name for the specific NMR logging tool developed by NUMAR Corporation in the mid-1980s.
The MRIL tool uses a permanent gradient magnetic field and an orthogonal RF magnetic field (for
generating CPMG pulse sequences) to select concentric cylindrical shell volumes for NMR
measurements.

Magnetic Susceptibility ( )
The measure of the ability of a substance to become magnetized. Differences in magnetic
susceptibility of the pore fluids and the matrix cause internal field gradients.

Magnetization (M)
A macroscopic vector quantity resulting from the alignment of the nuclear magnetic moment with
the static magnetic field. This vector projected into the plane perpendicular to the static magnetic
field is known as the transverse magnetization (Mx). Magnetization (T1 ) and transverse
magnetization (T2) are the quantities that are observed by NMR.

Magnetization, Longitudinal (Mz)

Component of the net magnetization vector along the static magnetic field B0 (or Bz).

MCBW
CBW estimate obtained by summing the T2 distribution obtained from partially polarized CPMG
echo trains acquired with a TE = 0.6 ms and TW = 20 ms.

MPERM
Permeability estimate obtained from MRIL measurements. Many formulas are in use for
determining permeability from NMR measurements, the two most commonly used being the
Coates equation and the Schlumberger-Doll Research (SDR) equation. According to the Coates
equation,
4

MPHI FFI
k

C BVI

According to the SDR equation,

k a 4T22 gem
where T2gemis thegeometric mean of the T2 distribution.

MPHI
The porosity estimate obtained by summing the T2 distribution over T2 values greater than or equal
to 4 ms, and less than or equal to the highest T2 value in the distribution, e.g., 1024 ms. MPHI is
often considered to be equivalent to effective porosity except in the presence of gas filled porosity,
or certain fast relaxation pore sizes or fluid types present in the MR measurement space.

MRIL Analysis (MRIAN)

An interpretation method that incorporates deep resistivity data and MRIL standard T2 logging
measurements to solve the Dual Water Saturation Model and determine hydrocarbon saturation
corrected for clay conductivity effects. MRIAN determines water-filled porosity in the virgin zone,
which can be compared with the flushed-zone results provided by MRIL stand-alone analysis
techniques, such as TDA, EDM, and DIFAN.

MRIL-C Tool
NUMARs second-generation MRIL tool introduced in 1994. This tool is capable of performing
multiple experiments simultaneously (e.g., the MRIL-C has dual-frequency capability, and the
MRIL-C+ has triple-frequency capability). The MRIL-C/TP tool, which was introduced by NUMAR in
1996, provides an estimate of total porosity as well as effective porosity. The C/TP tool is able to
measure total porosity because the tool can utilize a reduced TE (0.6 ms). Furthermore, because
the tool experiences reduced ringing, the first echo contains valuable information.
Because MRIL-C tools operate in either dual-or triple-frequency mode, successive measurements
at different frequencies can follow one another more quickly. Each MRIL frequency excites a signal
from a different physical location and thus it is not necessary to wait for repolarization to occur in
one location before making a measurement in another location. Alternating between frequencies
allows more measurements to be made in a given time, thus permitting logging speed to be
increased without reducing S/N, or permitting S/N to be increased without reducing logging speed.

MRIL Depth of Investigation

A term which describes how far into the formation that the MRIL signal can penetrate to provide
meaningful formation evaluation measurements. Because the Larmor frequency is a function of B0
and B0 is radially dependent, the Larmor frequency is also radially dependent and thus defines the
depth of investigation of the MRIL tool. Furthermore, because B0 is also temperature dependent, it
follows that the Larmor frequency, and thus the depth of investigation, are also temperature

dependent when a fixed B1 frequency is used, which is always the case. As the temperature of the
magnet increases, B0 decreases and the depth of investigation decreases accordingly (e.g., a
depth of investigation of about 16 in. at 25C decreases to about 14 in. at 150C). The variation of
depth of investigation with temperature for MRIL tools is discussed and displayed in NUMAR
literature and charts.

MRIL-Prime Tool
NUMARs latest generation of MRIL tool introduced in 1998. This tool is capable of performing
multiple experiments at up to nine frequencies. By alternating between nine frequencies,
measurements can be made at a very much higher rate. The MRIL-Prime provides measurements
of clay-bound water, effective porosity, capillary-bound water, and hydrocarbon typing in just one
pass. Besides saving time, acquiring all the data in one pass eliminates depth-shift errors.
The MRIL-Prime tool has additional pre-polarization magnets placed above and below the
antenna that allow for full polarization of the fluids. This pre-polarization design can provide 12
seconds of polarization at logging speeds as high as 24 ft/min. Furthermore, the capability of the
tool to fully polarize fluids at high logging speeds, and obtain a full T2 distribution without any
corrections, makes the logging results much less sensitive to certain job-design parameters.
Planning logging jobs for earlier tools required some knowledge of the time needed to polarize
fluids. The MRIL-Prime tool can simply handle the longest polarization times without reducing
logging speed. Thus, this tool can be run much like standard triple-combo toolsjust run the tool
to the bottom of the hole and log up without special passes in the hole and without having to
subsequently assembly data from different passes. This is why the MRIL-Prime tool is the first
NMR device that can realistically be considered a primary formation evaluation logging tool.

MRIL Sensitive-Volume Thickness

The thickness of the zone for which the MRIL tool provides information The thickness of the
sensitive volume for the MRIL tool is approximately 1 mm, and is a function of the gradient
strength of the B0 field and the frequency band of the B1 field.

MSIG
Porosity estimate obtained by combining data from dual-TE logging with TE = 0.6 and 1.2 ms.
MSIG should agree well with total porosity measured on cores. MSIG = MCBW + MPHI. Provides
total volume of fluids in the formation.

Mud Doping
The practice of adding magnetite to the drilling mud. With the now obsolete NML tool, doping was
essential to kill the borehole signal. However, doping the mud with a paramagnetic substance to
change the NMR properties of invading mud filtrate may still be desirable. For instance, if the
invaded zone is flushed with paramagnetic ions, then the bulk relaxation time of the brine is
shortened, and water signals are killed. Thus, only oil signals remain, and residual oil saturation
can be determined through NMR measurements. MnCl2, has recently been shown to be a cost
effective doping agent for this application.

MWT
Multi-wait time

Mx
See Transverse Magnetization.

Mz
See Longitudinal Magnetization.

NE
Number of echoes in a CPMG echo train.

NML Tool
The original Schlumberger Nuclear Magnetic logging tool, developed in the 1970s. Now an
obsolete NMR logging tool that utilized the earths magnetic field. The NML tool measured the
precession of hydrogen protons in the earths magnetic field after the alignment of protons with a
superimposed magnetic field. The sensitive volume of the NML was not a thin cylindrical shell, but
a full cylinder centered around the tool; therefore, the measurement contained borehole signals.
Operation of the NML required special doping of the borehole fluids to eliminate the signal from
the protons in the borehole.

Non-Effective Porosity
The difference obtained by subtracting effective porosity from total porosity (effective porosity is
equal to the MPHI measurement on the MRIL log, and total porosity is equal to the MSIG
measurement on the MRIL log). Non-effective porosity represents that segment of porosity which
will not be produced; this is the part which would hold bound water.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)

NMR, as a physical phenomenon, is the absorption or emission of electromagnetic energy by
nuclei in a static magnetic field, after excitation by a stable RF magnetic field. NMR, as an
investigative tool, is a method that uses the NMR phenomenon to observe the static and dynamic
aspects of nuclear magnetism. The method requires a static magnetic field to orient nuclear
magnetic moments, and an orthogonal oscillating field (at RF frequencies) to excite the nuclear
magnetic moments. The frequency of the oscillating field must satisfy the Larmor resonance
condition.
NMR can be used to detect molecular structures and probe molecular interactions. It is a major
chemical spectroscopic technique with many applications, including probing properties of fluids in
porous media.
Despite the term nuclear, NMR does not involve radioactivity.

NWT
Number of wait times.

P1
Amplitude value on the T2 distribution.

PAP
Phase-alternated pair

Paramagnetic Materials
Materials with a small but positive magnetic susceptibility. The addition of a small amount of
paramagnetic material to a substance may greatly reduce the relaxation times of the substance.
Most paramagnetic substances posses an unpaired electron and include atoms or ions of
transition elements (e.g., manganese and vanadium) or rare earth elements. Oxygen (O 2) is also
paramagnetic and contributes to the relaxation of water. Paramagnetic substances are used as
contrast agents in medical MR imaging and to dope the borehole fluids in some applications of
NMR logging. Copper sulfate (CuSO4) is used to dope the water in a calibration tank to reduce
water relaxation times, thereby significantly reducing MRIL calibration time.

Phase Alternate Pairs (PAP)

A method of acquiring two echo trains that are 180 out of phase. The change in echo-train phase
is accomplished by changing the phase of the initial 90 pulse in the CPMG sequence by 180.
The effect of this change is to reverse the sign of the echo data. In processing, the two echo trains
are subtracted to eliminate the effects of ringing and baseline offset.

Permeability, Absolute

A measure of the ability of a rock to conduct a fluid or gas through its interconnected pores when
the pores are 100% saturated with that fluid. Measured in darcies or millidarcies (md).

Permeability, Effective
The capability of a rock to conduct a fluid in the presence of another fluid, immiscible with the first,
is called its effective permeability to that fluid. Effective permeability not only depends on the
permeability of the rock itself, but also on the relative amounts of the different fluids in the pores.

Permeability, Relative
The ratio between the effective permeability to a given fluid at a partial saturation and the
permeability at 100% saturation. Relative permeability is the ratio of the amount of a specific fluid
that will flow at a given saturation, in the presence of other fluids, to the amount that would flow at
a saturation of 100%, other factors remaining the same.

Polarization Time (TW)

See Wait Time.

Porosity, Effective ( e )
A somewhat arbitrary term sometimes used to refer to the fractional part of formation volume
occupied by connected porosity and excluding the volume of water associated with clay. In NMR
logging, the term has usually been associated with porosity that decays with T2 greater than 4 ms.
Effective porosity often refers to the interconnected pore volume occupied by movable fluids,
excluding isolated pores and pore volume occupied by adsorbed water. Effective porosity contains
fluid that may be immovable at a given saturation or capillary pressure. In petroleum engineering,
the term porosity usually refers to effective porosity.
For shaly sands, effective porosity is the fractional volume of a formation occupied by only fluids
that are not clay bound and whose hydrogen indexes are 1.

Porosity, Total
The total pore volume occupied by fluids in a rock. Includes isolated non-connected pores and
volume occupied by adsorbed, immobile fluids. For a shaly sand formation, total porosity is the
fractional part of formation volume occupied by both clay-bound and non-clay-bound fluids.

Precession
The motion of the axis of a spinning body so as to trace out a cone. It is caused by the application
of a torque tending to change the direction of the rotation axis. The precession of the proton spin
axis about the B0 field axis occurs at the Larmor frequency.

Proton
A positively charged elementary particle that provides the charge in an atomic nucleus. A
hydrogen nucleus contains one proton. The symbol 1H is used to designate the hydrogen nucleus.

Proton Density
The concentration of mobile hydrogen atoms per unit volume. NMR data can be corrected for
hydrogen density changes by dividing the apparent NMR porosity by the appropriate hydrogen
index.

Pulse, 90
An RF pulse designed to rotate the net magnetization vector 90 from its initial direction in the
rotating frame of reference. If the spins are initially aligned with the static magnetic field, this pulse
produces transverse magnetization and free induction decay (FID).

Pulse, 180

An RF pulse designed to rotate the net magnetization vector 180 in the rotating frame of
reference. Ideally, the amplitude of a 180 pulse multiplied by its duration is twice the amplitude of
a pulse multiplied by its duration. Each 180 pulse in the CPMG sequence creates an echo.

Pulse, Hard
A term used to describe a high-power, short-duration RF pulse used in NMR pulse sequences. In
contrast, soft pulses are usually low-power, long-duration RF pulses. Hard pulses are usually
rectangular-shaped in the time domain, and excite wide frequency bands often extending beyond
the desired resonance frequency. Hard pulses generally make good use of available RF power,
but exhibit poor frequency selectivity. Because of the narrower pulse widths, hard pulses are more
suitable for pulse sequences that require short echo spacing (TE). See Pulse Shaping for
frequency selectivity.

Pulse Shaping
The amplitude, shape, and width of RF pulses define the frequency selectivity of an NMR
measurement (see also Hard Pulse and Soft Pulse). Soft pulses are shaped to improve their
frequency selectivity as well as other parameters. How shaping brings about these improvements
can be easily understood by taking the Fourier transform of RF pulses. A hard pulse is rectangular
in shape and excites a wide range of frequencies far from the main lobe. Thus, the frequency
selectivity of a hard pulse is poor. A soft pulse has a greater spread in the time domain, but excites
a narrow, uniform range of frequencies. Thus, the frequency selectivity of a soft pulse is good. Soft
pulses are essential for MRI and also are very important for the MRIL tool because they allow
multiple frequencies to be closely spaced.
In a gradient B0 field, such as the magnetic field produced by the MRIL tool, both the gradient
strength and the frequency band of the soft pulse determine the sensitive volume.

Pulse, Soft
Low-power, long-duration RF pulses used in NMR measurements. Soft pulses in time domain are
rectangular pulses in frequency domain. In medical MRI applications, a soft 90 pulse typically has
a width of a few milliseconds. Although soft pulses need not conform to a particular shape, soft
pulses usually have crafted pulse envelopes, e.g., truncated Sinc pulses (bell-shaped envelopes),
to improve frequency selectivity. See pulse shaping for frequency selectivity

Radio Frequency (RF)

Electromagnetic radiation at a frequency in the same general range as that used for radio
transmissions. The Larmor frequency for 1H is typically in this range. For an MRIL tool, the Larmor
frequency is in the range of 580 to 750 KHz.

Regularization
The process used to stabilize the inversion from the measured NMR decay to the NMR spectra.
There are many methods in use, of which MAP is one. They all result in a smoothed spectra which
varies depending on the method and amount of regularization. The need to use regularization
means that there is no unique NMR spectra or pore distribution. In most cases, the major features
of the spectra are independent of the method of regularization.

Relaxation
The return of nuclear spins to their equilibrium positions after excitation. In NMR measurements,
protons are oriented by an oscillating magnetic field . When this oscillating field is removed, the
protons begin tipping back to align with the static magnetic field. In NMR terminology, this tipping
back motion is called relaxation, and measurement of the relaxation time is the fundamental
measurement of NMR logging tools.

Relaxation Time
A time constant associated with the return of nuclear spins to their equilibrium positions after
excitation. Several relaxation times are defined in NMR measurements. Each is related to different

molecular interaction mechanisms. The most frequently measured relaxation times are T1 and T2.
For bulk water, T1 and T2 are approximately 3 seconds. The relaxation times of water in rocks are
much smaller and are generally less than 300 ms.

Relaxation Time, Bulk Fluid

The relaxation produced by interaction of the fluid with itself. For most cases of interest T 1 and T2
are equal. For gas, however, because the diffusivity of gas is much higher than that of liquids, the
apparent T2 of gas measured by CPMG technique in a gradient magnetic field can be much
smaller than T1.

Relaxation Time, Longitudinal (T1 )

Longitudinal, or spin-lattice, relaxation time. This time constant characterizes the alignment of
spins with the external static magnetic field. Time for nuclei to align with the static magnetic field.

Relaxation Time, Transverse(T2)

Transverse, or spin-spin, relaxation time. The time constant that reflects the rate of transverse
energy loss, through spin-spin relaxation, that was created by a perturbing radio frequency pulse.
This time constant characterizes the loss of phase coherence that occurs among spins oriented at
an angle to the main magnetic field and that is due to interactions between spins. T2 never
exceeds T1. Both T2 and T1 have been successfully related to petrophysical properties of interest,
such as pore size, surface-to-volume ratio, formation permeability, and capillary pressure.

Residual Oil
Oil remaining in the reservoir rock after the flushing or invasion process, or at the end of a specific
recovery process or escape process.

Resonance
Vibration in a mechanical or electrical system caused by a periodic stimulus, with the stimulus
having a frequency at or close to a natural frequency of the system.

Ringing
The oscillatory response of a magnet to the application of high-energy RF pulses. When the MRIL
RF antenna is energized with high-energy RF pulses, the MRIL magnet resonates or rings. The
MRIL magnet acts like a piezoelectric crystal, generating an acoustic oscillating voltage that
interferes with the formation signal. Ringing is frequency dependent, and each magnet has a
different ringing window (typically 20 to 40 kHz wide) where the ringing effect is smaller than at
other frequencies. The ideal operating frequency is one that is located in the middle of a broad
ringing window.

Running Average
This represents the total number of individual experiments (i.e., complete echo trains) needed to
produce a high signal-to-noise. Because the PAP technique is used during a CPMG
measurement, the Running Averaging is at least two.

SBVI
See Spectral Bulk Volume Irreducible

Shifted Spectrum Method (SSM)

An interpretation method based on dual-TE measurements with identical TW. The SSM relies on
the diffusivity contrast between fluids with different diffusivity to type viscous hydrocarbons. The
shifted spectrum refers to the observation of the T2 distribution shifted to smaller T2 values when
TE is increased. Gases have much higher diffusivity than oil or water, and are more sensitive to
the echo spacing (TE) changes. Heavy oils have very low diffusivity, and are least sensitive to TE
changes. The SSM is performed in the T2 domain and uses the difference in the shift between
fluids of different diffusivity to identify fluids.

Signal Averaging
A method of improving signal-to-noise ratio by averaging echo trains

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (S/N)

The ratio of signal amplitude to noise amplitude. Signal refers to the desired part of a detected
signal; noise refers to the remainder of the detected signal and includes random noise. S/N is a
measure of data quality. The S/N of NMR measurements can be improved by averaging several
echo trains, by sampling larger volumes, or by increasing the strength of the B0 magnetic field. If
the noise is random (statistical) noise only, then averaging n measurements improves S/N by n1/2.

Spin
Intrinsic angular momentum of an elementary particle or system of particles, such as a nucleus.
Spin is responsible for the magnetic moment of the particle or system.

Spin Echo
Reappearance of an NMR signal after the FID has disappeared. A spin echo is the result of the
effective reversal of the dephasing of the nuclear spins. After spins are excited by an RF pulse, the
spins experience FID because of B0 inhomogeneities. Spin isochromats, which are groups of spins
precessing at exactly the same Larmor frequency, lose phase coherence during FID. However,
during this decay, the isochromats do not experience many spin-spin interactions and still retain
phase memory. If a second pulse (180) is applied at time after the first RF pulse, the spin
isochromats will re-phase in the same amount of time . A macroscopic signal (the spin echo) then
occurs at precisely TE = 2. Even if the second pulse is not a 180 pulse, a spin echo can still be
observed, but this echo will be of smaller amplitude. A third pulse will repeat the process.

Stimulated Echo
The echo formed after magnetization evolves first in the x-y plane, then in the z direction, and
again in the x-y plane. A stimulated echo is observed after a three-pulse sequence. Because of B1
inhomogeneities, stimulated echoes occur during CPMG sequences used on logging tools at the
same times as regular echoes and must be compensated for through calibration.

Surface Relaxivity ()
A measure of the capability of a surface to cause protons to relax, i.e., lose orientation or phase
coherence. This quantity depends on the strength of fluid-matrix interactions. It also varies with the
wettability of the rock surface. Surface relaxation strength falls in the range of approximately
0.003 to 0.03 cm/s for clastics. is smaller for carbonates.

T1
See Longitudinal Relaxation Time.

T1effect
Fraction of gas polarized during the wait time

T1, gas
T1 of gas.

T1/T2
Polarization correction parameter

T2
See Relaxation Time, Transverse.

T2cutoff

A value of T2 that is empirically related to the capillary properties of the wetting fluid in a rock. It is
used to differentiate different pore sizes and quantify the amount of bound water. Typically,
porosity associated with T2 values less than approximately 33 milliseconds
(T2cutoff = 33 ms) are summed to obtain BVI for clastics and, similarly, T2cutoff of approximately 90 ms
for carbonates. Note that these values are empirical and may be rock specific.

T2D
Time constant that describes the decay of transverse magnetization caused by molecular diffusion
in a gradient field during a CPMG measurement.

T2LM
Logarithmic mean T2

T2S
Time constant that describes the contribution of surface relaxivity to the transverse relaxation time
of fluid in a rock. When a single wetting fluid covers the pore surface, T2S dominates the relaxation
process. Thus, T2 is proportional to (S/V)-1 of a pore, where S/V is the surface-to-volume ratio. If a
spherical pore is assumed, T2 is proportional to the pore radius.

T2*
Time constant characterizing the loss of phase coherence that occurs among spins oriented at an
angle to the main magnetic field, and that is due to a combination of magnetic field inhomogeneity
and magnetic interaction. T2* is always much shorter than T2.

TCP
Carr-Purcell time

Time Domain Analysis (TDA)

An important tool used to identify fluid types and calculate saturations through processing of T 1weighted echo differences in the time domain. An alternate method to the differential spectrum
method for processing dual-TW echo trains, this interpretation is performed in the time domain
rather than in the T2 domain. The key features of the TDA are

subtraction of the two echo trains from one another.

processing the echo differences in the time domain using predicted or measured oil, gas,
and water relaxation times and hydrogen-index values
In the DSM, the dual-TW echo trains are first inverted into T2 spectra and subtracted from one
another. The interpretation is done in T2 spectrum domain. The effect of T2 spectrum broadening
because of noise and regularization smears the partial porosities into adjacent bins, and the
subtracted spectrum may contain negative amplitudes that are obviously incorrect. The TDA
method has fewer problems with the noise-induced T2 spectrum broadening, and because fewer
free parameters need to be determined, the solution is more stable. However, subtracting echoes
reduces S/N.

TE
The time between echoes See Echo Spacing.

Total Porosity
The non-solids percentage of rock bulk volume.

Transverse Magnetization (Mx)

Component of the net magnetization vector at right angles to the static magnetic field.

TW

See Wait Time.

Viscosity
Resistance of a fluid to flow. Viscosity is due to internal friction caused by molecular cohesion in
the fluid. The diffusion constant D is inversely proportional to viscosity.

Wait Time (TW)

The time between the last CPMG 180 pulse and the first CPMG pulse of the next experiment at
the same frequency This time is the interval during which magnetic polarization or T1 recovery
takes place; the time needed to allow a specific number of nuclei to recover their realized state.
Also know as polarization time, this parameter is dependent upon the T1 relaxation of the involved
pore sizes and their fluids.

Water Wet
A solid surface is water wet when the adhesive attraction of water molecules for the solid
substance is greater than the attraction between water molecules, i.e., adhesive force > cohesive
force.

Wettability
The capability of a solid surface to be wetted when in contact with a liquid. A liquid wets a solid
surface when the surface tension of the liquid is reduced so that the liquid spreads over the
surface. Only the wetting fluid in a rock pore has a surface relaxation mechanism. Therefore,
wettability affects the NMR properties of fluids in reservoir rocks.

See Surface Relaxivity.

GLOSSARY REFERENCES
The definitions used in this section can be found in the following publications:

Glossary of Magnetic Resonance Imaging Terms, in Bushong, S.C., Magnetic Resonance

Imaging, Physical and Biological Principles, Second Edition, Mosby, 1996.

Glossary of Terms and Expressions Used in Well Logging, Second Edition, SPWLA,
Houston, 1984.

NMR Terminology Glossary, Western Atlas, 1996.

CMR Users guide, Schlumberger, 1997.

Spontaneous Potential Log

INTRODUCTION
The Spontaneous Potential was one of the first logging measurements ever made. It was
discovered by accident, appearing as a direct current (DC) potential in the borehole that caused
perturbations on the old electric logging systems. The spontaneous potential (SP) curve records
the naturally occurring electrical potential (voltage) produced by the interaction of formation
connate water, conductive drilling fluid, and shale. The SP curve reflects a difference in the
electrical potential between a movable electrode in the borehole and a fixed reference electrode at
the surface, as depicted in Figure 1: Spontaneous Potential Configuration. Its usefulness was
soon realized, and it is one of the few well log measurements to have been in continuous use for
so many years.

Figure 1

Though the SP is used primarily as a lithology indicator and as a correlation tool, it has other uses
as well:

permeability indicator,

shale volume indicator (see Vsh calculation in the next section),

porosity indicator, and

measurement of Rw (hence formation water salinity).

Figure 2 shows a typical SP log, with the SP recorded in track one.

Figure 2

Opposite shales, the SP readings are usually fairly constant and tend to follow a straight line,
called the Shale Base Line. Opposite permeable formations, the SP shows excursions from the
shale base line and drifts to one or more Sand Line levels. (Depending on the relative salinities
between the formation water and the mud filtrate, the excursions may be to the left or the right of
the shale base line.) This SP effect is produced by two components: the electro-chemical and the
electro-kinetic potentials. The SP log is measured in millivolts (abbreviated mV). Notice that there
is no absolute scale in mV, only a relative scale of so many mV per division.
When mud filtrate salinities are lower than connate water salinities (i.e., Rmf is > Rw), the SP
deflects to the left (the SP potential is negative). This is called a normal SP. When the salinities are
reversed (i.e., salty mud and fresh formation water, R mf < Rw), the SP deflects to the right. This is
called a reverse SP. Other things being equal, there is no SP (and no SP deflection) at all when
Rmf = Rw.
It is quite common to find fresh water in shallow sands and increasingly saline water as depth
increases. Such a progression is shown in Figure 3, where the SP appears to be deflecting to the
left deep in the well, but is reversed nearer the surface.

Figure 3

In sand A, we see that Rw is less than Rmf; which means that formation water is saltier than the
mud filtrate. In sand B, the SP deflection is less than in sand A and thus a fresher formation water
is indicated. In sand C, the SP is reversed, indicating that formation water is fresher than the mud
filtrate and thus Rw is greater than Rmf. Somewhere in the region of 7000 feet it may be guessed
that Rmf and Rw are equal.

RECORDING THE SP
The SP can be recorded very simply by suspending a single electrode in the borehole and
measuring the voltage difference between the electrode and a "ground" electrode (often called a
"fish"), making electrical contact with the earth at the surface. A generalized illustration of the SP
recording system is shown in Figure 4. SP electrodes can be integrated into many logging tools.
For example, the SP can be recorded together with an induction log, a laterolog, a sonic log, and a
sidewall core gun, once there is conductive mud in the hole. It is important to point out that the
SP cannot be recorded in oil-base muds, which allow no conductive path.

THE ELECTROCHEMICAL COMPONENT

The electro-chemical component Ec consists of the liquid junction potential (Ej) and the membrane
potential (Em). These potentials create a current that flows at the shale / reservoir interface. When
a reference electrode is moved across this interface a difference in potential is measured.

Liquid Junction Potential

Weve stated that the SP is affected by formation water salinity. When solutions of differing
concentration are brought into contact, ions from the solution with a higher concentration tend to
migrate toward the solution of lower concentration until equilibrium occurs ( Figure 5).

Figure 5 .

However, with sodium chloride (NaCl) solutions, the C1- anions move faster than Na+ cations, so a
conventional current (or potential) flows from the less concentrated solution to the more
concentrated solution. The electrical potential that results from the combined sodium and
chlorine ion movement is known as the liquid junction potential (Elj).
In terms of the solutions present in a formation, mud filtrate can be substituted for the less
concentrated solution and formation water will be the more concentrated solution. Borehole mudweight is usually higher than the formation fluid pressure. This produces an over-pressure at the
face of the reservoir exposed to the borehole, and causes mud filtrate to invade the reservoir. A
mudcake is subsequently formed and the invasion process slows down. An invasion profile as
shown in Figure 6: Liquid Junction Potential is formed which separates, in this case, a high saline
formation water and the low salinity mud filtrate.

Figure 6

The liquid junction potential Ej is created at the interface between the invaded zone and the
uncontaminated zone due to a salinity difference between mud filtrate and formation water. Since
the negative Cl - anions (assuming an NaCl solution) have a greater mobility than the positive Na +
cations, the net result is a flow of negative charges (Cl - ions) from the more concentrated solution
to the less concentrated solution. This mechanism, which is driven by the conductivity difference
the mud filtrate and formation water is also shown by the above Liquid Junction Potential graphic.
The greater the contrast in salinity between mud filtrate and formation water, the larger this
potential (Figure 7 ).

Figure 7

Membrane Potential
Another "battery" found in the formation arises from the molecular construction of shale beds.
Shale can act as an ionic sieve or membrane. This means that shale can be permeable for one
type of ion while acting as a barrier for another type. This property is called ionic permselectivity, and the result is that the shale-membrane can preferentially prevent the
movement of negative ions. In this case, shales are permeable to Na+ ions, but not so
permeable to C1- ions.
Shales are cation exchangers; they are electro-negative, and therefore repel anions. This
phenomenon occurs as a result of the crystalline structure of clay minerals. Their exterior surfaces
exchange sites where positively charged cations cling temporarily. In most instances, the shales
are 100% effective and therefore repel all chlorine (negatively charged) ions. The positive sodium
ions move toward the lower salinity mud in the borehole, but the chlorine ions cannot follow this
movement.
Since Na+ ions effectively manage to penetrate through the shale from the saline formation water
to the less saline mud column, a positive potential is generated toward the low-concentration NaCl
solution of the mud column. This potential is known as the membrane potential (Em). Figure 8
indicates the process.

Figure 8

The membrane potential Em acts across the shale between the uncontaminated zone in the
reservoir and the mud in the borehole, as depicted in Figure 9: Membrane Potential. This same
surface conductance effect manifests itself in the electrical behavior of shaly sands.

Figure 9

TOTAL SP
The total SP (Figure 10) can now be appreciated as the sum of the two components:

Figure 10

[E-1]
Etotal = Elj + Em
The total potential, measurable in the borehole by an electrode, is also referred to as the
electrochemical component of the SP.
Considering the shale/reservoir interface, a current is created by the E j and Em potentials acting in
series. Ej has a positive value toward the uncontaminated zone containing formation water. In
contrast, Em is positive toward the mud in the borehole, which has the lower NaCl concentration.
The magnitude of both the liquid junction potential and the membrane potential depends on the
difference in ion concentration between the mud (filtrate) and the uncontaminated formation water,
and can therefore both be expressed as:

[E-2]

E K log

Con w
Con mf

in which K is a constant that varies with temperature (see equation below), while Conw and Conmf
are the ion concentrations in the formation water and the mud filtrate respectively that produce the
Ej and Em potentials. Conw and Conmf are inversely proportional to the resistivity, Rw of the
formation water and Rmf the resistivity of the mud filtrate respectively.
K can be estimated from the temperature of the formation. A good approximation is:

[E-3]

T 505
8

where T is the formation temperature in F.

The constant K is different for the Ej and the Em potential but the equivalence of the relations
allows the combination into one effective potential E:

[E-4]

E E j E m (71) log

R mf
R wf

In which E is expressed in mV, and the factor (-71) is the combination of the K constants. Normally
the resistivity of the mud filtrate Rmf is measured at the wellsite at room temperature and the SP
measures the potential E at borehole temperature. Rmf should therefore be corrected for this
temperature difference. Using equation [E-3] and the measured values for E and Rmf , the
resistivity of the uncontaminated water in the formation Rw can be calculated. From the value of Rw
the formation water salinity can be derived taking into account the reservoir temperature.

ELECTROKINETIC COMPONENT
Up until now, the "streaming potential" caused by the movement of the mud filtrate through the
mudcake has been ignored. Like the shale layers, the mudcake acts also as a membrane that
retards the movement of the negative ions. A potential difference Ek is thereby generated, and the
SP has to be corrected for this electrokinetic component. The value of Ek can be obtained from
laboratory experiments with various muds that are in common use. For modern muds that seal the
formation very effectively, the streaming potential Ek can often be ignored.

COMBINATION OF SP COMPONENTS
The combination of the junction-, membrane-and kinetic-potentials creates a current through the
shale / reservoir interface, as depicted in Figure 11: Currents created by the Ej, Em, and Ek.

Figure 11

The currents created by this series of potentials flow through 5 different media, each with its own
resistivity:

borehole filled with mud (Rm),

mudcake (Rmc),

invaded zone filled with mud filtrate (Rxo),

virgin zone filled with uncontaminated fluids (Rt)

surrounding shales (Rsh).

In each medium the potential along a line of current flow (I) drops in proportion to the resistance
that is encountered.

[E-5]

Etotal

= I . Rm
mud

+ I . Rmc
mudcake

+ I . Rxo
flushed zone

+ I.R t
virgin zone

+ I . Rsh
adjacent shale

The motor providing the potential (Etotal) can therefore be expressed as:

[E-6]

E total E m E j E kmc E ksh

As mentioned previously, the streaming potentials Ekmc over the mudcake and Eksh through the
shale are often ignored.

APPLICATIONS OF THE SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG

The main applications of the Spontaneous Potential log are:

Detection of permeable beds

Location of reservoir boundaries.

Determination of Rw (formation water resistivity).

Delineation of shale beds

Determination of shale volumes

Correlation from well to well

Indications on the environment of deposition

RW FROM THE SP
In order to perform quantitative analysis of the SP, the relationship between the SP and the
resistivities of the mud filtrate and the formation water must be determined. It can be shown that
SP = -K log (Rmf/Rw)
where SP is measured in millivolts and K is a constant that depends on temperature. By
inspection, Rw can be found if SP, K, and Rmf are known.
The SP should be read in a water-bearing sand, provided it is clean (no shale is present) and
sufficiently thick to allow for full development of the potential. As mentioned previously, K can be
estimated from the temperature of the formation. A good approximation is,

T 505
8

where T is the formation temperature in F.

Rmf can be estimated from direct measurement on a sample of mud filtrate prepared by placing a
circulated mud sample in a mud press. This data is usually entered on the log heading. Care
should be taken when using these values, however, since logging engineers have been known to
take shortcuts and quote Rmf as some fraction of Rm usually 0.75 Rm. This may be a fair estimate,
but is not necessarily correct. Likewise, rig personnel do not always collect circulated mud
samples in the correct manner.
Even when properly collected, samples are not always representative of the mud in the hole at the
time a particular formation was drilled.
Experiments of the sort reported by Williams and Dunlap (1984), where Rm and Rmf were
measured on a daily basis as a well was drilled, tend to support the contention that Rmf is the least
well-defined parameter in SP log analysis. A comparison between the values of Rm and Rmf, as
reported on log headings with the actual values measured on a daily basis, shows some

alarmingly large differences. In Figure 1: Log Header Rm and Rmf vs.

Figure 1

Short-Term Variations in Rm, Rmf, and Mud Density, we see that both the Rm and Rmf reported on
the log heading for this well were low by a substantial factor.
In the absence of any reported value for Rmf, a value can be estimated from Figure 2: Estimation
of Rmf and Rmc from Rm, which also serves for estimation of Rmc. A fit of this empirical chart gives,

Figure 2

Rmf = (Rm)1.065 x 10((9 -W)/13)

Rmc = (Rm)0.88 x 10((W -10.4)/7.6)
where W is the mud weight in lb/gallon.
Another statistical approximation for predominantly NaCl muds is,
Rmf = 0.75 Rm
Rmc = 1.5 Rm
In all cases, direct measurement on a sample of mud filtrate is preferred. Even after determining
values for SP, K, and Rmf, there are still minor problems to be solved. The equation,
SP = -K log (Rmf/Rw)
does not explain adequately the true electrochemical behavior of salt solutions. The actual SP
development is controlled by the relative activity of the formation water and mud filtrate solutions.
Thus the SP equation should read,
SP = -K Log (Aw/Amf)
where Aw and Amf are the activities of the connate water and the mud filtrate, respectively.
The resistivity of a solution is roughly proportional to the reciprocal of its activity at low salt
concentrations, but at high concentrations there is a marked departure from this rule. A way to
compensate for this departure is to define "effective" or "equivalent" resistivities for salt solutions
that are, by definition, inversely proportional to the activities (R we = 0.075/Aw at 77 F). A

conversion chart is then used to go from an equivalent resistivity (R we) to an actual resistivity (Rw).
The SP equation can then be rewritten to the strictly accurate formula,
SP = -K log (Rmfe/Rwe)

SHALE VOLUME CALCULATION

The presence of shale in art otherwise "clean" sand tends to supress the SP. This effect can be
used in estimating the shale content of a formation. If SPlog is the value of the SP curve at the
desired measurement point on the log, and SPsand is the value observed in a clean, waterbearing sand and SPshale is the value observed in a shale, then any intermediate value of the SP
may be converted into a value for the shale volume (Vsh) by the relationship

(Vsh ) SP

SPlog ( SP ) sand
( SP ) shale ( SP) sand

This concept is illustrated in Figure 3: Shale Volume Calculation Example Using the SP.

Figure 3

GEOLOGICAL INFORMATION

SP deflections often respond to changes in depositional environment. Characteristic SP shapes

are produced in channels, bars, and other depositional sequences where sorting, grain size, or
cementation changes with depth. These shapes are also called "bells" or "funnels." Figure 4: SP
Shapes in Different Depositional Sequences illustrates some of these patterns.

Figure 4

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SP

SP readings are usually accurately and easily measured. However, there are some circumstances
where SP readings need careful consideration.

Oil-base muds completely lack an electrical path through the mud column, hence no SP
can be generated.

Shaly formations suppresses the measured SP. This phenomenon permits the formation
shaliness to be determined if a clean sand with the same water salinity is available for a
legitimate comparison.

Hydrocarbon saturation suppresses SP deflections. Thus, only water-bearing sands

should be selected for Rw determination from the SP.

Unbalanced mud columns, with differential pressure into the formation, can cause
"streaming" potentials that augment the SP. This effect, known as electrokinetic SP, is
noticeable in depleted reservoirs, and is impossible to compensate quantitatively.

Resistivities may be very high in hard formations, except in permeable zones or shales.
These high resistivities affect the distribution of the SP currents, hence the shape of the SP
curve. As illustrated in Figure 1: Schematic Representation of the SP in Highly Resistive
Formations, the SP currents flowing from shale bed Shl toward permeable bed P2 are
largely confined to the borehole between Shl and P2 because of the very high resistivity of
the formation in this interval.

Figure 1

Accordingly, the intensity of the SP current in the borehole in this interval remains constant.
Assuming the hole diameter is constant, the potential drop per foot is constant and the SP
curve is a straight line.

In high resistivity formations, SP current can leave or enter the borehole only opposite
permeable beds or shales. This causes the SP curve to show a succession of straight
portions with a change of slope opposite every permeable interval (with the concave side of
the SP curve toward the shale line) and opposite every shale bed (with the convex side of
the SP curve toward the shale line). The boundaries of the permeable beds cannot be
located with accuracy by use of the SP in such highly resistive formations.

Bed thickness can affect the SP measurement quite dramatically. In thin beds, the SP
does not fully develop. Figure 2: Factors Affecting SP Reduction illustrates the factors which
produce this effect.

Figure 2

In the terminology used here, SP refers to the observed SP deflection on the log and SSP
(static SP) to the value it would have if all disturbing influences been removed. Among the
disturbing factors may be bed thickness, diameter of invasion, R xo/Rm ratio, neighboring
shale resistivity (Rsh), hole diameter (dh), and mud resistivity (Rm). In general, the SP
reduction is greatest in thin beds, where R xo/Rm is high and where invasion is deep.

Many SP correction charts are available in the literature, some more complex than others.
It is virtually impossible for one chart to include all the variables involved in making
necessary corrections. Figure 3: SP Correction for Bed Thickness shows a practicable
chart, with most of the required variables (di, Rxo/Rm , and h) known or estimated.

Figure 3

The use of non-NaCl muds (such as KCl) affects the derivation of Rw from the SP. Cox
and Raymer (1976) cover this problem in detail. A quick solution to the KCl mud problem is
to simply take the observed SP deflection, subtract 25 mV, and then treat it as a NaC1 mud
case. The Rmf to Rmfe relationship is slightly different for KCl filtrates than for NaCl filtrates.
Again, a quick rule of thumb is to add 30% to the measured Rmf and treat it as a NaCl filtrate.

Gamma Ray Log

OVERVIEW
Gamma ray logs are used for six main purposes:

Correlation between wells,

Determination of bed boundaries,

Evaluation of shale content within a formation,

Mineral analysis,

Depth control for log tie-ins, side-wall coring, or perforating, and

Tracking movement of radioactive tracers

Gamma ray (GR) logs measure the natural gamma ray emissions from subsurface formations.
Because gamma rays can pass through steel casing, measurements can be made in both open
and cased holes. In applications not discussed here, such as pulsed neutron logging, induced
gamma rays are measured.
Figure 1: Gamma Ray Log Example shows a typical GR log.

Figure 1

It is typically presented in track 1 on a linear grid and is scaled in API units. Gamma ray activity
increases from left to right. Gamma ray tools consist of a detector and the associated electronics
for passing the gamma ray count rate to the surface. These tools are in the form of double-ended
subs that can be sandwiched into practically any logging tool string; thus, the GR log can be run
with practically any tool available.
Gamma rays originate from three main sources in nature: the radioactive elements in the uranium
and thorium groups, and potassium. Uranium 235, uranium 238, and thorium 232 all decay, via a
long chain of daughter products, to stable lead isotopes. An isotope of potassium, K 40, decays to
argon.

An "average" shale contains 6 ppm uranium, 12 ppm thorium, and 2% potassium. Since the
various gamma ray sources are not all equally effective, it is more informative to consider
potassium equivalents (i.e., the amount of potassium that would produce the same number of
gamma rays per unit of time). Reduced to a common denominator, the average shale contains
uranium equivalent to 4.3% potassium, thorium equivalent to 3.5% potassium, and 2% potassium.
An average shale is hard to find. Since a shale is a mixture of clay minerals, sand, silts, and other
extraneous materials, there can be no standard gamma ray activity for shale. Indeed, the main
clay minerals vary enormously in their natural radioactivity. Kaolinite and chlorite have no
potassium, whereas illite contains between 4% and 8% potassium. Montmorillonite contains less
than 1% potassium. Occasionally, natural radioactivity may be due to the presence of dissolved
potassium or other salts in the water contained in the pores of the shale.
Each radioactive decay produces a gamma ray that is unique. These various gamma rays have
characteristic energy levels and occur in characteristic abundance, as expressed in counts per
time period. Counting how many gamma rays a formation produces can be carried a step further
to counting how many from each gamma ray energy group it produces. If the number of
occurrences is plotted against the energy group, a spectrum will be produced that is characteristic
of the formation logged. The relationship between gamma ray energy and frequency of
occurrence, shown in Figure 2: Gamma Ray Spectrometry shows such a spectrum, where
energies from 0 to approximately 3 Mev have been split into 256 specific energy "bins." The
number of gamma rays in each bin is plotted on the Y-axis.

Figure 2

This spectrum can be thought of as a mixture of the three individual spectra belonging to uranium,
thorium, and potassium. Some unique mixture of these three radioactive "families" would have the

same spectrum as the observed one. The trick is to find a quick and easy method of discovering
that unique mixture. Fortunately, on-board computers in logging trucks are capable of quickly
finding a "best fit" and producing continuous curves showing the concentration of U, Th, and K.
In a gamma ray spectral log, note that in track 1 both total gamma ray activity (SGR) and a
"uranium-free" (CGR) version of the total activity are displayed. Units are API. In tracks 2 and 3,
the concentration of U, Th, and K are displayed. Depending on the logging service company the
units may be in counts/sec, ppm, or %.

GAMMA RAYS & NATURAL RADIATION

Nuclear logging instruments can be divided into a passive group that only contain radiation
detectors, and an active group that contain both a radioactive source and detectors. These two
types of tools measure:

Natural Radioactivity - usually by means of recording the gamma-rays that

are emitted by elements in the formation, and

Induced Radioactivity -which requires a radioactive source to emit neutrons

or gamma-rays that penetrate the borehole and the surrounding formation. The
gamma-ray density and neutron porosity tools that use such radioactive sources will
be discussed in different subject areas.
In this section, we will deal exclusively with natural radioactivity.

NATURAL RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS

Radioactivity is associated with the structure of chemical elements. An element contains protons
and neutrons in its nucleus, along with electrons in one or more orbits. Each element is identified
by its unique number of protons (Z-number). The majority of elements consist of a mixture of two
or more isotopes.
Isotopes have the same number of protons, but a different number of neutrons. Many isotopes are
unstable and emit alpha, beta and/or gamma radiation, to permute to a stable isotope. Of these
three types of radiation, only the gamma-rays can be recorded with logging tools in the well,
because beta and alpha particles have a very limited penetration depth -often less than one cm in
heavy materials. Gamma-rays (photons) have a considerable penetration depth and thus allow
recording of natural gamma-radiation emitted by rocks through steel casing. This means that
natural gamma ray logs are often run in both cased and open holes.

ORIGIN OF NATURAL GAMMA RADIATION

The gamma rays encountered in the borehole can be chiefly attributed to 3 main sources in
nature: the radioactive elements in the uranium group, the thorium group, and potassium.

U-Ra

: uranium-radium elements and their unstable daughter series of elements

Th

: thorium series

K40

: potassium-40 isotope

Uranium 235, uranium 238, and thorium 232 all decay to stable lead isotopes, via a long chain of
daughter products. An isotope of potassium, K40, decays to argon, and gives off a gamma ray in
the process.
It should be noted that each type of decay is characterized by a gamma ray of a specific energy
(wavelength), and the frequency of occurrence for each decay energy is different. Potassium-40
emits gamma-rays with one single radiation energy (1.46 MeV), whereas the U-Ra and Th series
display a wide range of energies. The radiation intensity (photons per gram per second) is:

2600 for U-RA

12000 for Th

3 for K40

Figure 1 shows this relationship between gamma ray energy and frequency of occurrence. This is

an important concept, since it is used as the basis for measurement in the natural gamma
spectroscopy tools.

Figure 1

Radioactivity in Shales
The basic constituents of igneous rocks are:

quartz, with a low degree of radioactivity

feldspars and mica's, with K40 and sometimes U-Ra and Th

Feldspars decompose at a relatively rapid rate into clay minerals, and radioactive-elements are
trapped in their rock fabric. Because clay minerals are the principle constituents of shales, these
are generally radioactive as well.
An "average" shale contains 6 ppm uranium, 12 ppm thorium, and 2% potassium. Since the
various gamma ray sources are not all equally effective, it is more informative to consider this mix

of radioactive materials on a common basis, e.g., by reference to potassium equivalents (i.e., the
amount of potassium that produces the same number of gamma rays per unit of time). Reduced to
a common denominator, the average shale contains 2% potassium along with uranium equivalent
to 4.3% potassium, and thorium equivalent to 3.5% potassium.
Average shales are hard to find. Shale, being a mixture of clay minerals, sand, silts, and other
extraneous materials, exhibits no "standard" gamma ray activity. Indeed, the main clay minerals
vary enormously in their natural radioactivity: kaolinite has no potassium, illite has between 4%
and 8% potassium, while montmorillonite less than 1%. Occasionally, natural radioactivity may be
due to the presence of dissolved potassium or other salts in shale pore water. Additionally, shale is
not necessarily the strongest gamma-ray emitting lithology in a reservoir. Very good reservoir
sands found in some parts of the North Sea contain mica, which holds a significant amount of
radioactive potassium. This situation can lead to gamma-radiation levels in clean sands that are as
high as levels in the surrounding shales.

GAMMA-RAY DETECTORS
The first measuring instruments used Geiger-Mller tubes to detect gamma-rays. These tubes
have the disadvantages that the count-rates are low and the output is not proportional to the
energy of the individually detected gamma photons. Since the 1960s, scintillation counters have
been used to measure radioactivity in boreholes. These counters are based on the physical
phenomenon that when gamma-rays interact with the lattice of the scintillation crystal, visible light
flashes are produced. The most widely used crystal material has been the Thallium-activated
sodium iodide NaI, but other materials such a BGO (Bithmuth-germanium-oxide) and GSO
(Gadolinium oxy-ortho-silicate) gain in popularity due to their higher density, and therefore more
efficient conversion of gamma-rays to scintillations. Figure 2 (Scintillation detector) shows an
example of an NaI detector. The one main exception is within the MWD industry. Many MWD
natural gamma-ray tools still rely on several banks of Geiger-Muller tubes working together in
order to accomplish their task.

Figure 2

OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF GAMMA RAY TOOLS

When a gamma ray strikes the crystal, a single photon of light is emitted. This tiny flash of light
then strikes a photo-cathode made from cesium-antimony or silver-magnesium. When the light
quanta hit the photo-cathode of a photo-multiplier, they dislodge one or more electrons. These
electrons are in turn accelerated by a cascade circuit of electrodes, where each subsequent
electrode has a higher voltage, and more electrons are dislodged at each stage. This multiplication
process leads to an avalanche of electrons that produce a measurable electric pulse at the last
anode of the tube. An attractive feature of this technique is that the pulse height is proportional
to the energy of the original gamma-photon allowing the detector to be used as a gammaray spectroscopy device. The system has a very short "dead time" and can register many counts
per second without becoming swamped by numerous signals.

CALIBRATION OF GAMMA RAY DETECTORS AND LOGS

One problem of gamma ray logging is choosing a standard calibration system. This is because all
logging companies use a variety of counters encased in different steel housings of various sizes
and shapes. On very old logs, the scale might be quoted in micrograms of radium equivalents/ton
of formation. For many reasons, this method was found to be unsatisfactory to calibrate gamma
ray logs, so an API standard was devised. A test pit (installed at the university of Houston)
contains an "artificial shale"(
Figure 1: API Gamma Ray Standard).

Figure 1

A cylinder 24 ft long and 4 ft in diameter contains a central 8-ft section consisting of cement mixed
with 13-ppm uranium, 24-ppm thorium, and 4% potassium. On either side, completing the
sandwich, are 8-ft sections of neat Portland cement cased with 5-1/2 inch J55 casing. The API
standard defines the difference in radioactivity between the neat cement and the radioactively
doped cement as 200 API units. Any logging service company may place its tool in this pit to make
a calibration.
Field calibration is performed using a portable jig that contains a radioactive "pill." Placed over the
center of the gamma ray detector, the jig produces an increase over the background count rate
equivalent to a known number of API units, depending on the tool type and size and the counter it
encloses.

TIME CONSTANTS
Radioactive emissions are random phenomena that are subject to statistical variations. Since they
vary in time, they produce statistical fluctuations on the gamma-ray log. For example, if a
radioactive source emits an average of 360,000 gamma rays per hour over a period of hours, then
we can suppose that the source will emit 100 gamma rays per second (100/sec. x 60 seconds x
60 minutes). If the count is measured for 1 second, however, the actual count might be more or
less than 100, thus forcing a choice. A relatively quick gamma ray count provides a poor estimate
of the real count rate, while a long count yields a more accurate estimate of the count rate at the
expense of much rig time.
The logger must therefore choose between various time constants, according to the radioactivity
level measured. The lower the count rate, the longer the time constant required for adequate
averaging of variations. In the past, a simple resistor -capacitor (R-C) circuit was used; however,
nowadays the averaging is carried out digitally after an analog to digital (A-D) conversion. The
time-averaging constant (TC) helps to smooth the gamma-log. The faster the tool moves
through the hole, the fewer gamma rays will be counted per depth unit, so a longer time
averaging period has to be employed to smooth out the statistical fluctuations.
On a typical logging job, gamma rays might be counted for a short period of time (e.g., one
second); however, we must remember that during this 1-second time frame, the gamma ray
detector will have moved past the formation whose activity is being measured. Thus, the logging
speed and the time interval used to average count rates are interrelated. The following rules
of thumb are generally recognized.
Table 1: Logging Speeds
Logging Speed

Time Constant

3600 ft/hr

1 sec

1800 ft/hr

2 sec

1200 ft/hr

3 sec

900 ft/hr

4 sec

A theoretical example is given in Figure 2: Example of Boundary Displacement GR Reading.

Figure 2

For a logging speed of 1800 ft/hr and a time-averaging constant TC = 2 sec, the time lag produces
an apparent boundary displacement of about 1 foot. The averaging procedure causes a time lag
on the log boundaries which increases with logging speed and TC, as demonstrated in the table
embedded in the above graphic. The selection of the TC is a practical compromise of logging
speed and log quality, as shown in the table below. The standard for most logging jobs is 1800
ft/hr and a TC of 2 sec.
Table 2: Logging Speed versus Log Quality for the GR Measurement
Logging speed (ft/hr)

3600

1800

1800

900

Time constant, (sec)

Statistical variations

low

low

fair

low

Travel during TC, ft

2.5

Thin bed definition

poor

poor

good

good

The parameters listed in the last column of this table can be used over short intervals for good bed
definition. It is customary to maintain the product of logging speed (ft/sec) and TC (sec) at
one foot.
The investigation volume of the Gamma Ray tool has the shape of a sphere around the detector.
The depth of investigation is determined by:

Rock density, and mud density that attenuate the gamma-rays

Natural GR energy

Detector length (4'', 8'', and occasionally 12")

A rough value for the vertical resolution is 2 feet, while the depth of investigation is about 1 foot.
In the future, when the efficiency of gamma ray detectors and their associated electronics
improves by one or two orders of magnitude, the use of a time constant will be obsolete except in
the cases of extremely inactive formations with intrinsically low gamma ray count rates.

PERTURBING AFFECTS ON GAMMA RAY LOGS

Gamma ray logs are subject to a number of perturbing effects, including

Sonde position in the hole (centered/eccentered)

Hole size

Mud weight

Casing size and weight

Cement thickness

Since there are innumerable combinations of these effects, an arbitrary standard set of conditions
is defined as a 3-5/8 in. OD tool, eccentered in an 8-in. hole filled with 10-lb mud. A series of
charts exists for making the appropriate corrections. Note that if a gamma ray log is run in
combination with a neutron density tool, it is run eccentrically. If run with a laterolog or an induction
log, it is usually centered.

GAMMA RAY SPECTROSCOPY

Each radioactive decay produces a gamma ray that is unique in terms of energy level and
abundance, and which is expressed in counts per time period. The simple method of counting how
many gamma rays a formation produces can be carried a step further to count how many gamma
rays from each energy group it produces. If the number of occurrences is plotted against the
energy group, a spectrum can be produced that is characteristic of the formation logged.
Figure 3 shows such a spectrum, where energies from 0 to approximately 3 MeV have been split

into 256 specific energy "bins." The number of gamma rays in each bin is plotted on the Y-axis.

Figure 3

This spectrum can be thought of as a mixture of the three individual spectra belonging to uranium,
thorium, and potassium. A unique mixture of these three radioactive "families" has the same
spectrum as the one observed. The trick is to find a quick and easy method of discovering that
unique mixture. Fortunately, the on-board computers in logging trucks are capable of quickly
finding a "best fit" to produce continuous curves showing the concentration of U, Th, and K.
Figure 4 illustrates a gamma ray spectral log.

Figure 4

Note that in Track I, both total gamma ray activity (SGR) and a "uranium free" version of the total
activity are displayed (units are API). In Tracks II and III the concentrations of U, Th, and K are
displayed. Depending on the logging service company, the units may be in counts/sec, ppm, or
percentage.

Resistivity Logs
INTRODUCTION
The first logging device ever designed measured formation resistivity. It was a modification of a
method previously used to detect underground resistivity anomalies associated with either
geologic features or concentrations of metallic ores. Figure 1 illustrates this old surface surveying
method.

Figure 1

A voltage source sent a current through the ground between two widely spaced electrodes. The
voltage drop between two other more closely spaced electrodes was used as a measure of the
ground resistivity. By moving the whole electrode array across the countryside, it was possible to
"map" underground features, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2.

By rotating the whole setup by 90 and lowering it into a borehole, the electric log was born.
There is now a bewildering variety in the design and principles used for resistivity logging. While
we usually only want to know true resistivity (Rt), over a dozen resistivity tools have been
developed in an effort to acquire this measurement. The reason for this abundance of designs is
that resistivity of the borehole, the mud filtrate, and adjacent beds all have an effect on the
resistivity measured by a tool in the borehole. No single design can fully compensate for all these
effects, and a combination of measurements with different tools is required to calculate the illusive
Rt
Since the early days of wireline well logging, a series of improvements have resulted in five main
families of resistivity tools. These include:

electric logs,

induction logs,

laterologs,

microresistivity devices, and

dielectric logs

Additionally, Measurement While Drilling (MWD) technology has been quick to develop tools that
perform the same tasks as their wireline counterparts.

EVOLUTION OF RESISTIVITY LOGS

Although the original electric logging principles were sound, their practical implementation left
much to be desired. Efforts to improve the measurement of formation resistivity have been
continually pursued since the inception of the electric log. As a result, several classifications of
resistivity logging have evolved: the electrical survey (ES), Laterologs, Induction Logs, MicroResistivity Logs, and Dielectric Logs (also known as electromagnetic propagation tools).

ELECTRIC SONDE
The first resistivity log, an electrical survey, was run in 1927 by Marcel and Conrad Schlumberger
in the Pechelbronn Field of France. It was downhole adaptation of the Pole-Dipole surface
resistivity method used in mineral exploration. This ES tool contained 3 lead electrodes held
together with ropes. One electrode, which was grounded to the surface, was used to inject current
via the borehole into the formation. The other two electrodes measured the potentials generated
by this injected current.
The measured voltages provided the resistivity determinations for each device, as follows: In
Figure 3,

Figure 3

a current I flows between electrode A and electrode N in a homogeneous, isotropic medium. The
corresponding equipotential surfaces surrounding the current emitting electrode Awould be
spherical. The voltage on electrode N situated on one of these spheres is proportional to the
resistivity of the formation, and the measured voltage can be scaled in resistivity units.
The ES was able to detect layer boundaries and high resistivities (typically indicative of oil). Using
the ES, formation resistivity values could only be obtained when used in slim boreholes having
relatively high mud resistivity, shallow invasion, and thick beds. Although the original electric
logging principles were sound, their practical embodiments left much to be desired. Efforts to
improve the measurement of formation resistivity have been busily pursued for several decades.

As a result, three main branches of resistivity logging have evolved: induction logs, focused
electric logs, (in both induction and laterolog varieties) and microwave devices.
The first overseas ES log was run in Brunei (Borneo) in 1929. ES logs, although rarely used today
in western oil and gas logging operations, are still discussed because a large proportion of well
data from older fields consists solely of ES logs.

INDUCTION LOGS
Before the Second World War, many wells were drilled with muds that consisted of locally
available clay and water mixtures of low salinity. These muds were often incompatible with the
shales encountered downhole, which led to clay swelling, large wash-outs, and even caving of
wells. In the early 1950's, oil-base muds were developed with diesel fuel as the continuous phase,
and therefore significantly reduced clay problems. However these muds did not conduct electric
currents, so ES tools with electrodes could not be applied anymore.
Induction tools were developed for these circumstances. Rather than using current and voltage
electrodes, the induction log introduced a system of focused coils that induce the flow of currents
in the formation away from the disturbing influence of the borehole and the invaded zone.
Experience soon demonstrated that the induction log had many advantages over the conventional
ES log when used in wells drilled with water-based muds. Designed for deep investigation,
induction logs can be focused to minimize the influences of the borehole, the surrounding
formations, and the invaded zone. Spherically focused induction logs provide deep, medium, and
shallow readings.
These tools can also be used in air-drilled holes to derive conductivity values of the formation
using electromagnetic coupling of transmitter and receiving coils in the logging tool via the
conductive rock surrounding non-conductive borehole.

LATEROLOGS
Laterolog tools were developed for high salinity drilling muds, applied to drill through salt layers, in
which ES tools are virtually short-circuited. The laterologs use arrays of electrodes to focus the
current emitted by the center electrode into the formation, and thereby significantly reduce the
effect of the mud. Both the induction and laterolog tools are superior to the older ES tools to obtain
a reliable value of the true resistivity of the uninvaded formation. These tools are much superior to
the conventional electrical logs (ES) because they eliminate many of the detrimental borehole
effects. They are also provide better resolution of thin beds. Focusing electrode systems are
available with deep and medium depths of investigation, and are often run in tandem with a microresistivity log to provide a very shallow reading.

MICRO RESISTIVITY TOOLS

Micro resistivity tools were introduced to provide an accurate assessment of the resistivity of the
mudcake (Rmc) and the invaded zone Rxo. These tools have very close electrode spacing, with
electrodes mounted on a pad that is pushed against the borehole wall to minimize the effect of the
borehole fluid.

HIGH-RESOLUTION INDUCTION TOOLS

From the 1960s to the mid-1980s, the Dual Induction logging tool provided the primary logging
service for openhole formation evaluation in fresh-water and oil-base muds. However, certain
design limitations caused problems with the induction response, resulting in formation resistivity
measurements that were distorted by adjacent beds, the invaded zone, and even by the borehole.
The most serious of these were

Resistivity readings that caused estimates of formation water resistivity (Rw) to be much
lower than those indicated by spontaneous potential or by measurements of recovered
water samples.

Separation between the deep, medium, and shallow focused responses in tight, highresistivity formations where other measurements indicated little or no invasion.

Poor vertical resolution of 8 feet for the deep induction measurements and 6 feet for the
medium curve.
Distortions stemming from resolution and shoulder effect had been predicted through
electromagnetic theory; however, automatic correction algorithms were unsuccessful, owing to the
non-linearity of the R-signal measurement, which was the only measurement made by the dual
induction tools. These limitations in tool response were recognized by logging companies and their
clients, but the tool represented the best technology of the time.
During the mid-1980s, advances in electronics technology and signal processing led to improved
output from standard dual induction hardware. Improvements arose from the use of both the
conventional (indirect) EMFs induced in the receiver coil and the directly coupled, out of phase, "X
signals." These newer induction tools are referred to as high-resolution induction (HRI) or phasor
induction tools. Central to the development of the Phasor tool was a nonlinear deconvolution
technique that corrects the induction log in real time for shoulder effect and improves the thin-bed
resolution down to 2 ft in many cases. This algorithm uses the induction quadrature signal, or Xsignal, which measures the non-linearity directly.
The result of the additional data is a measurement of formation resistivity which is less affected by
adjacent beds and allows far better precision in correcting for invasion effects. Modern software
routines allow real-time deconvolution in the logging unit and hence output of Rt, along with Rxo
and diameter of invasion (di) directly onto the log.
Figure 4: Induction Log Comparison shows the same formation logged with (a) a conventional

dual induction and (b) an HRI log. Note the improvement in bed resolution between (a) and (b).

Figure 4

ARRAY INDUCTION TOOL

Though the high resolution induction tool was an improvement over the dual induction tool, there
was still a need for a tool capable of providing better estimates of Rt in the presence of deep
invasion or complex transition zones.
One approach would be to recombine multiple arrays to produce a set of measurements at several
depths of investigation and then invert the measurements radially to obtain an estimate of Rt. The
concept of multiple measurements was put forth as early as 1957 by Pupon, but at the time,
technical limitations on the amount of data that could be transmitted to the surface via logging
cable hindered early development of such an array tool.
Modern array induction tools are constructed of eight independent arrays with main coil spacings
ranging from 6 inches to 6 feet. Each array consists of a single transmitter coil and two receivers.
All measurements are simultaneously acquired every 3 inches of depth.
Log processing makes full environmental corrections and the logs are virtually free of cave effect
and can be used to provide an accurate Rt estimate and a quantitative description of the transition
zone in both oil-and water-base mud systems.
The processing algorithm for array induction tools works as well when Rxo < Rt and when
Rxo > Rt -within limits. The chief limitation of array induction tools in salty muds is their ability to
make accurate borehole corrections. In cases where the mud is salty and the borehole is rugose,

the traditional laterolog tool would be the resistivity tool of choice. For most applications where
Rt/Rm> 500, the laterolog provides a closer estimate of Rt; however, the array induction tools
contribute important invasion information even in these cases. For salty mud, a combination of
array induction and laterolog tools would produce a better total answer than either tool alone.

3D INDUCTION TOOL
It has been estimated that 30% of the worlds oil reserves will be found within thinly laminated
formations. However, thin-bedded laminated formations pose a special problem for log analysts.
The thin shale layers in these formations do not alter the porosity and permeability characteristics
of the inter-bedded sands, but the highly conductive nature of the shales greatly suppresses
standard induction log response. The term "low-contrast pay" is often applied to such intervals of
inter-bedded sands and shales, which typically exhibit a combined resistivity of only a few tenths
of an Ohm-m over adjacent shales.
Experience has shown that these formations are often capable of producing at very high rates.
Identifying and quantifying hydrocarbon reserves in low resistivity formations can have major
economic impact on such a prospect.
Low resistivity pay can be attributed to two different modes. It can be found in thinly bedded
laminated sand-shale formations. Or it can be found in sand layers of varying grain size
distributions that create an electrical anisotropy caused by variations in water saturation and fluid
morphology. These potentially productive intervals are almost indistinguishable from adjacent
shales, given the poor vertical resolution of conventional resistivity tools. Such measurements will
only be satisfactory when evaluating formations that are at least as thick as the tools vertical
resolution.
Conventional induction logging tools are limited to measurements in one dimension because their
sensors are aligned along the tool or Z-axis. These tools measure horizontal resistivity, which is
measured parallel to the bed. Horizontal resistivity is dominated by the low resistivity of the shale
laminae, rather than by the higher resistivity of the hydrocarbon-bearing sand laminae.
Conventional tools will not adequately resolve the electrical anisotropy of low resistivity formations.
Baker Atlas offers a 3D induction tool designed to identify and quantify hydrocarbons in laminated,
low-resistivity pay formations. The Baker Atlas 3D Explorer service characterizes formation
resistivity in three dimensions. Like conventional tools, this logging tool employs sets of "Z"
direction coils that are aligned coaxially with the instrument; but unlike conventional tools, it also
carries orthogonally mounted "X" and "Y" coil arrays. This configuration, together with specially
developed software, provides the information necessary to determine vertical resistivity (Rv) and
horizontal resistivity (Rh) from the 3D induction data. Vertical resistivity is sensitive to the
hydrocarbon-bearing laminated sand within sand-shale sequences.
When Rv is greater than Rh the formation is said to exhibit electrical anisotropy. The ratio of Rv/Rh
determines the value of the electrical anisotropy ratio. The vertical resistivity and the anisotropy
ratio are sensitive to changes in both laminar shale content and to laminar sand resistivity.
On the log presentation, the separation between horizontal and vertical resistivity curves is used to
identify zones of transverse anisotropy. Transverse anisotropy associated with the laminated
formation structure is used to flag the presence of hydrocarbons within the sand laminae.

DIELECTRIC TOOLS
Microwave devices (also called electromagnetic propagation logging) were built to measure the
dielectric constant and conductivity of the formation. Strictly speaking, they do not measure
formation resistivity; however, they are often classified as resistivity devices since their end use is
the same as for resistivity devices, i.e., determination of formation fluid saturation.

RESISTIVITY LOGS FOR BOREHOLE IMAGING

Reservoirs characterized by thin beds or fractures are prime candidates for the detailed evaluation
provided by borehole imaging tools. These tools offer vertical resolution finer than 1 foot, and
produce images of the formation that are colored according to formation conductivity. These
images can show changes in fluid properties, permeability, porosity, rock composition, and grain
texture.
Resistivity imaging tools are offered by the major logging companies, who provide the following
products:

Baker Atlas: Simultaneous Acoustic / Resistivity (STAR) Tool

Halliburton: Electrical MicroImaging (EMI) Tool

Schlumberger: Formation MicroImager (FMI) Tool, and

Azimuthal Resistivity Imager (ARI)
These tools are further discussed in the presentation on Resistivity Imaging, found under the
subtopic entitled Borehole Imaging Technology.

CASED HOLE RESISTIVITY LOGS

Cased hole resistivity logs offer deep-reading resistivity measurements to aid in locating bypassed
pay behind pipe, for reservoir monitoring, or contingency logging. These tools will be further
discussed in the Petroleum Engineering presentation on Cased Hole Resistivity Logs, found under
the subtopic entitled Formation Evaluation in Cased Holes.

TOOL RESPONSE
Whatever device is used to measure formation resistivity, a number of common factors conspire to
confound these efforts, such as:

Effects of the borehole

Effects of neighboring beds

Effects of mud filtrate invasion.

Although modern resistivity-measuring devices represent a considerable improvement over the

original unfocused electric log (commonly called the old E-log), there is still plenty of room for
improvement. In addition to Rt, the resistivity of the undisturbed zone (which is what we are trying
to measure), the tool, by its design, can be influenced by the resistivities of the mud in the
borehole, the adjacent beds, and the mud filtrate in the invaded zone ( Figure 1: Simplified model
of a borehole profile).

Figure 1

Thus, we cannot always assume that the reading from a resistivity log truly represents Rt.
When reading a resistivity log, the log analyst should remember that the measurement is a
composite of the four items in Figure 2: Factors affecting resistivity devices.

Figure 2

Depending on the device used, the particular conditions in the well, and the formations logged, the
actual reading may be greater or less than Rt.
Later, we will discuss how to recognize cases where resistivity measurements depart radically
from Rt. For now, remember that, as a rule, a large contrast between the resistivity of the bed
of interest and the resistivity of either the mud column or the adjacent bed is a danger
signal that calls for the use of correction charts. In this context, a "large" contrast could be
classified as a factor of 10 or more. Of particular note are conditions where the bed of interest is
thin (say, 15 feet or less) and/or invasion is deep (di greater than 40 inches).
To summarize, assume that a deep-resistivity device measures Rt unless:

Rt /Rm is greater than 10

Rt /Rs is greater than 10

Hole size is greater than 12 inches

The bed is thinner than 15 feet

Invasion is greater than 40 inches

If any of these adverse conditions exists, refer to the appropriate correction chart. As will become
apparent, induction logs and focused electric logs (laterologs) behave differently when faced with
these problems; in many cases, the same conditions that adversely affect an induction tool will be
advantageous to a laterolog, and vice versa.

CONVENTIONAL ELECTRIC LOGS

The basic electric resistivity logging system consists of two current electrodes A and B (the ground
return) and two voltage measuring electrodes M and N. These can be arranged in a variety of
configurations and spacings to suit particular survey requirements, such as bed resolution or
depth of investigation. Some of these arrangements have become industry standards, such as the
Normal and the Lateral electrode spacings.
< Normal Devices
Figure 1: Normal Resistivity Device, illustrates the electrode arrangement for the Normal tool.

Figure 1

Constant current is passed between electrodes A and B. The voltage potential is measured
between electrodes M and N. The distance AM is called the electrode spacing. Thus, the 16inches. short-normal device has electrode A separated from electrode M by 16 inches. The normal
device is a downhole adaptation of the pole-pole geometry used in surface geophysical resistivity
methods.

LATERAL DEVICES
Figure 2: Lateral Resistivity Device illustrates the arrangement for a Lateral tool.

Figure 2

A constant current is sent between the A and B electrodes while the voltage potential is measured
between the M and N electrodes. The lateral device is a downhole adaptation of the pole-dipole
geometry used in surface geophysical resistivity methods.

SHORT NORMAL (SN), LONG NORMAL (LN), AND LATERAL

TOOL DESCRIPTIONS
With wireline logging tools, the very presence of a borehole severely hampers the determination of
the true formation resistivity. This is due to the conductivity (or lack of conductivity for oil base
muds) of the borehole itself. If we could place electrodes in the ground without drilling (an exercise
in imagination), we could pass an electric current between electrode "A" embedded in an infinite,
homogenous isotropic medium and electrode "B" at an infinite distance. The current would then
flow radially outward in all directions as illustrated in Figure 3: Potential Distribution in the Radial
Flow of Electricity. In this case, the equal-potential surfaces are spherical, with their centers at the
current electrode "A".

Figure 3

If we place another electrode "M" near "A", then electrode "M" will lie on the sphere whose radius
is the distance AM. If "M" is connected through a potentiometer to a remote electrode "N", then
this meter will indicate the potential at the sphere of radius AM.
For a sphere, the potential difference between electrode M and electrode N is:
[E-1]

IR
IR
dL
2
4 AM
AM 4 L
AN

Em En

This can be rearranged as:

[E-2]

K n E
I

where Kn is a proportionality factor depending on the electrode spacings. If the tool emits a
constant current I and the potential difference E is measured, R can then be calculated.
Electrodes in the borehole measure the potentials Em and En. If the borehole resistivity does not
deviate too much from the formation resistivity, these potentials correspond to similar potentials in
the rock formation, as shown in Figure 4: Current Distribution With and Without a Borehole /
Layer Disturbance.

Figure 4

The greater the distance of the two measuring electrodes from the current electrode A, the deeper
these equal-potential spheres reach into the formation. In electric logging the long spacing tools
are therefore referred to as the deep-penetration tools. It is important to realize that the price we
pay for deep penetration is low vertical resolution.
The derivation of equation [E-1] required the assumption of a uniform medium of infinite extension,
as shown on the left-hand side of the above graphic: Current Distribution With and Without a
Borehole / Layer Disturbance. This condition is rarely encountered in practice. The right hand side
of the graphic shows the possible distortion of the current pattern that occurs due to the presence
of a low resistivity layer.
The electrode arrangement shown in the graphic is used in the normal device. The distance AM is
called the spacing. Two spacings are utilized: the "short" normal (AM = 16 inches) and the "long"
normal (AM = 64 inches) for shallow and deeper investigation respectively. In actual practice, all 4
electrodes are located in the hole. Electrodes B and N are placed at sufficiently great distances
from the AM group to ensure a negligible effect on the potential measured between M and N.
In the Lateral device, the M and N electrodes are placed close together compared to their distance
from A to M. The spacing is very long (18 ft 8 in), as indicated in Figure 5: The Electric Sonde
with SN, LN and Lateral Configurations. This very long spacing allows a deep investigation.
Consequently, the tool has a very poor vertical resolution and a marked asymmetric response. In
this graphic, B is the return electrode.

Figure 5

SN, LN AND LATERAL LOG BEHAVIOR

The short normal log is widely used for geological correlation between wells; it also provides an
approximate value of Rxo. The long normal and lateral logs are adapted to supply a reasonable
value of Rt in thick beds. Very often, homogeneous resistive layers alternate with low resistivity
beds. The tool response in thick resistive beds shows:

Poor bed definition (rounding off) when the bed thickness is smaller than the
tool spacing AM

AM.

Apparent bed thickness smaller than actual thickness by an amount equal to

A thin resistive layer is reflected by a depression together with two

symmetrical peaks.
Further details on old electric logs are found in the References.

LATEROLOG OVERVIEW
In the 1920s, Conrad Schlumberger put forward the idea of a "guarded electrode" in an attempt to
improve on the electrical logs of the time that had undesirable borehole effects. His idea was not
put into practice until H. G. Doll designed a working guard electrode system. From this starting
point, laterologs evolved in a number of ways. The laterolog-7, which used small guard electrodes,
was later joined by the laterolog-3, which used long guard electrodes. Both used the same

principle of a constant survey current (Io) being "forced" into the formation by bucking currents
from guard electrodes. By monitoring the voltage required to maintain the fixed current Io, the
formation resistivity was determined. The conductivity laterolog evolved from these tools. It
maintained a constant voltage on the measure electrode while current variations monitored the
formation conductivity.
Today, the laterolog tool most commonly used is the simultaneous dual laterolog. It is neither a
conductivity nor a resistivity laterolog, but rather a hybrid using a constant product of current and
voltage (constant power). The design of this tool solved many problems associated with earlier
laterologs and it is now the standard basic resistivity log for salt mud environments.

WHEN TO USE A LATEROLOG

Laterologs should be used when the following conditions exist:

There is seawater or brine mud in the hole.

The Rmf/Rw ratio is less than 3.

Hole size is less than 16 in.

Furthermore, the laterolog is superior to the induction log when R t exceeds 150 m2/m. It also
gives a better estimate of Rt than the induction log when bed thickness is less than 10-feet.
Figure 1: Preferred Ranges for Application of Induction Logs and Laterologs provides specifics
concerning when to run a laterolog.

Figure 1

This Figure shows a plot of the Rmf /Rw ratio versus porosity (). The laterolog is preferred when
the crossplot of Rmf /Rw versus falls on the left side of the chart.

LATEROLOG TOOLS (LL3, LL7 & DUAL LATEROLOG)

Logging with laterologs was introduced to cope with salty mud. These muds have a very high
conductivity, and consequently the effect of the borehole on resistivity measurements is also very
high. The Laterolog technique is therefore complementary to the induction logging method,
designed for oil-base mud which has hardly any conductivity at all.

LATEROLOG 3 (LL3)
Figure 1 (Pattern of current flow from a long cylindrical electrode located in a homogeneous

medium) shows the principle of the focused current log.

Figure 1

On the left, a long electrode bar is shown imbedded in a homogeneous medium. The potential is
constant all over the bar, and the current lines will run horizontally in the middle because current
flow lines are perpendicular to equi-potential surfaces. The same principle is applied for the LL3 by
using 3 bars, as shown at the right in the above graphic . The center bar is 1 foot long, and the two

guard electrodes are 5 feet long. By keeping the potentials equal for all three electrodes, the
current from the middle electrode is forced horizontally into the formation. This is even true when
the bars are surrounded by a layer of mud with a resistivity that is much lower than the resistivity
of the formation. The currents of the guards are adjusted to maintain the same potential as the
center electrode, while the potential of the center electrode is kept at a fixed value. The ratio of the
current and the potential of the center electrode is a good indication of the formation conductivity
Ct.

LATEROLOG 7 (LL7)
The laterolog 7 (LL7) is based on the same design as the LL3. In the LL3, the electrodes that carry
very high currents (several amperes) are also used to measure potentials. This restricts the
dynamic range of the measurements. In the LL7, two separate potential measuring electrode pairs
are added, bringing the total to 7. The return electrode is positioned far away from the tool on the
logging cable. This arrangement ensures that the current sheet penetrates the invaded zone and
improves the measurement of the resistivity of the uninvaded zone.

DUAL LATEROLOG
Figure 2 shows one version of the Dual Laterolog tool with its associated measure electrodes.

Figure 2

This tool is a combination of deep (LLd) and shallow (LLs) investigation devices. The principles
adopted in the LL7 and LL3 have been combined in one tool, which features the 7 electrodes in its
center and 2 large bucket electrodes positioned respectively above and below the series of 7.

In the LLd (deep) mode (left of Figure 3, The Dual Laterolog configuration), the surveying current
Io , that flows from the center electrode, A0, is focused by bucket currents from electrodes A2 and
A2' supported by A1 and A1'.

Figure 3

The four "A" electrodes are all connected in this mode. This arrangement provides strong focusing
deep into the formation. In the LLs (shallow) mode (right-hand part of the above graphic) the
bucking currents flow from A1 to A2 and A1 to A2, reducing the depth of investigation. The
electrodes are switched several times per second from one to the other configuration, and the two
resistivity traces are produced simultaneously.
The dual laterolog measurements are often supplemented with a shallow resistivity measurement
carried out with electrodes that are mounted in a pad that is pressed against the borehole wall to
obtain Rxo. Figure 4 shows the current paths for the MSFL, which has five rectangular electrodes
mounted on a pad carried on one of the caliper arms (refer to the discussion on Microresistivity
Tools).

Figure 4

In this way, three resistivity measurements are obtained simultaneously with different radii of
investigation. In addition to these resistivity measurements, auxiliary curves, such as caliper,
gamma ray, and spontaneous potential curves, may be recorded. The resistivity curves are
presented on a standard four-decade logarithmic scale ( Figure 5).

Figure 5 .

Under the normal conditions found when using a dual laterolog, the radial profile of resistivities is
as shown in Figure 6; i.e.,

Figure 6;

Rt > Rxo > Rm. Between the invaded zone and the undisturbed formation is a transition zone with a
resistivity value between Rt and Rxo.
If a horizontal slice were made through the tool and its surrounding formation and examined in
plan view, the image in Figure 7 would be seen.

Figure 7

Here the current flows radially outward from the tool, and has to pass through the mud, the
invaded zone, and the undisturbed formation before arriving at the return electrode. The current, if
held constant, thus develops a series of voltage drops across each zone encountered. The
relationship between these voltages may be simplistically expressed as:
Vtotal = Vmud + Vinvaded + Vundisturbed
Each voltage drop is proportional to the product of the current, the resistivity of the zone, and
some geometrical constant, depending on the size of the zone.

DUAL LATEROLOG "FINGERPRINTS"

The characteristic behavior of the DLL tool in zones having movable hydrocarbons makes quicklook interpretation very simple. The golden rule is that the pattern in which R LLD > RLLS > RMSFL is
a good indication that hydrocarbons are present, and conversely, the pattern in which R MSFL >
RLLS > RLLD is a good indication that the zone is wet (Figure 8).

Figure 8 .

Minimal separation between the curves suggests little or no invasion, and therefore indicates that
the zone is impermeable (Figure 9).

Figure 9 .

Likewise, any relative ordering of the curves other than the two cases above suggests little or no
invasion and would therefore indicate that the zone is impermeable.

BOREHOLE AND INVASION CORRECTIONS

Corrections to the raw data may be necessary when hole size or depth of invasion exceed
optimum parameters for the tool. For older logs, charts are available from wireline service
companies to make such corrections, and these charts will help you to determine when such
corrections will be needed for the particular logging tool you are using. Each company has its own
charts, and corrections from one company's charts should not be used to correct readings
obtained from logging tools of a different company.
The MSFL, a pad contact device, is sensitive to mudcake thickness (h mc) and mudcake resistivity
(Rmc).
In the range of normal interest, when laterolog readings lie in the range of 10 < (R LL/Rm) < 100, all
corrections are within 10%. Where hole diameters are large, however, the LLs correction can
become intolerably large.
Once raw log readings have been corrected for borehole effects, they may be corrected for
invasion effects, using what is commonly known as a butterfly chart (Figure 10).

Figure 10 .

This chart plots the ratio of RLLD/RLLS against the ratio of RLLD/Rxo. There are three families of
lines on the chart. They are constant values of R t/RLLD constant values of Rt/Rxo, and constant
values of di.
In order to use the chart, it is first assumed that (RMSFL)cor is equal to Rxo. A point is then located
on the chart at the coordinates RLLD/RLLS and RLLD/RMSFL. This point uniquely defines the three
unknowns: Rt, Rxo, and di.
The lower left portion of the chart corresponds to the invasion pattern R MSFL > RLLS > RLLD, which
usually occurs in water-saturated zones where Rmf > Rw.

LOG QUALITY CONTROL

Deep and shallow laterolog curves should read the same in impermeable formations (shales and
evaporites). In porous and permeable zones, some separation between the two laterolog curves is
to be expected, depending on the invasion diameter and the ratio of R xo to Rt.

ANOMALOUS LATEROLOG BEHAVIOR

The early laterologs were prone to various types of anomalous behavior, which are chronicled
here to give some insight into the few anomalies that can still occur, even with the dual laterolog.
This information may also be helpful in the event that you are called upon to analyze old well data.

THE DELAWARE EFFECT

During the early 1950s in the Permian basin, logging engineers found that laterologs behaved
anomalously when approaching a thick resistive bed, such as the massive anhydrite and salt that
overlies the Delaware sand. The effect manifested itself by a gradual increase in apparent
resistivity, starting when the bridle entered the highly resistive bed. Apparent resistivities would
climb to as much as 10 times the value of Rt before the sonde itself entered the highly resistive
bed. The solution for the laterolog 7 was to place the B return electrode at the surface. For the
conductivity laterolog, the solution was not so easy, since these devices were using a 280 Hz
survey current generated in the cartridge. Having the return at the surface did not solve the
problem, since skin effect restricted the return current to a sheath around the borehole, thus
resulting in the effective return electrode as the lower part of the cable ( Figure 1).

Figure 1 .

Compensation for this effect with the Laterolog 3 involved a complicated setup, with two sondes
-one on each side of a cartridge, and a B return electrode on the bottom. However, for all practical
purposes, the laterolog 3 remains susceptible to the Delaware effect.

THE ANTI-DELAWARE EFFECT

In an attempt to improve on the situation and provide a dual spacing laterolog, a tool was
introduced with both deep and shallow devices. However, this device also behaved anomalously
beneath highly resistive beds. The deep laterolog showed a gradient of decreasing resistivity - the
exact opposite of the Delaware effect. With the B electrode at the surface (effectively at zero
potential), the N electrode acted as the takeoff point of a potential divider formed by the borehole
below and above N; thus the approaching sonde, at some positive potential, would cause N to

raise its potential. The anti-Delaware effect would at worst cause a 50% reduction in the deep
laterolog and would only be noticeable within 35 ft of the resistive bed. In fact, the effect had been
present on the earlier B electrode at surface, Delaware-free laterologs, but it had not been noticed
since there was no shallow laterolog with which to compare the deep laterolog.
The dual laterologs in use today have incorporated features that assure virtual freedom from
Delaware and anti-Delaware effects. However, a new effect has been observed on the dual
laterolog, again associated with highly resistive beds.

THE GRONINGEN EFFECT

The Groningen effect, first observed in the course of logging gas wells in Holland, manifests itself
as the LLd reading too high when the N electrode enters a highly resistive bed. From a distance of
AN below the bed boundary (about 102 ft), the LLd will rise over a short distance to an
anomalously high value, which it will then maintain until the bed is entered. Experiments have
shown that the effect depends on the operating frequency, and is only troublesome in lowresistivity formations immediately below a massive salt or anhydrite bed. Modern laterolog devices
can detect and correct for the Groningen effect.
The Groningen effect appears (if at all) within 102 ft (31 m) of a resistive bed and will be of
interpretive importance only where Rt in the underlying bed is less than 10 m2/m. It can appear
even if casing is set to the bottom of the resistive bed.

DUAL LATEROLOG "NORMAL" ANOMALIES

Dual laterologs experience environmental effects, even if resistive bed effects do not occur. A tool
has not yet been designed that is entirely free of the disturbing effects of the borehole and
adjacent beds, although progress has been made in reducing these effects. For interpretive work,
these environmental effects must be taken into account. The hole size and invasion effects have
already been covered in the previous discussions, and another set of corrections is worth noting.

SHOULDER BED CORRECTIONS -SQUEEZE AND ANTISQUEEZE

When the sonde is in front of a bed with a resistive shoulder on either side, the current tends to
concentrate in the least resistive path; in other words, it is "squeezed" between the resistive
shoulders into the formation of interest. Charts are available to correct for this effect. The
correction factor to be applied to the borehole corrected log reading is a function of bed thickness
and the contrast between the apparent reading and the shoulder resistivity R a /Rs. Where this
factor is less than one, a squeeze situation exists and the apparent log reading is too high. Where
Ra /Rs is greater than one, the bed is surrounded by a conductive shoulder and the current tends
to fan out into the path of least resistance--the conductive shoulders. Since this is the reverse of
"squeezed," it is called "anti-squeeze." The apparent log readings are too low in this situation.
The LLd is much more affected by squeeze and anti-squeeze than is the LLs -even in what might
be considered thick beds (50 ft or more). When making detailed interpretations, one should use
the Shoulder Bed Correction Charts for LLd after borehole correction and before any other step.
Invasion corrections may then be made.
A word of caution is in order. In general, an ideal laterolog has a depth of investigation response
that behaves logarithmically with respect to invasion diameter, but it is also a function of the
contrast between Rxo and Rt .
Furthermore, the effect of a hole larger than 8 in. (20.32 cm) is to replace part of the R xo zone by
mud, thus changing the effective position of the origin on the invasion correction chart.

ANOMALOUS LATEROLOG BEHAVIOR

The early laterologs were prone to various types of anomalous behavior, which are chronicled
here to give some insight into the few anomalies that can still occur, even with the dual laterolog.
This information may also be helpful in the event that you are called upon to analyze old well data.

THE DELAWARE EFFECT

During the early 1950s in the Permian basin, logging engineers found that laterologs behaved
anomalously when approaching a thick resistive bed, such as the massive anhydrite and salt that
overlies the Delaware sand. The effect manifested itself by a gradual increase in apparent
resistivity, starting when the bridle entered the highly resistive bed. Apparent resistivities would
climb to as much as 10 times the value of Rt before the sonde itself entered the highly resistive
bed. The solution for the laterolog 7 was to place the B return electrode at the surface. For the
conductivity laterolog, the solution was not so easy, since these devices were using a 280 Hz
survey current generated in the cartridge. Having the return at the surface did not solve the
problem, since skin effect restricted the return current to a sheath around the borehole, thus
resulting in the effective return electrode as the lower part of the cable ( Figure 1).

Figure 1 .

Compensation for this effect with the Laterolog 3 involved a complicated setup, with two sondes
-one on each side of a cartridge, and a B return electrode on the bottom. However, for all practical
purposes, the laterolog 3 remains susceptible to the Delaware effect.

THE ANTI-DELAWARE EFFECT

In an attempt to improve on the situation and provide a dual spacing laterolog, a tool was
introduced with both deep and shallow devices. However, this device also behaved anomalously
beneath highly resistive beds. The deep laterolog showed a gradient of decreasing resistivity - the
exact opposite of the Delaware effect. With the B electrode at the surface (effectively at zero
potential), the N electrode acted as the takeoff point of a potential divider formed by the borehole
below and above N; thus the approaching sonde, at some positive potential, would cause N to
raise its potential. The anti-Delaware effect would at worst cause a 50% reduction in the deep
laterolog and would only be noticeable within 35 ft of the resistive bed. In fact, the effect had been
present on the earlier B electrode at surface, Delaware-free laterologs, but it had not been noticed
since there was no shallow laterolog with which to compare the deep laterolog.
The dual laterologs in use today have incorporated features that assure virtual freedom from
Delaware and anti-Delaware effects. However, a new effect has been observed on the dual
laterolog, again associated with highly resistive beds.

THE GRONINGEN EFFECT

The Groningen effect, first observed in the course of logging gas wells in Holland, manifests itself
as the LLd reading too high when the N electrode enters a highly resistive bed. From a distance of
AN below the bed boundary (about 102 ft), the LLd will rise over a short distance to an
anomalously high value, which it will then maintain until the bed is entered. Experiments have
shown that the effect depends on the operating frequency, and is only troublesome in lowresistivity formations immediately below a massive salt or anhydrite bed. Modern laterolog devices
can detect and correct for the Groningen effect.
The Groningen effect appears (if at all) within 102 ft (31 m) of a resistive bed and will be of
interpretive importance only where Rt in the underlying bed is less than 10 m2/m. It can appear
even if casing is set to the bottom of the resistive bed.

DUAL LATEROLOG "NORMAL" ANOMALIES

Dual laterologs experience environmental effects, even if resistive bed effects do not occur. A tool
has not yet been designed that is entirely free of the disturbing effects of the borehole and
adjacent beds, although progress has been made in reducing these effects. For interpretive work,
these environmental effects must be taken into account. The hole size and invasion effects have
already been covered in the previous discussions, and another set of corrections is worth noting.

SHOULDER BED CORRECTIONS -SQUEEZE AND ANTISQUEEZE

When the sonde is in front of a bed with a resistive shoulder on either side, the current tends to
concentrate in the least resistive path; in other words, it is "squeezed" between the resistive
shoulders into the formation of interest. Charts are available to correct for this effect. The
correction factor to be applied to the borehole corrected log reading is a function of bed thickness
and the contrast between the apparent reading and the shoulder resistivity R a /Rs. Where this
factor is less than one, a squeeze situation exists and the apparent log reading is too high. Where
Ra /Rs is greater than one, the bed is surrounded by a conductive shoulder and the current tends
to fan out into the path of least resistance--the conductive shoulders. Since this is the reverse of
"squeezed," it is called "anti-squeeze." The apparent log readings are too low in this situation.
The LLd is much more affected by squeeze and anti-squeeze than is the LLs -even in what might
be considered thick beds (50 ft or more). When making detailed interpretations, one should use
the Shoulder Bed Correction Charts for LLd after borehole correction and before any other step.
Invasion corrections may then be made.
A word of caution is in order. In general, an ideal laterolog has a depth of investigation response
that behaves logarithmically with respect to invasion diameter, but it is also a function of the
contrast between Rxo and Rt .

Furthermore, the effect of a hole larger than 8 in. (20.32 cm) is to replace part of the R xo zone by
mud, thus changing the effective position of the origin on the invasion correction chart.

INTRODUCTION TO INDUCTION TOOLS

Logging systems used before the introduction of induction logging depended on the presence of
an electrically conductive fluid in the borehole to transmit electric current to the formation. In many
rotary drilled wells, the drilling fluid is a water-base mud that conducts electricity. However, some
wells are drilled with nonconductive fluids, such as oil-based muds, air, and gas. Under such
conditions, it is impossible to obtain a satisfactory electrical log using conventional electric logging
tools.
Induction logging does not depend upon physical contact between the walls of the wellbore and
the logging tool. The induction logging tool acts like a transformer: the transmitter coil is energized
with alternating current, which induces in the formation a secondary current that is proportional to
the electrical conductivity of the formation and to the cross-sectional area affected by the
energizing coil. The higher the conductivity of the formation, the lower the resistivity, and the larger
the formation current will be. This current in turn induces a signal into a receiver coil, the intensity
of which is proportional to the formation current and conductivity. The signal detected by the
receiver coil is amplified and recorded at the surface.
The direct measurement is therefore one of conductivity. Both the conductivity and reciprocated
conductivity (resistivity) curves are shown on the log. The deflections of these curves are
proportional to formation conductivity. Formations having resistivities of 10, 100, or 1000 ohm-m
would have conductivities of 100, 10, and 1 mmho/m, respectively.
Induction logging equipment records formation conductivity over a wide range. The accuracy is
excellent for conductivity values higher than 20 mmho/m (resistivity values less than 50 ohm-m)
and is acceptable in lower conductivity ranges (down to 5 mmho/m). Beyond this limit, the
induction log continues to respond to formation conductivity variations, but with diminished
accuracy. There is a small uncertainty of about 1 mmho/m on the zero of the present equipment.

WHEN TO USE AN INDUCTION LOG

Induction logs are recommended when:

the hole to be logged is filled with fresh water or

the hole to be logged is filled with oil-base mud

the hole to be logged was air drilled

the Rmf/Rw ratio is greater than 3

the Rt is less than 150 ohm-m and bed thickness is greater than 30 feet.

The induction log is the only resistivity device that works in oil-based mud (where oil is the
continuous phase) or air-filled holes. The laterolog measurement is preferred when R mf/Rw falls to
the left of the vertical dashed line and to the left of the solid line for the appropriate value of R w
(Figure 1: Preferred conditions for induction tools). The induction log is preferred above the
appropriate Rw line.

Figure 1

To the right of the dashed line and below the appropriate R w curve, either or both logs may be
required for an accurate interpretation.

TOOL TYPES
Two commonly used induction tools are the single-and dual-induction devices. Each of these tools
can be combined with the other sensors, thereby allowing both porosity and resistivity logs to be
recorded simultaneously. Figure 2: Induction-Sonic tool combination shows a typical tool string.

Figure 2

PRESENTATIONS AND SCALES

Induction logs and combination induction logs are recorded on a variety of scales and
presentations. The primary measurements of conductivity are always recorded on a linear scale
when presented. In contrast, resistivity can be plotted on a linear or logarithmic scale. When
porosity data are presented, a split grid is usually employed. Figure 3 (Linear induction log
presentation), Figure 4

Figure 4

(Logarithmic induction log), and Figure 5

Figure 5

(Split grid induction log) illustrate the various possibilities.

Figure 3

INDUCTION PRINCIPLES
The induction tool works best when the borehole fluid serves as an insulator, such as air or gas.
Though originally designed for resistivity recording in wells drilled with non-conductive fluids, the
induction log has actually found wide application in holes drilled with fresh-and oil-based muds.
This tool has been shown to work well when the borehole contains conductive mud, unless:

the mud is too salty,

the formation too resistive (above 150 ohm-m), or

the borehole diameter too large.

The sonde contains at least 3 coils, one transmitter and two receiver coils, however, the principle
can be understood clearly by considering a sonde with only one transmitter coil and one receiver
coil (Figure 1: Basic two-coil induction log system). The transmitter sends out an alternating
current with a constant frequency of 20 kHz.

Figure 1

The alternating magnetic field generated by the primary coil induces secondary ground current
loops into the formation. These loops in turn create magnetic fields, which induce currents in the
receiver coils. Because the alternating current in the transmitter coil is of constant frequency and
amplitude, the amplitude of the secondary field is proportional to the conductivity of the formation.
(The voltage induced in the receiver coil is proportional to the ground loop currents and, therefore,
to the conductivity of the formation.) The two receiver coils R1 and R2 are wound in opposite
directions to compensate the direct coupling between T and R1. Actual logging tools contain 4 to
16 coils, of which the signals are combined to improve the vertical resolution as well as obtain a
range of investigation depths (focusing).
Calibration of the system is a two-step process. First, the tool is suspended high off the ground
away from any conductive materials. Since the tool is in a zero-conductivity environment, it is
adjusted to read zero conductivity (infinite resistivity). Second, a circular loop or ring of a known
conductivity (known resistivity of either 1 or 2 ohm-m) is placed on the tool. The tool response is
now adjusted to measure this "calibration" value.
Now, with the two end points defined and measured (the high end simulated by the tool in air and
the low end simulated by the test loop), the tool is capable of measuring most normally
encountered resistivity or conductivity values found in the oil-field.
Of course, when the tool is at the bottom of a l0,000-ft well, there is no way a test loop can be
placed around the sonde, so an internal calibrator is included in the tool. The calibrator will have a
nominal value of 1 or 2 ohm-m; its precise value is determined monthly by reference to the test
loop. These internal calibrators shift with age but behave reasonably well under normal use. A
check of the zero conductivity point when the tool is in the hole is accomplished by simply opening
the receiving coil. Any extraneous signal is canceled out by a zero adjustment.

SKIN EFFECT
Linkage of each ground loop with its own magnetic field (a ground loop has self-inductance), and
with the magnetic fields of the other nearby ground loops creates a cross-coupled system. This
results in eddy currents that require a more advanced treatment of EM theory than what has been
discussed. That is, it cannot be assumed that the individual ground loops are independent of one
another. It can be predicted that, with increasing distance from the source (i.e., transmitter coil),
there will be attenuation in the amount of transmitted power because
1. The dissipation of energy by the flow of eddy currents in the region near the source
decreases the energy available for transmission to regions farther out.
2. Regions far from the source are shielded from the magnetic field of the transmitter coil by
the annulling effect of magnetic fields of opposite sign from the eddy currents in the
conductive medium closer to the transmitter. In a sense, the "shielding" of the outer regions
is equivalent to a reflection of the energy back toward the source.
As a consequence of these interactions, there is a reduction in the receiver-coil signal; i.e., a
reduction in high conductivity. This reduction is commonly called a skin effect.
Thus, if g is the conductivity reading observable in a given configuration of media without skin
effect and a is the conductivity actually observed, then the difference, s, is the skin effect.
s = g - a

An amount, s is added to the observed reading by means of a skin effect compensating network.
It is nonlinear and can best be illustrated by Figure 2: Correction of Formation Conductivity for
Skin Effect. In practical terms, the tool reads a resistivity that is too high unless the skin effect
compensation is applied.

Figure 2

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
In addition to the transmitting and receiving coils of the simple two-coil device ( Figure 1: Basic
Two-Coil Induction Log System) a practical field tool also includes additional focusing coils
(Figure 3: Schematic Diagram of a Typical Induction Logging System ). These focusing coils
make the current ground loop flow as far away from the borehole as possible to help eliminate
borehole and drilling-mud-filtrate invasion effects.

Figure 3

BED THICKNESS CORRECTIONS

Unfortunately, a tradeoff has to be made when designing an induction tool. Good bed resolution
can only be obtained with closely spaced transmitter-receiver coil arrangements, but this close
spacing results in a relatively shallow radial depth of investigation. Conventional induction devices,
designed for deep investigation, have poor vertical bed resolution. Effectively, the signal received
is a mixture of signals from points both above and below the horizon being measured.
The surface control equipment offsets the poor bed resolution characteristic by emphasizing the
zone of interest and playing down the measurement made on either side of the horizon ( Figure 4:
Vertical Response of the Induction Tool ).

Figure 4

The electronic circuitry used in this tool can manipulate three measurements in such a way that
the reading recorded on the log is equal to a "weight" value A times the value of the interval being
measured plus B times the values at points 78 inches above and below the point being measured.
The values for A and B should be chosen so that A -2B = 1. This is logical: in a homogeneous
formation where all three measurements are the same, the net effect is similar to the gross effect.
This scheme assists in correcting the log for the effects of adjacent beds.The enhanced "phasor"
processing of induction tool signals allows for improved bed thickness response.

INDUCTION CURRENT PATHS

Current loops flow around the borehole in a horizontal plane. The measured signal includes
signals from the mud, the filtrate invaded zone, and the undisturbed zone. The tool "sees" these
three resistances as if they are in parallel (Figure 5: Induction Current Paths).

Figure 5

HOLE SIZE CORRECTIONS

The borehole effects due to the current loop in the mud can be corrected by using a special chart.
The size of the correction is insignificant in fresh, resistive muds, but quite significant in salty,
conductive muds.
If a SFL (spherically focused log) is run in conjunction with an induction log, a hole size correction
is also needed. Figure 6: Borehole Correction Chart for the Sperically Focused Log (SFL) shows
the magnitude of corrections to be applied for this purpose.

Figure 6

The RSFL/Rm ratio is plotted against the ratio of (RSFL)cor to RSFL. The lines on the chart are for
different hole sizes.

INVASION EFFECTS

The "integrated radial geometric factor," or "G" describes the radial response of the induction tool.
The G factor reveals which fraction of the measured signal comes from which radial distance from
the tool. Mathematically, it can be described by the equation:

1
G 1 G

R ID R xo
Rt
If di (the diameter of invasion) is small, then G is small and the entire signal will come from the
undisturbed zone; in this case, RID is equal to Rt. If di is large, then G also is large and a large part
of the total signal will come from the filtrate-invaded zone. In this case, RID reads somewhere
between Rt and Rxo.
Figure 7: Induction Geometry Factor (G) shows G as a function of di for the deep induction tool.

Figure 7

This plot can be used to solve the following case. Suppose di is 80 in., Rxo = 20, and Rt = 10.
What will the induction tool read? From the above Induction Geometry Factor graphic, G for a di
of 80 inches is 0.4.
Therefore, the equation given above can be written as:

1
0.4 (1 0.4)

0.02 0.06 .08

R ID 20
10

RID = 1/0.08 = 12.5

Thus, RID reads greater than Rt.
Figure 8: Radial Distribution of Fluids in the Vicinity of the Borehole,

Figure 8

Oil-Bearing Formation (Qualitive) illustrates a typical invasion pattern with high filtrate saturation in
the invaded zone and low connate water saturation in the undisturbed zone.
It should be realized that this treatment of the invasion problem is the reverse of what is
encountered in the field; i.e., in practice Rxo, Rt, and di are not known in advance. The objective is
to find Rxo, Rt, and di from the measured log values. In fact, if only the value of RID is known, there
is no solution to the problem. If three unknowns exist, then three known quantities are needed to
solve the problem. The solution is to use the dual induction SFL combination-logging tool. Since
the geometric factor for the medium induction log (G) is different from the geometric factor for the
deep induction log (G) at the same di, the following three equations can be solved simultaneously:

1
G 1 G

R ID R xo
Rt
1
G' 1 G'

R IM R xo
Rt
RSFL = f (Rxo)

TOOL CALIBRATION
Induction tool calibration can be performed on land at any time. The sonde is placed in a zero
conductivity environment. This is normally done by raising the sonde up in the air well away from
metallic objects. This defines a zero point. A calibration loop is then placed around the sonde to
give a known conductivity signal, usually 500 mmhos. This calibration is performed on a monthly
basis. It is almost impossible to perform on an offshore rig because of the surrounding metal
structure. In cases where it is not possible to set the zero point under controlled conditions at the
surface, it is permissible to set it with the tool in the hole opposite a thick, very highly resistive
zone (salt, anhydrite, dense low-porosity carbonate, etc.) if one exists. The sonde and its
associated electronic cartridge form a matched set and should always be used together.

MICRORESISTIVITY TOOLS
Microresistivity devices are characterized by short electrode spacings of only a few inches. This
limits such tools to very shallow depths of investigation. Microresistivity tools are useful in
determining the following:

flushed zone saturation, Sxo

residual oil saturation, (ROS)

hydrocarbon movability

hydrocarbon density, hy

invasion diameter, di

invasion corrections to deep resistivity devices

With their shallow depths of investigation, micro-resistivity tools usually provide a good
approximation of the resistivity of the flushed zone (Rxo). A variety of tools, old and new, have
been used over the years; each with its own special characteristics. The following list covers the
majority of the microresistivity devices that are now, or have been, widely used. These tools can
be divided into two main groups: the mandrel tools and the pad contact tools.
Mandrel Tools:

Log Type

16-in. SN

Short Normal

LL8

Laterolog 8

SFL

Spherically Focused Log

Pad Contact Tools:

Log Type

MLL

Microlaterolog

PL

Proximity Log

MSFL

Microspherically Focused Log

ML

Microlog

The mandrel tools are constructed with electrodes on a cylindrical mandrel. Such tools do not
require physical contact with the formation. In contrast, the pad contact tools have their electrodes
embedded in an insulating pad carried on a caliper arm that is forced against the borehole wall.
The general principles of all these tools may be understood through a discussion of the ML and
MFSL logging devices.

MICRO-RESISTIVITY PAD DEVICES

MICROLOG (ML)

Though the microlog was one of the first microresistivity devices on the market and has had a
spectacular career, it has nonetheless tended to be under utilized. Originally, it was used as a
pseudo-porosity device. When that function was improved with modern porosity devices, the
microlog was relegated to the pile of has-beens within the logging industry. However, it is valuable
as a tool that offers superb visual identification of porous and permeable zones. Figure 1 shows a
microlog and proximity log presentation.

Figure 1

The presence of permeability is indicated wherever the normal curve reads higher than the
microinverse curve, and the microinverse curve reads close to Rmc.
The microlog records two resistivity curves, each having a shallow depth of investigation. The
microlog looks for a resistivity contrast between the mudcake and the flushed zone. Any
formation having no porosity or permeability will not be able to promote mud filtrate
invasion, and will therefore show no mudcake buildup. Hence, there will be no positive
separation between the two resistivity curves.
This tool has 3 small button-shaped electrodes that are embedded in a rubber pad ( Figure 2: The
Microlog Principle).

Figure 2

The electrodes are placed in a vertical line with a spacing of 1 inch between successive
electrodes. An electrical current of known intensity is emitted from Ao, and the differences in
electrical potential are measured between

M1 and M2, and between M2 and a surface electrode.

The resulting 2 curves represent a 2-inch normal and 1-inch "inverse" recording, with important
chjaracteristics:
The radius of investigation is smaller for the inverse curve, which is therefore strongly affected
by the mudcake.
The normal curve reads 2 to 3 inches deep into the formation, and is therefore more affected by
the invaded zone.
The mudcake usually has a lower resistivity than the permeable beds, so the "inverse curve" will
therefore read a lower value than the normal. Consequently, the ML indicates the presence of
mudcake by showing a separation between the 2 resistivity traces and thereby delineates
permeable beds. Figure 3: Example of a Microlog and Proximity Log shows a microlog and a
proximity log.

Figure 3

The separation of the micro-normal and micro-inverse curves clearly delineates the vertical extent
of the permeable bed. This is confirmed by the separation between the caliper and the nominal bit
size, which can be used to show the thickness of the mudcake across this interval. The larger
electrode spacing of the proximity tool causes the proximity curve in the Microlog and Proximity
Log graphic to show less vertical resolution and a deeper horizontal investigation than the ML
curves. For this reason, a proximity tools resistivity values are often representative of the
transition zone resistivity, Ri. The ML is the best of all micro devices for making "sand counts".

MICRO SPHERICALLY FOCUSED LOG (MSFL)

Being a pad mounted version of the Spherically Focused Log (SFL), the Micro Spherically
Focused Log (MSFL) is typically incorporated in the dual laterolog, DLL-R xo tool. Its design is
based on the concept that accurate resistivity data is best obtained when the potential distribution
around the current-emitting electrode is spherical. This condition has been approximated by an
array of concentric electrodes that resembles the Dual Laterolog in cross section, as depicted in
Figure 4: Schematic Diagram of the Dual Laterolog-Rxo Tool. It is probably no coincidence that
both tools contain 9 electrodes.

Figure 4

In this case, both the investigating current Io and the bucking current I1 are emitted through center
electrode Ao. The sum of these two currents is adjusted by varying the potential of electrodes A1
and A2 in such a way that the measured voltage at Mo is kept equal to a constant reference
voltage. The investigating current Io is roughly proportional to the conductivity of the slice of the
formation filled with section lines seen in Figure 5: Micro-SFL Principle.

Figure 5

The main advantage of the MSFL over the micro-log is that it is much less affected by the
mudcake and therefore provides a better estimate of the flushed zone resistivity R xo, which is
derived with the following relation :

E
Mo
M1
R
I
xo
O
E

DEPTH OF INVESTIGATION
Each microresistivity tool has its own characteristic depth of investigation. It is important to know
these values in order to select the tool with the right characteristics for the job. A tool with a
shallow depth of investigation is needed if invasion is shallow and the tool is to read R xo without
undue influence from Rt. Conversely, where there is deep invasion, a deep investigation tool will
ensure a reading of Rxo that is free from effects from Rmc.
As with other tools, no single value for the depth of investigation can be used. Rather, a
pseudogeometric factor must be used. The pseudogeometric factor indicates how much of the
total tool signal is received from an annular formation volume represented by distances
(expressed in inches) from the borehole wall (Figure 6: Depth of Investigation for
Microresistivity Tools).

Figure 6

BED RESOLUTION
Not only does each of the microresistivity tools have their own characteristic depth of investigation,
each tool also has its own characteristic bed resolution; i.e., some tools are better than others at
distinguishing thin beds. Tools with coarse bed resolution values are "blind" to thin shale and/or
sandstone layers. For example, 3-inch shale streaks will not be "seen" by a short normal log but
may easily be delineated by a microlog. By way of contrast, a shallow-focused log, depending on
its electrode spacing, may be able to resolve beds 1 or 2 feet thick at best.

ENVIRONMENTAL CORRECTIONS
Microresistivity devices of the mandrel type are subject to aberrations caused by well bore size.
These effects can be quite severe. The pad contact tools, however, are only affected by excessive
mudcake buildup, hole rugosity, and fractures.
By using the appropriate charts, one can make mudcake corrections. These charts are available
from the wireline service companies and relate a correction factor to the mudcake thickness and
resistivity. The mudcake thickness is calculated as half the difference between the bit size
and the measured caliper reading when the caliper reads less than bit size.
For the mandrel-type tool, additional corrections must be made using service company charts that
relate the log reading, the mud resistivity (Rm), and the hole size.
Sxo and Hydrocarbon Movability
The water (filtrate) saturation in the flushed zone (Sxo) may be estimated by using Archies
equation
(Sxo)n = F . Rmf/Rxo
where
F = Formation Factor = a/m
To solve this equation, the following values must be known:
a (tortuosity factor),

m (cementation exponent),
n (saturation exponent),
porosity),
Rmf (resistivity of the mud filtrate -corrected for formation temperature), and
Rxo (resistivity of the flushed zone).
The value of Sxo may not reveal much about the amount of oil in place, but it will reveal a great
deal about whether the oil in place is likely to flow or not. The invasion process acts like a
miniature waterflood. Invading filtrate displaces not only connate water, but also any movable
hydrocarbons. In the undisturbed state at initial reservoir conditions, the fractional pore volume
occupied by oil is (1 -Sw). After filtrate invasion has taken place, the fractional pore volume
occupied by oil is (l -Sxo). The difference between these two values is the fractional pore volume
that contained movable oil. Figure 7: Hydrocarbon Movability shows this process.

Figure 7

The pore volume fraction of movable oil is determined by the relationship (S xo -Sw). The fraction of
the original oil in place that has moved is determined by:
(Sxo -Sw) / (1 -Sw)
This index can then be used as a measure of the quality of the pay. In formations where the
relative permeability to oil is low, Sxo is likely to be close to Sw and the index will be low. This same
formation will not be as productive as another with the same value of S w but better relative
permeability to oil and hence a higher value of Sxo.

HYDROCARBON DENSITY
The computation of hydrocarbon density in a pay zone can provide key information when there is
doubt about the type of hydrocarbon present; i.e., does the formation contain oil, light oil,
condensate, or gas? Since the porosity tools make their measurements in the flushed zone, they
"see" a bulk volume of hydrocarbon equal to (1 -S xo). This leads to the interesting paradox that
where hydrocarbons are movable, they will have been flushed away from the zone where
they can be seen. Thus large hydrocarbon effects on porosity tools may be misleading and
really only indicate large volumes of residual hydrocarbons. A lack of pronounced
hydrocarbon effects could mean either that movable hydrocarbons are present or the formation is
wet. Either way, a good value of Sxo is essential for correct prediction of hydrocarbon density and
hence the type of hydrocarbon present in the formation.

QUALITY CONTROL
Quality control for these devices can be summarized by the following maxims:
Beware of washed-out holes because (a) pad contact tools lose contact with the formation and
"float" in the mud column and (b) mandrel tools give severely inaccurate readings.
Beware of thick mudcakes because pad contact tools require large corrections.
If hole conditions are bad, forget about trying to measure Rxo, because either the tool will stick or
the pad will tear up. Either way, no usable log reading will be obtained.
Pad contact resistivity devices do not measure accurately in oil-base mud.

Dielectric Logs
PRINCIPLES OF DIELECTRIC TOOLS
INTRODUCTION
The dielectric constant of a material affects the way in which an electromagnetic wave passes
through it. Since the dielectric constants of oil and water are different, the behavior of
electromagnetic waves in reservoir rocks is of interest to well loggers. Two classes of tools are
available for measuring the formation dielectric constant:

Low-Frequency Tools use coils on a mandrel and operate at tens of

megahertz;

High-Frequency Tools use microwave antennae on a pad contact device.

These two types will be considered separately. Examples of such tools are:

Electromagnetic Propagation Tool (EPT) (Schlumberger)

Dielectric Constant Log (DCL) (Halliburton)

Deep Propagation Tool (DPT) (Schlumberger)

The first of these is a very high frequency tool, the other two not so high.
Traditionally, the measurement of the conductivity or resistivity of a formation has been one of the
main surveys performed in a borehole, primarily to determine water saturation. However, a second
electrical characteristic of the formation can be measured--the dielectric permittivity. Dielectric
logging devices can determine formation saturations from data dependent on the dielectric
permittivity. The basic measurements are of the propagation time and the attenuation of an
electromagnetic wave as it passes through a specific interval of formation.

EPT
The high-frequency tool is known as the electromagnetic propagation tool (EPT). Its basic
measurements are of propagation time and the attenuation of a 1.1 GHz electromagnetic wave as
it passes through a specific interval of formation. Because the propagation time in water is
substantially higher than that in hydrocarbons, the EPT measurement is affected primarily by the
water-filled porosity. This is in contrast to the nuclear porosity tools, which are influenced by the
total porosity. In addition, for a wide range of salinities, the propagation time in water is practically
constant and so saturation estimations can be made without prior knowledge of the resistivity of
the formation water. When other openhole log data are available it is possible to distinguish
between oil, gas, and water in reservoirs with unknown or changing R w.

Physical Principle
There has long been a need for a method to determine water saturation that is less dependent on
knowledge of water salinity. One such method is the measurement of dielectric permittivity.
Except for water, most materials in sedimentary rocks have low values (less than 8); therefore, the
measured dielectric permittivity is primarily a function of the water-filled porosity. Although the
dielectric permittivity of water is influenced by salinity and temperature, its range is relatively
modest and very much smaller than its range of resistivity.

Measurement Principle
The electromagnetic propagation tool is a pad-type tool ( Figure 1) with an antenna pad attached
to the body of the tool.

Figure 1

A backup arm has the dual purpose of pressing the pad against the borehole wall and providing a
caliper measurement. A standard microlog pad is also attached to the main arm allowing a
resistivity measurement to be made with a similar vertical resolution to the electromagnetic
measurement. A smaller arm, exerting less force, is mounted on the same side of the tool as the
pad and is used to detect rugosity of the borehole. The borehole diameter is the sum of the
measurements from these two independent arms.
Two microwave transmitters and two receivers are mounted in the antenna pad assembly in a
borehole-compensation array that minimizes the effects of borehole rugosity and tool tilt
(Figure 2).

Figure 2 .

The transmitter-receiver spacings of 8 cm and 12 cm are chosen to provide an optimum between

several competing criteria: depth of investigation, determination of signal attenuation between
receivers, and determination of phase difference in receiver signals ( Figure 3) .

Figure 3

A 1.1 GHz electromagnetic wave is sent sequentially from each of the two transmitters, and at
each of the receivers the amplitude and phase shift of the wave are measured ( Figure 4) .

Figure 4

The absolute values of the amplitude and phase shift are found by comparison with an accurately
known reference signal generated in the tool. The phase shift, the propagation time for the wave,
tpl, and the attenuation A, over the receiver-receiver spacing, are calculated from the individual
measurements. In each case, an average is taken of the measurements derived from the two
transmitters. A complete borehole-compensated measurement is made sixty times per second;
measurements are accumulated and averaged over an interval of either 2 or 6 inches of formation
prior to recording on film and tape.
Due to the close proximity of the receivers to the transmitters, spherical waves are measured;
therefore, a correction factor is applied to the measured attenuation so that the plane wave theory
may be used. The increased attenuation due to the spherical spreading of the wave is
compensated for by applying a spherical loss correction factor SL. The corrected attenuation, Ac,
is given by Ac = A -SL. In air, SL has a value of about 50 db, but, because the term is porosity
dependent, a more exact approach can be taken when correcting downhole measurements:
SL = 45.0 + 1.3 tpl + 0.18tpl2
The formation dielectric parameters can then be obtained from the log data, since the attenuation
factor, a, is directly proportional to the recorded attenuation, A, and the phase shift, b, is
proportional to the propagation time
Tpl (= tpl).
The basic data available from the EPT sensors are propagation time Tpl and attenuation, A. A
separate tool section provides microlog and caliper measurements. A standard log presentation is
shown in Figure 5 over an interval containing two sandstones (168-179 m and 202-207 m)

separated by shale.

Figure 5

Track 1 contains the borehole diameter (HD) and the micro-normal (MNOR). The microinverse
(MINV) resistivity curves, electromagnetic wave attenuation (EATT), and propagation time (TPL)
are recorded in Tracks II and III. The measurement of the smaller caliper arm (SA) can be
displayed to monitor the borehole rugosity, and hence the quality of the EPT data.

INTERPRETATION METHODS
The EPT measurement responds more to the water of a formation than to the matrix or any other
fluid. The water present in a formation can be the original connate water, mud filtrate, or bound
water associated with shales. Because of the shallow depth of investigation of the tool (1 to 6
inches), it can usually be assumed that only the flushed zone is influencing the measurement,
hence the free water is filtrate.
Under normal circumstances, if fresh muds are used, the propagation time of the electromagnetic
waves is essentially unaffected by the water salinity (Figure 6).

Figure 6 .

An increase in salinity increases the loss factor " and decreases the permittivity, but the effects
tend to cancel each other out. If salt-saturated fluids are encountered, the loss factor increases to
the extent that the electromagnetic waves are highly attenuated, and therefore measurements are
more prone to error.
The EPT measurements are unaffected by mudcake up to a thickness of about 0.4 inch, but
rugosity can result in spurious readings as mud comes between the antenna pad and the
formation. The situation deteriorates further in boreholes filled with air or oil, where even a thin film
of the fluid results in the tool responding only to the fluid and not to the formation. The tool works
well, however, in emulsion and inverse emulsion muds.

Porosity from Travel Time (TPO Method)

The most-used relationship to convert travel time to porosity is a weight-average relationship
similar to that used in density logging.
Travel time of microwaves in clean, porous media is given by the sum of the travel times through
the component parts:
tpo2 = tpl2 - (Ac2/3604)
tpo =

tpf + (1 - ) tpm

Solving for the porosity,

= (tpo -tpm) / (tpf -tpm)
where:

Ac = the attenuation corrected for spreading loss

tpo = the loss-free travel time of the medium, ns/m
tpl = the measured travel time of the medium, ns/m
tpm = the travel time of the rock matrix, ns/m
tpf = the travel time of the fluid in the pores, ns/m
The tpl is measured by the tool, then the following may be calculated:
tpo2 = tpl2 - (Ac2/3604)
Once tpo is determined, the rest of the equations can be computed to obtain porosity ().
At the wellsite, a computation program computes the water volume from the EPT measurement
using the tpo method and gives the amount of moved hydrocarbon.
Another method compares the EPT porosity with the total porosity measured by the neutron,
density, and acoustic tools. This allows a quick-look determination of the water saturation in the
flushed zone. Figure 7 is an example comparing the sonic porosity with the EPT porosity.

Figure 7

The sonic porosity (SPHI) and EPT porosity (EMCP) are displayed in Tracks II and III, and the
computed gamma ray (CGR) and total gamma ray (SGR) are recorded in Track I. There is a
change of lithology at 245 m, with a limestone above this depth and a sandstone with calcareous
cement below. The limestone and lower section of the sandstone are water bearing, and the

hydrocarbon content of the upper section of the sand is clearly indicated by the separation of the
two porosity curves. The original oil/water contact is at 267 m, while the present contact is at 261
m. Generally, the EPT porosity reads the same as a nuclear-derived porosity in water-bearing
zones and shales, but in hydrocarbon-bearing intervals the EPT porosity is less than either the
total porosity or the density porosity. In gas zones, the separation between the neutron porosity
and the EPT porosity is not so apparent.

DIELECTRIC CONSTANT LOG (DCL)

In contrast to the EPT, other dielectric logging devices ( Figure 8 ) use a lower operating frequency
(approximately 10 to 50 MHz) and a much longer spacing between transmitter and receiver (on
the order of 3 feet).

Figure 8

Since the tool measures formation properties beyond the invaded zone, it can be used for
monitoring enhanced recovery projects where plastic pipe has been set. Figure 9 shows the
progress of a waterflood through repeat logs on different dates.

Figure 9

Density Logs
OVERVIEW OF DENSITY AND PHOTOELECTRIC LOGS
FORMATION DENSITY TOOL
Density is one of the most important pieces of data in formation evaluation. In the majority of the
wells drilled, density is the primary indicator of porosity. In combination with other measurements,
it may also be used to indicate lithology and formation fluid type.
A conventional compensated density log is shown in Figure 1: FDC Log Presentation,

Figure 1

with the value of formation bulk density (b) in tracks 2 and 3. The most frequently used scales are
a range of 2.0 to 3.0 gm/cc or 1.95 to 2.95 gm/cc across two tracks. A correction curve, , is
sometimes displayed in track 3 and less frequently in track 2. The gamma ray and caliper curves
usually appear in track 1.
The tool can be used by itself, but is typically run in combination with other tools, such as the
compensated neutron and resistivity tools. The formation density skid device ( Figure 2:
Schematic of the Dual-Spacing Formation Density Logging Device (FDC)) carries a gamma ray
source and two detectors, referred to as the short-spacing and long-spacing detectors.

Figure 2

This tool is a contact-type tool; i.e., the skid device must ride against the side of the borehole to
measure accurately.
The tool employs a radioactive source which continuously emits gamma rays. These pass through
the mudcake and enter the formation, where they progressively lose energy until they are either
completely absorbed by the rock matrix or they return to one the two gamma ray detectors in the
tool. Dense formations absorb many gamma rays, while low-density formations absorb
fewer. Thus, high-count rates at the detectors indicate low-density formations, whereas low
count rates at the detectors indicate high-density formations. For example, in a thick
anhydrite bed the detector count rates are very low, while in a highly washed-out zone of the hole,
simulating an extremely low-density formation, the count rate at the detectors is extremely high.
Gamma rays can react with matter in three distinct manners:

Photoelectric effect, where a gamma ray collides with an electron, is

absorbed, and transfers all of its energy to that electron. In this case, the electron is
ejected from the atom.

Compton scattering, where a gamma ray collides with an electron orbiting

some nucleus. In this case, the electron is ejected from its orbit and the incident
gamma ray loses energy.

Pair production, where a gamma ray interacts with an atom to produce an

electron and positron. These will later recombine to form another gamma ray.
Photoelectric interaction can be monitored to find the lithology-related parameter, P e. For the
conventional density measurement, only the Compton scattering of gamma rays is of interest.

Conventional logging sources do not emit gamma rays with sufficient energies to induce pair
production, therefore pair production will not be a topic of this discussion.
Since the density of a mixture of components is a linear function of the densities of its individual
constituents, it is a simple matter to calculate the porosity of a porous rock. Consider the bulk
volume model of a clean formation with water-filled pore space ( Figure 3: Bulk-Volume Model of
Porous Rock Formation).

Figure 3

Unit volume of porous rock consists of a fraction made up of water and a fraction (1-) made up
of solid rock matrix. The bulk density of the sample can be written as:
b = ma (1-) + f
where ma refers to the matrix density and f refers to the fluid density. Simple rearrangement of
the terms leads to an expression for porosity given by:
D = (ma -b) / (ma -f)
The same concept can be illustrated graphically as given in Figure 4: Density Porosity Graph,

Figure 4

where bulk density, b is plotted against porosity, . Note that points falling on the line connecting
the matrix point (ma, = 0%) and the water point (f, = 100%) represent all possible cases
extending from a zero-porosity rock matrix to 100% porosity. Any intermediate value of b
corresponds to some porosity, .
The matrix density in normal reservoir rocks varies between 2.87 gm/cc (dolomite) and 2.65 gm/cc
(sandstone). The fluid density of normal brines ranges from 1 to 1.1 gm/cc and is controlled by the
properties of the invading mud filtrate in permeable zones. Porosity derived from a density log is
denoted as D.
The density log gives reliable porosity values, provided the borehole is smooth, the formation is
shale-free, and the pore space does not contain gas. In shaly formations and/or gas-bearing
zones, it is necessary to refine the interpretative model to make allowances for these additions or
substitutions to the rock system.

LITHOLOGIC DENSITY TOOL

The Pe, or lithodensity log, run with the lithodensity tool (LDT), is another version of the standard
formation density log. In addition to the bulk density (b), the tool also measures the photoelectric
absorption index (Pe) of the formation. This new parameter enables a lithological interpretation
to be made without prior knowledge of porosity.
The photoelectric effect occurs when a gamma ray collides with an electron and is absorbed in the
process, so that all of its energy is transferred to the electron. The probability of this reaction

taking place depends upon the energy of the incident gamma rays and the type of atom. The
photoelectric absorption index of an atom increases as its atomic number, Z, increases.
Pe = (0.1 . Zeff)3.6
The lithodensity tool is similar to a conventional density logging device, and uses a skid containing
a gamma ray source and two gamma ray detectors held against the borehole wall by a springactuated arm (Figure 5: The Lithologic Density Tool). Gamma rays are emitted from the tool and
are scattered by the formation, losing energy until they are absorbed via the photoelectric effect.

Figure 5

At a finite distance from the source, there is a gamma ray energy spectrum as shown in Figure 6:
Variation in Gamma Ray Spectrum for Formations of Different Densities. This Figure also shows
that an increase in the formation density results in a decrease in the number of gamma rays
detected over the whole spectrum.

Figure 6

For formations of constant density but different photoelectric absorption coefficients, the gamma
ray spectrum is only altered at lower energies, as indicated in Figure 7: Variation in Gamma Ray
Spectrum.

Figure 7

Observing the gamma ray spectrum, we notice that region H only supplies information relating to
the density of the formation, whereas region L provides data relating to both the electron density
and the Pe value. By comparing the counts in the energy windows H and L, the P e can be
measured. The gamma ray spectrum at the short spacing detector is only analyzed for a density
measurement, which is used to correct the formation density determined from the long spacing
spectrum for effects of mud-cake and rugosity.
The photoelectric absorption coefficient is virtually independent of porosity, there being only a
slight decrease in the coefficient as the porosity increases. Similarly, the fluid content of the
formation has little effect. Simple lithologies, such as pure sandstone and anhydrite, can be read
directly from logs using Pe curves. Look for the following readings in the most commonly occurring
reservoir rocks and evaporites.
Material

Pe

Sand

1.81

Shale

3-4

Limestone

5.08

Dolomite

3.14

Salt

4.65

Anhydrite

5.05

PRINCIPLES OF DENSITY LOGGING

In contrast to the natural gamma-ray tool, which only contains a passive detector, the density tool
contains a chemical gamma-ray source (Cesium 137 or Cobalt 60), and two or more gamma-ray
detectors. The density tool is therefore called an induced gamma or gamma-gamma tool. The
induced gamma-rays are scattered by the rock and only a few reach one of the gamma-ray
detectors in the tool (Figure 1, Dual-Spacing Formation Density Log).

Figure 1

The denser the rock material the more the gamma-rays will be attenuated and hence fewer
will reach the detectors. The use of the gamma-gamma tool for density measurements is based
on this attenuation phenomenon.

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN GAMMA-RAYS AND ATOMS

As mentioned previously, there are 3 ways for an atom to interact with gamma-rays as depicted in
Figure 2: Various Interactions Between Gamma Rays and the Si Atom.

Figure 2

COMPTON SCATTERING
High energy gamma-rays emitted by a radioactive source collide with the electrons in the
formation. At each collision, the photon loses some of its energy to an electron, which can be
ejected from its orbit. The scattered gamma-ray has less energy than the gamma-ray that caused
the collision, and the energy level of the scattered gamma-ray is strongly dependent on the
collision angle. When the number of gamma-rays are recorded as a function of their energy in a
frequency vs. energy diagram, an energy spectrum may be obtained. The energy spectrum of the
scattered gammas is the well known Compton continuum.

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
After several collisions the gamma-rays that result have low energies (< 0.5 MeV). Below this
energy level the photoelectric effect becomes predominant. The gamma-rays can then interact
with the electrons of the inner bands. The gamma energy is used to push an electron into a higher
band. If the electron falls back to the original band, gamma-rays are emitted with energies
characteristic for the atomic number.

PAIR PRODUCTION
In this process, the high energy photon (>2 MeV) looses all it's energy and the gamma-ray is
converted into an electron and a positron. The positron combines almost immediately with another
electron, and two gamma-rays (each with an energy of 1.04 MeV) are emitted in opposite
directions.

Figure 3: Gamma Ray Mass Absorption Coefficient illustrates the concept of the mass absorption

coefficient.

Figure 3

When an incident beam of gamma rays with initial intensity Iin strikes a target of thickness x, then
its intensity is reduced on passing through the target in such a way that:
Iout = Iin e-x
where Iout is the resulting intensity of the beam at the other side of the target, and is the mass
absorption coefficient. This coefficient is a function of both the type of material in the target and
the type of interaction that takes place.
Or, stated differently,

ln (Iout/Iin) = - . x
In other words, the logarithm of the ratio of intensities of the attenuated and the original beams is
proportional to the target thickness and a proportionality factor , which is defined as the mass
absorption coefficient.
In Figure 4: Gamma Ray Mass Absorption Coefficient Over the Energy Range of Interest the
mass absorption coefficient expressed in cm2/g, is plotted the energy of the gamma rays.

Figure 4

The lines indicate the probability that one of the three interactions described above will occur as a
function of the gamma-ray energy. Conventional gamma ray sources in logging tools are made of
cesium, and the emitted gamma rays have an energy of 0.661 MeV, so from this graphic, we can
see that it is highly unlikely that any form of pair production will occur, since this type of interaction
only occurs at energies higher than 2 or 3 MeV. The detectors used in conventional density tools
have a practical lower limit to the gamma ray energy level that they can detect. This lower limit is
about 0.2 MeV. Thus, the operating range shown in the graphic is between the two vertical lines
marking the energy range between the gamma rays emitted from the source and the limit of
detection by the detectors. Compton scattering therefore becomes the most probable form of
interaction that conventional density tools can monitor. For this reason, pair production does not
need to be considered in the context of gamma-gamma logging.

DENSITY TOOL CONFIGURATION

In order to minimize the influence of the mud column the tool features two or more gamma-ray
detectors. The configuration with two detectors at approximately 8 and 16 inches from the source
is shown in Figure 5: Schematic of the Dual-Spacing Formation Density Logging Device (FDC).

Figure 5

Both the detectors and the source are mounted on a skid and shielded from the borehole. The
skid, which has a plow-shaped leading edge to remove part of the mudcake, is pressed firmly
against the wall by means of an eccentering arm. The two detectors are necessary to account for
remaining mudcake or mud interposed between the skid and the formation. The litho-density tool
(LDT) offers a combination of the density and photo-electric absorption P e measurements.
The net effect of gamma ray Compton scattering and absorption is that the count rate seen at the
detector is logarithmically proportional to the formation density (Figure 6: Detector Count Rates
vs. Formation Density Measurements):

Figure 6

log (count rate) = A + B (formation density)

Both near-and far-spacing detectors behave in this way, so that a plot of far versus near count
rates also produces a straight line (Figure 7: Near and Far Count Rates of the Formation Density
Tool). Note that formation density increases as count rates decrease.

Figure 7

ADVERSE INFLUENCES AND CALIBRATION

MUDCAKE COMPENSATION
Although the source and detectors are pressed against the borehole wall, there will inevitably be
small wash-outs and irregularities (collectively termed borehole rugosity) that will attenuate the
gamma-ray reading. Moreover, there is often a thin layer of mudcake between the skid and the
borehole wall. A mudcake with a density that is different from formation density will change both
the near-and far-count rates.
The two detectors have a different depth of investigation because of their short (SS) and long (LS)
spacing from the source (Figure 1: Schematic of the Dual-Spacing Formation Density Logging
Device).

Figure 1

The rugosity and mudcake each produce a different effect on the SS and LS detector responses.
By combining the responses of the two detectors, the effect of the mudcake and small wash-outs
can be compensated.
Figure 2: Mudcake Compensation shows where a plotted point falls if a formation with a bulk

density of 2.7 gm/cc has an ever-increasing amount of mudcake of density 1.5 gm/cc placed

between it and the tool.

Figure 2

In an extreme case of "infinite" mudcake thickness, both detectors would "see" only mudcake and
read a value of 1.5 gm/cc.
This method is referred to as the "spine-and ribs correction". The arc describing the locus of the
points is referred to as a rib; the zero mudcake line is referred to as a spine. A complete set of
spine and ribs can be drawn fore various thicknesses and densities of mudcakes ( Figure 3: Spine
and Ribs Plot, Showing Response of Count Rates to Mudcake). Note that ribs also extend to the
left of the spine for mudcakes having a density greater than the formation density; e.g., in barite
muds.

Figure 3

The surface equipment associated with the density tool computes the position of the point on the
spine and ribs chart, then moves the point along the rib to intercept the spine. At this point, a
corrected value of is recorded for the log. The value of is calculated as the difference between
from the long spacing and cor. Thus, is positive in light muds and negative in heavy muds.

ELECTRON DENSITY
Since Compton scattering is an interaction between gamma rays and electrons, the density
measurement recorded by this logging tool is actually the electron density, e, not the bulk density,
b. Due to the fact that e is not exactly equal to b for all elements, a special calibration makes the
tool read correctly in fresh-water-filled limestone.
As a result of the calibration technique used, not all substances commonly found in rock
formations are read correctly by the density tool. The table below lists density properties of various
compounds frequently found in subsurface formations.
Table 1: The 2 Z/A Values for Various Elements
Element

2 Z/A

1.008

1.9841

12.011

.9991

16.000

1.0000

Na

22.99

11

.9569

Mg

24.32

12

.9868

Al

26.98

13

.9637

Si

28.09

14

.9968

32.07

16

.9978

Cl

35.46

17

.9588

39.10

19

.9719

Ca

40.08

20

.9980

CALIBRATION AND QUALITY CONTROL

Standard calibrations of the density tool are made to ensure that density measurements will be
consistent from one tool to the next. The primary standard is made by using man-made, laboratory
formations, such as the API test pit. Sometimes, these test pits are reproduced at select service
company locations. Since these cannot be transported, a set of secondary standards is available
at logging service company bases in the form of aluminum, magnesium, and/or sulfur blocks of
accurately known density and geometry. These blocks, which weigh up to 400 pounds, are not
easily transportable though. So a field calibrator containing two small gamma ray sources is used
to reproduce the same count rates as those found in the blocks.
The wellsite calibration should be performed before and after each log is run; the shop calibration
should be carried out at least every 60 days, and a copy of it should be attached to the main log. It
is important to note that the field calibrator, the skid with the detectors, and the source all form a
matched set. This means that if any of the three do not match the serial numbers on the master
calibration, then the log should be rejected.
Natural benchmarks for checking the validity of a density log are salt, which has a a of 2.032
gm/cc, and anhydrite, which has a a of 2.977 gm/cc. These minerals may not appear in the
wellbore being logged; and even if they do, they may not be 100% pure, and should be used with
caution. In general, density logs are either well calibrated (and therefore correct) or they are very
noticeably bad.
Apart from the natural benchmarks already discussed, the next best quality check is a review of
the curve. If the short-spacing detector fails, then the whole compensation mechanism is
thrown out of kilter. If is roughly within the limits of 0.05 gm/cc, then the log may be assumed
to be correct. If is negative in light muds, something is wrong. Likewise, positive values of in
heavy (barite) muds would also be a danger signal.

APPLICATIONS
The Formation Density log has a number of applications:

Measuring density of the formation

Calculation of porosity

When combined with sonic travel times, the density data gives the acoustic
impedance, which is important for calibration of seismic data

Identification of evaporites

Gas detection in reservoirs when used in combination with the neutron log

The Pe curve is a good lithology indicator. The influence of reservoir porosity and fluid content
(including gas) on the Pe is minor.

DENSITY OF THE RESERVOIR

At the distance of some 20 -30 cm between source and detector, the gamma-rays usually scatter
two to three times before some of them reach the detector. The number of collisions between the
electrons and gammas is directly related to the number of electrons in the formation. A low count
is indicative of a high number of electrons and thus for a high density formation. The
response of the density tool is essentially determined by the electron densitye that is related to
the bulk density, b as follows:

N Z b
A

where
e

electron density (number per volume unit)

Avogadro's number (6.03 x 1023 atoms per gram-atom)

atomic number (number of protons) (d.I.)

bulk density, (gr/cc)

atomic weight, related to number of protons + neutrons

The bulk density depends on the density of the rock material, its porosity, and the densities of the
different phases of fluids (oil / gas / water) that are present in the pore space. For most formation
substances, the factor 2 Z/A) is very close to unity (for hydrogen close to 2), as demonstrated
below, in Table 1.
Table 1: The 2 Z/A Values for Various Elements
Element

2 Z/A

1.008

1.9841

12.011

.9991

16.000

1.0000

Na

22.99

11

.9569

Mg

24.32

12

.9868

Al

26.98

13

.9637

Si

28.09

14

.9968

32.07

16

.9978

Cl

35.46

17

.9588

39.10

19

.9719

Ca

40.08

20

.9980

The resulting apparent bulk density a, as seen by the tool, is related to the electron density e:

a 1.07 e 0.188
For liquid filled sandstone, limestone and dolomite the tool reading a is practically identical to the
actual density b, as shown in the table below.
Table 2: Values Related to the Density Tool.
Name of
Compou
nd

Formula for
Compound

Quartz

SiO2

Calcite

Dolomite

Actual
Densi

2SUM(Z's
)
/mol.weig
ht

Electron

2.654

0.9985

2.650

2.648

CaCo3

2.710

0.9991

2.708

2.710

CaCO3MgCO

2.870

0.9977

2.863

2.876

2.960

0.9990

2.957

2.977

ty b

Density e

Apparent
Density
(tool) a

3
Anhydrit

CaSO4

e
Anth.
coal

1.41.8

1.030

1.4421.852

1.355-1.796

Bitum.
coal

1.21.5

1.060

1.2721.590

1.173-1.514

Fresh
water

H2O

1.000

1.1101

1.110

1.00

Salt
water

200.000 ppm

1.146

1.0797

1.237

1.135

"Oil"

n(CH2)

0.850

1.1407

0.970

0.850

Methane

CH4

met

1.247

1.247met

1.335meth

-0.188

1.238g

1.325g-

"Gas"

C1.1H4.2

rg

1.238

0.188
Corrections are required in anhydrite, sylvite, halite and also in gas bearing formations. For a
number of minerals the characteristics are given in Table 2, in which meth , and g are the
density of methane and composite gas respectively.

DENSITY-POROSITY OF THE RESERVOIR

For a clean formation of matrix density ma containing a fluid with density fl, the bulk densityb as
measured by the log can be expressed as a linear relationship between matrix and fluid points.

b (1 ) ma fl
rearranged :

ma b
ma fl

When the pores contain a mixture of mudfiltrate and hydrocarbons, fl is calculated as follows:

fl S xo mf + (1 - S xo ) hc
where

bulk density, g/cc

porosity in fraction of bulk volume

ma

matrix density, g/cc

fl

fluid density, g/cc

hc

hydrocarbon density, g/cc

mf

mudfiltrate density, g/cc

Sxo

mudfiltrate saturation in fraction of pore volume

The volume fraction of mudfiltrate in the pore space in the flushed zone is usually much larger
than that of the hydrocarbons. The hydrocarbon effect is therefore usually small, unless light oil or
gas is present. In Figure 1:

Figure 1

Core Porosity versus b the core porosity is plotted versus the bulk density. Extrapolation of the
regression line to the point where it intersects the density axis provides the apparent matrix value,
ma.

Pe RESPONSE AND DETERMINATION OF FORMATION

LITHOLOGY
The photoelectric effect, Pe curve is an index of the effective photoelectric absorption cross section
of the formation. The unit of the photoelectric absorption cross section is in barns (10-24 cm2) per
atom. As previously mentioned, the gamma rays of the photoelectric effect are produced when
electrons in the inner bands return to their original state. The energy of these gamma rays is
therefore dependent on the binding forces of electrons in the inner bands and strongly dependent
on the atomic number Z:

[E-1]

= K Z 4.6
where

photoelectric absorption cross section in barns per atom

atomic number

constant

The coefficient K varies with the energy level of the incident gamma rays. Dividing by Z and
calibrating the Pe log such that K is arbitrarily taken to be E -3.6, yields:

[E-2]

Pe ( Z/10) 3.6
where Pe is again the effective photoelectric absorption cross section, but now expressed in
barns/electron. To obtain a parameter that is proportional with the volume fractions of the
formation constituents Pe is multiplied with the electron density. This yields the effective
photoelectric absorption cross section index per unit volume U=P e.e .The formation can then be
described by the relative volumes of the components:

[E-3]

U = U fl (1 ) U ma

The effective photoelectric absorption cross section per unit volume U is, as demonstrated by
equations [E-2] & [E-3], strongly dependent on the atomic number and therefore an excellent
lithology indicator.

Neutron Logs

INTRODUCTION TO NEUTRON LOGGING

Neutron tools were the first logging instruments to use radioactive sources for determining the
porosity of the formation. After the later introduction of the gamma-gamma density tool, the
neutron measurement was applied in conjunction with the density porosity reading in order to
recognize and correct for effects of shale and gas.
Neutron tool response is dominated by the concentration of hydrogen atoms in the formation. In
clean reservoirs containing little or no shale, the neutron log response will provide a good measure
of formation porosity if liquid-filled pore spaces contain hydrogen, as is the case when pores are
filled with oil or water (hydrogen index =1, see Hydrogen Index below). By contrast, when logging
shaly or gas-bearing formations, a combination of Neutron and Density readings will often be
required for accurate porosity assessment.

NEUTRON LOGGING APPLICATIONS

Neutron tools are used primarily to determine:

porosity, usually in combination with the density tool

gas detection, usually in combination with the density tool, but also with a
sonic tool

shale volume determination, in combination with the density tool

lithology indication, again in combination with the density log and/or sonic log

formation fluid type.

Depending on the device, these applications may be made in either open or cased holes.
Additionally, because neutrons are able to penetrate steel casing and cement, these logs can be
used for depth tie-in as well as providing information on porosity and hydrocarbon saturations in
cased holes. Figure 1: Generalized Neutron Logging Tool illustrates a typical neutron logging tool.

Figure 1

BASIC PRINCIPLES
The electrically neutral neutron has a mass that is practically identical to that of the hydrogen
atom. The neutrons that are emitted from a neutron source have a high energy of several million
electron volts (MeV). After emission, they collide with the nuclei within the borehole fluid and
formation materials. With each collision, the neutrons loose some of their energy ( Figure 2:
Emission, Traveling and Collisions of a Neutron in a Formation).

Figure 2

The largest loss of energy occurs when the neutrons collide with hydrogen atoms. The rate
at which the neutrons slow-down depends largely on the amount of hydrogen in the
formation.
With each collision the neutrons slow down, until the neutrons reach a lower (epithermal) energy
state and then continue to lose energy until they reach an even lower (thermal) energy state of
about 0.025 eV. At this energy the neutrons are in thermal equilibrium with other nuclei in the
formation. At thermal speeds, the neutrons will eventually be captured by a nucleus. When a
nucleus captures a thermal neutron, a gamma ray (called a gamma ray of capture)is emitted to
dissipate excess energy within the atom.
The amount of energy lost at each collision depends on the relative mass of the target nucleus,
and the scattering cross section. (At the nuclear level, the term cross section is defined as the
effective area within which a neutron must pass in order to interact with an atomic nucleus. Such
interactions are typically classified either as neutron capture or as neutron scatter. The crosssection is a probabilistic value dependent on the nature and energy of the particle, as well as the
nature of the capturing or scattering nucleus.) Figure 3 (Slowing Down Power of H, O, Si for
Different Neutron Energies) and Figure 4 (Neutron Energy Level versus Time After Leaving the
Source) illustrate the slow-down process. Depending on the type of tool being used, either the
gamma rays emitted after neutron capture, the epithermal neutrons or the thermal neutrons will be
counted.

Figure 3

Figure 4

The principles of neutron logging are summarized below:

A neutron source emits a continuous flux of high-energy neutrons.

Collisions with formation nuclei reduce the neutron energy -thereby slowing it

down.

At thermal energy levels (approximately 0.025 eV), neutrons are captured.

Neutron capture results in an emission of gamma rays.

Depending on the type of tool, the detector measures the slowed down
neutrons and/or emitted gamma rays.
Neutron logging devices contain one or more detectors and a neutron source that continuously
emits energetic (fast) neutrons.
Porosity (or the hydrogen index) can be determined by measuring epithermal or thermal neutron
populations, or by measuring capture gamma rays, or any combination thereof.
Neutron logs that detect epithermal neutrons are referred to as sidewall neutron logs. By contrast,
the compensated neutron log, in widespread use today, detects thermal neutrons, using two
neutron detectors to reduce borehole effects. Single thermal neutron detector tools, of poorer
quality, are also available in many areas of the world.
Capture gamma rays are used for porosity determination, and logs of this type are referred to as
neutron-gamma logs. The responses of these devices are dependent upon such variables as
porosity, lithology, hole size, hole rugosity, fluid type, and temperature.
Compensated and sidewall logs use corrections from their electronic panels to account for some
of these variables, while neutron-gamma logs require departure curves (provided in chartbooks) to
make corrections.

Hydrogen Index
Hydrogen concentration may be defined in terms of the Hydrogen Index (HI), which is proportional
to the quantity of H atoms per unit volume. The hydrogen index of fresh water at surface
conditions is taken as unity.

HI =

number of H atoms
(volume ) (number of H atoms in 1 cc H 2 O)

For a paraffinitic oil (nCH2) we find HIoil = 1.29.oil. If the in-situ density of this oil is 0.78 g/cc, its
hydrogen index is equal to that of water, which by definition has a value of 1.
For methane (CH4), the hydrogen index depends strongly on the gas pressure. A typical value for
HICH4 is 0.225 at 100 bar.
Since the zone of investigation of the neutron tool is often confined to the flushed zone, the
porosity derived from the neutron log, n is related to the true porosity, by the equation:

(HI
n

mf

xo

+ HI

hc

(1 S

xo

))

In the above quoted case of paraffinitic oil with a density of 0.78 g/cc density, we find n = .
In the case of CH4 with in-situ density 0.1 g/cc and a flushed zone water saturation S xo of 0.7 we
find:

(1 0.7 + 0.225 0.3) = 0.77

n

NEUTRON POROSITY MEASUREMENTS

Conventional neutron porosity tools use a radioactive source to emit neutrons that have an
average energy of 4.5 million electron volts (MeV). The tools neutron detector will detect some of
these neutrons after they lose energy through elastic collisions with nuclei in the formation. But the
neutron detector only comes into play toward the end of a complex chain involving neutron scatter
and capture. The ability of a nucleus to slow down or capture a neutron is measured by its cross
section. Cross sections for slowing down or capturing neutrons vary with different elements and
with neutron energy.
Two elements, hydrogen and chlorine, dominate the behavior of all neutron tools. Hydrogen, being
the element with a single proton for a nucleus, provides the best material for slowing down a
neutron. Simple mechanics reveal that when two balls collide, the maximum energy loss occurs
when the two balls are of equal mass. Thus, the equal mass of hydrogens neutron and proton
account for its prodigious power to slow down neutrons.
Generally, the count rate at a neutron detector is inversely proportional to the amount of hydrogen
in the formation. When the hydrogen content is high, many neutrons will be slowed and captured;
therefore, the count rate will be low and porosity will be high. When hydrogen content is low, fewer
neutrons are absorbed in the formation, and thus more neutrons are free to reach the detector.
With more neutrons reaching the detector, the count rate will be high so porosity will be low.
Chlorine has a large capture cross-section for thermal neutrons, absorbing them a hundred times
faster than most other elements. After accounting for the relative abundance of all the elements
and their slowing down cross sections and capture cross sections, it transpires that a neutron
need collide with a hydrogen nucleus an average of 18 times to reach thermal energy. Once a
neutron does reach thermal energy, it is very likely to be absorbed by a chlorine nucleus.
This explains why the original GNT tools had such a dependence on fluid salinity. A few parts per
million of sodium chloride in the mud or formation water could alter their response dramatically. It
also explains why the SNP was such an improvement over GNT. The tool was completely blind to
capture gamma rays, since it only detected epithermal neutrons. The CNL tools theoretically are
just as blind to salinity effects, since they, too, ignore the capture gamma rays from chlorine.
However, small additions of boron or cadmium in the formation can seriously affect the distribution
of thermal neutrons.
Conventional neutron porosity devices measure the ratio of neutrons counted by two detectors
that are spaced at different distances from the neutron source. One detector is spaced closer to
the source than the other, hence the two are designated as the near and far detectors. This ratio of
neutron counts between the near and far detectors is less sensitive to environmental effects than
the count rate from a single detector. The ratio of neutron counts is then converted to porosity
units using laboratory calibrations. On most logs, the porosity measurement is expressed in terms
of porosity units (p.u.) for a limestone matrix.
Interpretation can be complicated by three factors which cause the log either to read too high or
too low:

Formation atom density -The formation atom density is related to the matrix density of
the formation. An increase in formation atom density will increase neutron scattering,
which reduces the number of neutrons that reach the detector. This, in turn, results in an
increase in measured porosity.

Clays -The additional hydrogen content of hydroxyls in clays will increase the apparent
porosity.

(The combined porosity increase caused by the two factors above is called the shale effect.)

Gas -The gas or excavation effect reduces porosity readings. It occurs when pore space
contains gas, which contributes far less hydrogen to scatter neutrons than does water.
Consequently, the count rate is higher and measured porosity is lower.

NEUTRON DETECTORS
There are two types of neutron porosity detectors, named for the energy levels of the neutrons
they detect.
An epithermal detector counts neutrons with energies from a few tenths of an eV to approximately
10 eV;
A thermal detector counts neutrons with energies around 0.025 eV.
There are trade-offs involving each detector. Thermal neutron detectors have higher count rates
and better counting statistics than epithermal detectors. However, elements in the formation such
as chlorine or boron can capture thermal neutrons and thus lower neutron count rates, causing
inflated porosity readings. Epithermal neutrons, on the other hand, will not be captured, so
epithermal porosity sondes provide truer readings. The challenge for epithermal neutron porosity
tools has been to develop a source that produces enough high-energy neutrons to ensure
statistically meaningful count rates.

NEUTRON SOURCES
Two categories of neutron sources are found in the logging industry: chemical sources and pulsed
sources.

CHEMICAL NEUTRON SOURCES

Generally speaking, chemical sources are composed of two elements in intimate contact, which
react together to continuously emit neutrons. Such sources must be heavily shielded when not in
use.
Chemical neutron sources usually consist of a mixture of beryllium (Be) and an alpha-emitting
radioactive element (Ra, Pu, or Am). This is described by the following reaction mechanisms:
88

Ra226 --->

86

Rn222 + 2He4

The alpha particles (He) bombards the beryllium target and both neutrons and gamma rays are
produced:
4

Be9 + 2He4 ---> 6C12 + on1 + gamma rays

Within a few microseconds, the neutrons are slowed down to the thermal energy level, as depicted
in Figure 1: Neutron Energy Level versus Time After Leaving the Source.

Figure 1

After slowing to the thermal energy level, they are usually captured by a Hydrogen or Chlorine
nuclei in a process that can take up to 1000 s. The capturing nucleus becomes excited and emits
gamma rays, e.g.:
1

H1 + 0n1 ---> 1H2 + gamma rays

Neutron tools are configured with a detector located at distances below 1 and 2 feet from the
source. The detector distances in the neutron tools (with the exception of the APS) are spaced so
that the neutron density around the detector is low when the hydrogen content of the formation is
high. In other words, the hydrogen atoms in the formation act as a shield to keep the neutrons
away from the detectors.
The count rate of neutrons or gamma rays produced by thermal neutron capture is therefore low in
formations of high porosity that contain oil or water. When dealing with a low porous rock, the
neutrons can penetrate further, so the count rate around the detector will be higher. When gas,
which has a very low hydrogen content is present, the neutrons will penetrate deeper and the
count rate will be higher compared to a water-or oil-filled rock with the same porosity and matrix
composition. Gas will give the erroneous impression that a low porosity formation has been
logged.

PULSED NEUTRON SOURCES

Pulsed sources incorporate an electronic neutron accelerator and a target, and can be activated
by simply switching on the accelerator (Figure 2: Diagram of a Basic Minitron).

Figure 2

Besides being much less dangerous than chemical sources, pulsed sources emit neutrons at a
much higher energy level than chemical sources. The pulsed neutron sources are used for pulsed
neutron logging and in tools that measure inelastic neutron collisions (carbon/oxygen-type logs).

EVOLVING DESIGN OF NEUTRON TOOLS

A historical perspective of the range of neutron logging tools can help to prepare you to work with
different vintages of logging data. Early neutron tools, known as GNT-type tools, consisted of a
chemical source and a single detector which measured neutron-capture gamma rays. This tool, a
qualitative indicator of porosity, was badly affected by hole size and the salinity of the bore hole
fluid or formation water.
In an attempt to cure these inherent problems, the sidewall neutron porosity (SNP) tool was
introduced in the early 1960s. It relied on a single detector of epithermal neutrons. This tool
overcame general salinity problems, but had its own unique problem in that mudcake could affect
its readings, and estimating the magnitude of the error was not always easy. Sidewall neutron
tools have mostly been replaced with compensated neutron tools.
The compensated neutron log (CNL) was introduced in the late 1960s, with two detectors of
thermal neutrons. It solved most of the defects of the previous tools, yet also encountered
problems with formations containing thermal neutron absorbers. Later, a CNL-type tool was
developed with dual detectors of epithermal neutrons that may solve the problem of thermal
neutron absorbers. Figure 1: Generalized Neutron Logging Tool illustrates a typical neutron
logging tool with two detectors.

Figure 1

Compensated neutron tools are widely used and frequently are run in combination with
compensated density tools. Dual epithermal neutron tools may become more widely available in
the future. Well conditions and compatibility with other required services should dictate the choice
of a neutron tool.

SIDE WALL NEUTRON POROSITY TOOL (SNP)

The SNP tool was designed for operation in an open hole. The source and the one detector are
located in a skid, 16 inches apart, using a configuration resembling that of the density tool. The
detector is shielded from thermal neutrons with a boron compound. The skid is applied to the bore
hole wall to minimize bore hole and mudcake effects. The advantages of the SNP tool are that the
log can be recorded simultaneously with the density log, and that the log is much less effected by
shale because it detects epi-thermal neutrons instead of gamma-rays resulting from capture. The
disadvantage is that the use of only one detector prevents the correction for mudcake and
borehole effects. The tool was very successful in detecting gas in combination with the density
tool, but was unfortunately discontinued because of the low logging speeds that were required due
to the low epi-thermal neutron count rate.

THE COMPENSATED NEUTRON TOOL (CNL)

The CNL tool from Schlumberger, and equivalent models from other logging contractors, quickly
overtook the SNP as the tool of choice for neutron logging. The CNL is equipped with 2 detectors
that are sensitive to thermal neutrons (Figure 2: The CNL Tool).

Figure 2

This graphic shows a schematic of a CNL tool eccentered in a borehole. The detectors are located
at 15 and 25 inches from the source. The far detector has a larger volume than the near detector,
to maintain adequate count rates. The tool measures the rate at which the thermal neutron
population decreases from the near to the far detector. A very strong neutron source (16-Curie)
reduces statistical variations and permits longer spacings. This in turn increases the zone of
investigation. A large bow-spring ensures eccentering of the tool and optimum contact with the
borehole wall. The CNL-G version has two epi-thermal detectors in addition to the thermal
detectors at the other side and closer to the source. An illustration of the CNL may be seen in
Figure 3: CNL-G Dual Compensated Neutron Configuration.

Figure 3

Conventional compensated neutron tools can be run equally well in open or cased, liquid-filled
holes. In an empty hole (gas filled), the thermal neutron detectors do not work, and epithermal
neutron tools are required. It is normal practice to run these tools in combination with the density
and gamma ray tools. Conventional stacking arrangements are shown in Figure 4: Stacked Tool
Arrangements for A) Running a Gamma Ray, Compensated Neutron and Compensated Density
Log and B) Running a Casing Collar Locator, Gamma Ray and Compensated Neutron Log.

Figure 4

Of the two typical tool string arrangements, one (combined with density and gamma ray) is used
for openhole jobs, and one (combined with a collar locator) for cased holes. Figure 5: Example
of a Compensated Neutron Log (CNL) shows a combination compensated neutron/formation
density log.

Figure 5

As in the case of density logs, compensated neutron logs may be used as direct indicators of
porosity only in clean, liquid-filled, porous formations. The response in shaly or gas-bearing
formations calls for special handling.

CNL OPERATING PRINCIPLE

To properly understand the operation of the CNL logging tool, we must first understand the
distribution of thermal neutrons as they move away from their source. The thermal neutron
flux is defined as the number of thermal neutrons crossing unit area in unit time. This flux is
controlled by the hydrogen content of the formation. Hydrogen is found in the water
molecules filling the pore space (assuming that the formation is water-bearing). Thus the
hydrogen content of the formation is a direct indication of its porosity.
Figure 6: Thermal Neutron Distribution as a Function of Distance from the Source shows a plot

for three different values of porosity of the thermal neutron flux as a function of the distance from
the source.

Figure 6

Note that the lines intersect at some distance from the source. At points closer to the source than
the intersection, high thermal neutron flux means high porosity, but at points farther from the
source, high thermal neutron flux indicates low porosity.
The absolute count rate is a poor indication of porosity; too many factors affect it. The actual count
rate seen at any detector spacing from the source is a function not only of porosity, but also of
such environmental factors as hole size, mud weight, and casing size and weight. Therefore, the
CNL reading must be normalized to correct for unknown environmental effects. This is done by
taking two readings of thermal neutron flux at different spacings and using them to define the
slope of the response line. This slope is relatively unaltered by environmental effects, although the
position of the response line on the graph may vary substantially in the "y" direction. Figure 7:
CNL Borehole Compensation illustrates this concept.

Figure 7

The primary measurement of the CNL tool is thus a ratio of two count rates. A high ratio indicates
high porosity. The conversion of the ratio to a porosity value is based on laboratory experiments
conducted with rock samples of known porosity. Figure 8: Tool Response for Sandstone,
Limestone, and Dolomite Laboratory Formations shows the results of such experiments.

Figure 8

To record porosity directly, the ratio must be converted into porosity. For example, a ratio of 2.0
could mean less than 10% porosity in dolomite or more than 20% in sandstone. The surface
controls for the CNL tool allow the operator to select the matrix for which a porosity is required. A
convenient standard for the neutron tool is the limestone neutron porosity index. This
index represents the same value that the tool would have read if it had been recorded on a
limestone scale. Figure 9: Neutron Porosity Equivalence Curves plots the porosity measured by
the neutron tool using a limestone, water-filled matrix against the true porosity for the indicated
lines of constant lithology.

Figure 9

This chart shows that the relationship between apparent limestone porosity and the porosity
values for dolomite and sandstone is fairly uniform, with the exception of the very high and the
very low porosity values. In midrange apparent limestone porosity values, certain approximate
rules of thumb can be used. Thus, if the CNL is run on a limestone setting, the conversion of ratio
to porosity follows the middle of the three response lines.
Compensated neutron tools run on a matrix setting that is chosen by the logging engineer or the
company witness. If the actual lithology coincides with the chosen matrix setting, then porosities
may be read directly from the log. However, this is seldom the case and in many instances, the
lithology is not known prior to logging the well. If the matrix is something other than that used in
running the log, the porosity reading from the log will not be correct.

For instance, if tool was run on a limestone matrix, but the operator subsequently discovers that
the actual matrix is not limestone, then it will be necessary to convert the apparent limestone
porosity to some other matrix porosity. Correction charts such as the Neutron Porosity
Equivalence Curves make this a relatively easy task. This chart can be used to determine the true
porosity if the actual lithology is known. To obtain the true porosity, enter the measured porosity
value on the x-axis, proceed vertically to the appropriate lithology line, then read the true porosity
to the left, on the y-axis.

ACCELERATOR POROSITY SONDE (APS)

The Accelerator Porosity Sonde (APS) makes thermal and epithermal neutron measurements to
determine formation hydrogen content with minimal influence from formation atom density. In
contrast with all foregoing neutron tools, this instrument has an accelerator (minitron) neutron
source, instead of a chemical source. Along with a pulsed neutron accelerator, the tool features
one thermal and four epithermal neutron detectors. The tool measures epithermal neutron ratio
porosities (which are not affected by fluid salinity), as well as formation capture cross-section
(sigma, ) and epithermal neutron slowing down time. The neutron porosity measurements can be
corrected for tool standoff, and have a vertical resolution that is comparable to density and
resistivity measurements.
The 14-million electron volt (MeV) accelerator emits eight times as many neutrons as the
conventional logging source; furthermore, these neutrons have three times as much energy as
those emitted by a conventional source. This increased neutron population makes epithermal
neutron detection possible without compromising counting statistics. The APS neutron accelerator
also improves wellsite safety by eliminating the radioactive source used by conventional neutron
porosity tools. (In fact, the APS was seen as a way to obtain better porosity readings while
complying with strict environmental and safety regulations.)
Neutron detector geometry has been improved to reduce lithology effects, increase sensitivity to
gas in shaly reservoirs, and reduce borehole effects. Like previous epithermal neutron porosity
tools, the APS sonde contains near and far detectors; however, it has two additional epithermal
detectors (called the epithermal array), as well as a thermal detector (Figure 10: APS
configuration). This construction produced a stable epithermal neutron tool, which can be run at
logging speeds that are compatible with the density tool.

Figure 10

The tool combines the responses of the various detectors to compensate for
lithology and matrix density effects.

The near-to-far measurement exhibits greater shale and gas effects, and
provides a response that is similar to that of conventional compensated neutron tools.

The near-to-array measurement, which has a vertical resolution of 1 foot, is

used to determine formation porosity.

Epithermal array detectors monitor and correct the effects of tool standoff.

The thermal detector determines by detecting neutrons rather than the gamma rays detected by
conventional pulsed neutron tools. This neutron detection, along with detector shielding from the
borehole, improves vertical resolution and provides a sigma value that is relatively free of borehole
effects.
By comparing the readings of the near-to-array against the near-to-far detectors, it is possible to
identify gas effects on the near-to-far reading. The gas effects can thus be used to call attention to
gas zones in the well. In shaly formations, the APS tool uses the additional boost in apparent nearto-far porosity caused by increased atom density of clay minerals to improve the evaluation of
clays.

Acoustic Logs
OVERVIEW
Acoustic tools measure the speed of sound waves in subsurface formations. While the acoustic
log can be used to determine porosity in consolidated formations, it is also valuable in other
applications, such as:

Indicating lithology (using the ratio of compressional velocity over shear

velocity),

Determining integrated travel time (an important tool for seismic/wellbore

correlation),

Correlation with other wells

Detecting fractures and evaluating secondary porosity,

Evaluating cement bonds between casing, and formation,

Detecting over-pressure,

Determining mechanical properties (in combination with the density log), and

Determining acoustic impedance (in combination with the density log).

A typical acoustic log is illustrated in Figure 1: Sonic Log.

Figure 1

Curves recorded on acoustic logs may include the interval transit time, caliper, gamma ray and/or
SP, and integrated travel time. The primary measurement of interest will be the interval transit time
(t), measured in microseconds per foot (sec/ft) which is the reciprocal of the velocity of a
compressional sound wave in feet per second.
Integrated travel time is presented as a series of pips located immediately to the right of the depth
track. Short pips represent 1 ms of travel time, with a large pip every 10 ms. Integrated travel time
is used to help tie well depth to seismic sections. Travel time between two depths is obtained by
counting the pips in the interval between the two points.
Tools used to acquire this measurement include the borehole-compensated tool, a slim tool
version that can be run through tubing; and the long-spacing sonic tool. These tools include
transmitter transducers that convert electrical energy into mechanical energy and receiver
transducers that do the reverse. In its simplest form, the measurement is made in an
uncompensated mode (Figure 2: Borehole Compensated Sonic Tool illustrates the principle of
this logging tool.

Figure 2

The BHC sonic tool used multiple transmitters and receivers to obtain two values of t, which were
then averaged. The net result of this system was the elimination of errors in t due to sonde tilt
and hole size variation. Even so, there were practical limits to the working range of the tool (e.g.,
in large holes).
The long-spacing sonic tool was next introduced in an attempt to overcome borehole
environmental problems by reading acoustic travel time deeper within the formation and further
from the borehole. Deeper investigation required a longer transmitter-receiver spacing, so longspacing sonic tools typically have a transmitter-receiver spacing of 8, 10, or 12 ft.

POROSITY DETERMINATION
Interval transit time for a formation depends on lithology and porosity. Where lithology is known, it
becomes a relatively easy task to determine porosity. We will discuss equations used to determine
porosity in the next section.
Correlation
The sonic log makes a very good correlation tool with other sonic logs from offset wells, owing to
the high vertical resolution of the tool and the fact that velocity variations in different types of rock
produce a sonic log curve with a correlatable character.

PRINCIPLES OF ACOUSTIC LOGGING

The sonic or acoustic log was developed in the 1950's to provide a detailed record of acoustic
velocities along a well trajectory. If interval travel times and depth intervals corresponding to those
travel times were recorded, then a velocity depth profile could be constructed. This profile could
then be used to convert seismic events, recorded in two-way travel times, to images that were
plotted as a function of depth.
It soon became apparent that the sonic travel times could also be used for other purposes, such
as porosity estimation and gas detection -as well as lithology assessment when used together

with density and neutron tools. Most important of all, the sonic tool can be used to evaluate
mechanical properties of the rock when used in conjunction with the density tool.
As a porosity tool, the sonic wireline device was often run in combination with the SP-Gamma
Ray-Resistivity tool string. Because this combination of tools was slick, and did not require pad
contact, it was generally the first set of tools to be run in the hole during a log run. As such, the
sonic log often provided the first indication of porosity during the log run. With advances in seismic
prospecting and improvements in acoustic logging, the sonic tool is now enjoying a resurgence in
seismic applications.
This discussion focuses primarily on how the sonic tool is used to evaluate porosity, and briefly
touches upon mechanical properties and seismic applications. For information on other sonic
applications, refer to the following IPIMS discussions on borehole velocity measurements and
borehole visualization:

Discipline

Series

Topic

Subtopic

Petroleum Geophysics 3-D Seismic and Other Geophysical Methods Other Geophysical Techniques Borehole Velocity
Formation Evaluation

Wireline Well Logging

Borehole Imaging

PRINCIPLES
Two types of body waves travel within the formation:
Compressional waves, or P-waves, are waves of compression and expansion in which small
particle vibrations occur in the same direction the wave is traveling. The compressional wave
can propagate through both solids and fluids. P-wave data is acquired by conventional sonic tools
for evaluating formation porosity.
Shear waves, or S-waves, are waves of shearing action in which rock particle motion is
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. Only in a solid medium that has rigidity
can the motion of the particles perpendicular to the wave propagation be accommodated. Hence
the shear wave can only exist in solids and not in fluids. This is because solids have shear
strength while liquids do not. Shear data is used in such applications as rock mechanics,
formation anisotropy, permeability, and formation fluid evaluation.
The speed of P-and S-waves is controlled by rock mechanical properties, such as rock density
and elastic dynamic constants. In fluid-saturated rock, these properties depend on the amount and
type of fluid present, the composition of rock grains, and the degree of inter-grain cementation.
Because soft, loosely consolidated rock exhibits smaller elastic stiffness, sound waves will travel
slower in soft rock than in hard rock.
In acoustic logging, an acoustic pulse -produced by alternate expansions and contractions of a
transducer -is emitted by a transmitter. A typical pulse of this sort is shown in Figure 1 (Typical
transmitter pulse; courtesy of Schlumberger Well Services).

Borehole Imaging

Figure 1

Part of the acoustic energy traverses the mud, impinges on the borehole wall at the critical angle
of incidence, passes along the formation close to the borehole wall, reenters the mud, and arrives
at a receiver, where it is converted into an electrical signal (Figure 2 Signal generated at the
receiver by various wave arrivals; courtesy of Schlumberger Well Services).

Figure 2

The sonic tool has at least one pair of transmitters and receivers, as depicted in Figure 3:
Acoustic Pulse Recording in a Borehole. A magnetostrictive alloy or piezoelectric crystal with a
resonance frequency between 5 to 20 kHz is used as material for these transducers.

Figure 3

The transmitter sends out pulses with an oscillatory waveform that generates either compressional
or shear waves.
The compressional (P) wave generated by the transmitter in the borehole fluid will travel in all
directions until it hits the borehole wall. At the borehole wall the P-wave will continue in the rock as
a fast P-wave, but some of the P-wave energy at the wall will be converted to a shear (S) wave in
the rock. (Although both waves will expand in all directions from the point of impact, only the path
along the wall is sketched in the above graphic of the Acoustic Pulse Recording. The wave
traveling along the borehole wall will continuously produce compressional waves back into the
borehole as indicated by the small arrows.
However, the velocity of the wave-front in the formation will out-run the P-waves created in the
borehole because the P-wave velocity of the formation is higher than velocity of the borehole fluid.
The P-wave that travels the shortest distance through the mud will be the first one to arrive at the
receiver (known as the first arrival).
The shear (S) wave front travelling along the borehole wall will also create secondary P-waves in
the fluid, since a fluid can only sustain compression waves and has no shear strength. As a result,
there is a continuous conversion of S-waves back into P-waves along the borehole wall. The
shortest P-and S-wave paths will not be identical, due to refraction of the waves on the borehole
wall. According to Snells law, the slow S-wave will refract less to the normal than the fast P-wave.
As depicted the above graphic, the P-wave which represents the converted S-wave will arrive later
than the leading P-wave ("first arrival" or "first break") which represents the P-wave velocity of the
formation.

This first P-wave arrival is what triggers the sonic tool to record. The tool transmits about ten
pulses per second, and the time is measured between the transmission and the first arrival. The
actual parameter measured is the reciprocal velocity, called travel time ( t), expressed for
convenience in microseconds per foot.
With the velocity V, expressed in feet per second and t in sec, the following relation is valid:

t =

10 6
V

The velocity of the compressional wave depends on the elastic properties of the rock matrix and
the fluids in the pore space. The measured travel time is therefore a function of the rock matrix,
the fluid type and the porosity.

ACOUSTIC TOOL DESCRIPTION

Early tools included only one transmitter and one receiver (Left hand side of Figure 4: Older
Sonic Tools) embedded in a sonde body consisting of rubber (for low velocity and high sonic
attenuation).

Figure 4

In this graphic, the sound pulse travels through the mud (A) at relatively low velocity. The
compressional wave is refracted at the formation face and passes through the formation at
formation velocity (B). The last leg (C) is again through the mud. The measured travel time is
therefore too long due to the passage through the mud. Additionally, the physical length of B is not
constant, since changes in velocity alter the refraction angle.
Later versions (Right hand side of the Older Sonic Tools graphic) incorporated one transmitter and
two receivers, a few feet apart, to cancel the above problems. This system measures, in effect,
only the time required to travel interval D, assuming intervals C and E take the same travel times.
In that case, distance D, which is the distance that the P-waves traveled in the formation, is equal
to the spacing R1 -R2. The only serious shortcoming of this system is that distance C is not equal
to E when the tool is tilted in the hole (Left hand side of Figure 5: Tilted Sonic Tool and the
Borehole Compensated Sonic Tool) or when the hole size changes over short intervals.

Figure 5

BOREHOLE COMPENSATED SONIC

Still later versions of the sonic tool, like the Borehole Compensated tool (BHC), incorporated two
transmitters and four receivers (Right hand side of the Tilted Sonic Tool and the Borehole
Compensated Sonic Tool graphic). The transmitters are pulsed alternately, and t values are
obtained from alternate pairs of receivers. The two t values are averaged to cancel differences in
the C and E distances caused by tool tilt. The tool consists of a slotted metal body housing, which
causes the sonic wave traveling through the tool to follow a tortuous path, thereby arriving later
than the wave that travels through the formation or the wave that travels directly through the mud.
Overall, the net result of this system is the reduction of errors in t that are caused by sonde tilt
and hole size variation.
Even so, there are practical limits to the working range of the tool (e.g., hole size). In large
boreholes, the time taken for a compressional wave to travel from the transmitter to the formation,
through the formation, and back through the mud to a receiver may exceed the time taken for a
direct transmission from the transmitter to the receiver through the mud. The critical factors
affecting this condition are transmitter-receiver spacing, hole size, and travel time within the
formation. With conventional borehole-compensated acoustic tools that have a 3-ft spacing, the
highest t formation that can be measured is 175 s/ft in a
12-1/4 inch bore hole, and 165 s/ft in a 14-inch hole. This limitation is not serious if the formation
is a reservoir rock with a t in the normal range of 40 to 140 s/ft. It does become a serious defect
if the rock is a shale of long transit time, and the purpose of the log is to compute integrated travel
time for geophysical purposes.

LONG-SPACING ACOUSTIC TOOL

The long-spacing acoustic tool was introduced in an attempt to overcome environmental
problems. When a shale formation is drilled, the shales exposed to the mud frequently change
their properties by absorbing water from the drilling mud. This results in a change in travel time for
elastic waves. In order to read the travel time in the undisturbed formation away from the
borehole, a longer transmitter-receiver spacing is required. Typically, a long-spacing acoustic tool
will have transmitter-receiver spacings of 8, 10, or 12 ft. Figure 6: Comparison of BHC and LSS
Sonic Logs shows a comparison of a conventional borehole-compensated acoustic log with a
long-spacing acoustic log.

Figure 6

Lengthening the spacing on an acoustic device achieves two ends:

A valid acoustic log may be recorded in a bigger hole with a long-spacing

device than with a conventionally spaced tool.

The zone investigated by the tool is deeper into the formation with a longspacing device than with a conventionally spaced tool.
Deeper investigation into the formation is needed when logging through shale intervals that have
been altered by the drilling process. Provided that t of the formation in the undisturbed state is
less than t of the formation in the altered state, the quickest route for a compressional wave is via
the undisturbed formation, or deep within the formation. Figure 7 : Depth of Investigation of Longand Short-Spacing Sonic Tools illustrates this effect.

Figure 7

The long-spacing tools make their measurements in a "depth-derived" mode. That is, the borehole
compensation is actually achieved by memorizing travel times that are measured when the tool is
at one depth, and combining those with travel times recorded at a shallower depth when an
alternate combination of transmitters and receivers is activated. (The long-spaced sonde would be
too long if used in the same configuration as the BHC tool.) Two transmitters spaced 2 feet apart
are located 8 feet below a pair of receivers that are also 2 feet apart Figure 8 : Long-Spaced
Sonic "Depth Derived" Principle).

Figure 8

Memorizing the first t reading and combining it with a second t reading (measured after the
sonde has been pulled the appropriate distance farther along the borehole) compensates for the
hole size changes.

MONOPOLE SONIC TOOLS

The pressure source in monopole sonic tools creates an omni-directional compressional wave
pulse in the borehole fluid. This compressional wave pulse subsequently propagates out into the
formation. The compressional pulse causes a slight uniform bulge around the borehole wall, and
excites compressional and shear waves in the formation. These compressional and shear waves,
in turn, produce head waves in the borehole fluid. Receivers in the monopole tool work by
detecting head waves in the borehole fluid, rather than detecting formation compressional and
shear waves.
Head waves exist only when formation waves propagating up the borehole travel faster than the
waves created in the borehole fluid. Compressional waves always move faster through the
formation than through fluids, so the receiver on the monopole sonic tool has no problem
recording the compressional head wave.

However, shear waves can present problems for the monopole tool. In slow, poorly consolidated
formations, the shear wave velocity in the formation is usually less than fluid wave velocity, which
prevents the formation of head waves in the borehole fluid. Without shear head waves in the
borehole fluid, the monopole tool is unable to detect shear waves in slow formations.

DIPOLE SONIC TOOLS

Dipole tools measure wave components that propagate deep into the formation. Unlike monopole
tools, the dipole tool is capable of recording borehole shear/flexural measurements in soft or hard
(slow or fast) formations. As opposed to the omni-directional source used by monopole tools, the
dipole tool uses a directional source to create a pressure increase on one side of the hole
and a decrease on the other. This causes a small flexing of the borehole wall, which directly
excites compressional and shear waves in the formation. Propagation of this flexural wave is
coaxial with the borehole, whereas displacement is at right angles to the borehole axis and in line
with the transducer.
The compressional waves and shear waves radiate straight out into the formation. However, an
additional shear/flexural wave, initiated by the flexing action of the borehole, propagates up the
borehole. The shear/flexural wave, is dispersive -its velocity varies with frequency. At low
frequencies, it travels at the same speed as the shear wave; but at higher frequencies it travels at
slower speeds. The shear/flexural wave creates a dipole-type pressure disturbance in the
borehole fluid, which is detected by the tools directional receivers.

FULL WAVEFORM TOOLS

Full waveform sonic tools are used to record the entire acoustic wavetrain. This waveform data
can then be processed to obtain compressional, shear, and Stoneley slowness, shear wave and
compressional wave amplitudes, and Stonely wave attenuation. Using this information, it is
possible to evaluate rock types, gas zones, porosity, fractures, formation elastic properties,
permeability and acoustic impedance.
The log in Figure 9 (Full waveform sonic log; courtesy of Halliburton Energy Services) presents
the raw waveform in the right-hand track; with shear and compressional slowness in the middle
track; and gamma ray, caliber and receiver gain in the left-hand track.

Figure 9

(This logging tool automatically adjusts receiver gain after each transmitter pulse to prevent signal
clipping. This preserves all phases of signal amplitude by increasing the gain in soft formations
and reducing gain in less-attenuating, hard-rock formations.)
Because receiver gain is inverse to the attenuation of the highest amplitude measured in the
waveform (usually the Stoneley wave), the gain curve (which indicates the gain applied by the
tool) can be used to detect natural fractures, borehole washouts, and lithologic changes. Of
particular interest are fractures, which are characterized in waveform plots by:

a marked decrease in the amplitude of Stonely waves,

moderate attenuation of the shear waveform, and

little or no change in the compressional and shear slowness.

In Figure 10 (Full waveform log of a fractured carbonate; courtesy of Halliburton Energy

Services), we see how waveform data are used to evaluate changes in the acoustic signal.

Figure 10

These changes are caused by acoustic absorption or dispersion effects and point to geological
discontinuities such as fractures, faults, or thin beds. Such indicators are found by measuring the
amplitude, phase, and frequency of the waveform energy. Next, a special color-coding technique
is applied to these characteristics in order to identify and enhance formation response to the
acoustic signal.
The right-hand track of the log presents acoustic transmissivity, measured in decibels.
Transmissivity is a direct measurement of the attenuation of acoustic energy within the formation.
Any formation changes which cause absorption or dispersion of acoustic energy will affect
transmissivity. Shear and Stoneley transmissivity, in particular, will decrease in the presence of
fractures. On this log, the blue shading indicates highly attenuated waves, while red shading is
applied to the lesser attenuated portions of the acoustic wave. On this log, we see strong
attenuation of the shear and Stoneley regions across the intervals from XY215 feet to XY240 feet,
and from XY295 to XY310 feet, thus indicating highly fractured zones.

SONIC LWD TOOLS

Of the impressive assemblage of Logging While Drilling tools, the sonic device was one of the
later tools to be developed. With todays LWD sonic tools, it is possible to obtain wireline-quality
measurements, often before the onset of borehole washouts and invasion. These tools record full
waveforms, and are capable of generating compressional and shear slowness logs in both fast
and slow formations. Figure 11 (Bi-modal Acoustic LWD Sonic Tool, courtesy of Halliburton
Energy Services) shows an example of one such tool, offered by Sperry-Sun Drilling Services.

Figure 11

The LWD sonic tool contributes a new dimension to real-time evaluation of the formation and its
effect on drilling parameters. When combined with other logs from a conventional LWD logging
suite, the sonic tool can be used in many cases to help the geologist evaluate pay zones prior to
invasion, and can help the driller to recognize pressure trends and optimize mud weights for
increased drilling efficiency. With transit times provided by the LWD sonic tool, it is possible to
generate current synthetic seismograms to help the geophysicist to correlate present well
trajectory with surface seismic data.
Applications of the LWD sonic tool are similar to those of traditional openhole sonic tools, and
include:

Petrophysics -Porosity determination, Gas detection, Complex lithology

evaluation.

Drilling -Real-time pore pressure determination, Rock strength calculations,

Bit wear predictions, Borehole stability analysis.

Geophysics -Near real time synthetic seismograms, Time-to-depth seismic

correlation while drilling, AVO analysis.

ADVERSE INFLUENCES
Acoustic logs are subject to errors which are often very easy to detect. Factors that influence sonic
log readings are:

Noise spikes; causing decreased travel times

Stretch; causing excessive travel times.

Cycle skipping causing excessive travel times.

Hydrocarbon effect -causing increased interval transit times.

Shale effect -causing increased travel times

Unconsolidated sands -causing excessive travel times

Boreholes without liquid -will not support propagation of compressional

waves, and thereby preclude use of the sonic tool.
Conventional acoustic tools that measure travel times contain a threshold circuit which triggers
when the received signal passes beyond a pre-set limit. The limitations of the conventional tools
are all associated with either this trigger mechanism, the shape of the waveform that is detected,
or the tool calibration. In some cases, however, the problems are readily apparent, and can be
cleared up by simply logging at a slower speed.

NOISE
Noise can be generated mechanically or by stray electric signals that are picked up by the receiver
electronics (Figure 1: Noise Spikes). If this noise exceeds the trigger level A before the arrival of
the P-wave that traveled through the formation, the receiver circuit will be triggered prematurely
and the time measurement will be erroneously small.

Figure 1

To limit this possibility all receiver circuits are switched off for 120 microseconds after transmitter
firing. The far receiver is the most sensitive due too longer "open" periods and the larger
attenuation of the acoustic wave for longer spacings. Noise spikes are usually intermittent and
lead to much smaller travel times over very short intervals. The log readings around these noise
induced short travel times can usually be trusted. Editing out noise peaks is very important for
seismic applications where a cumulative travel time that is too short will lead too horizons that are
located too deep in the seismic section after two way travel times are converted to depth.

DT STRETCH
The second and third cycle of the wave-form are usually of progressively larger amplitude. As
depicted in the Noise Spikes graphic, the signal arriving at the far receiver is usually weaker. As
the trigger level is constant for both receivers, triggering at the far receiver can occur too late,
causing t to be slightly too large. This phenomenon sketched in Figure 2:

Figure 2

Sonic Stretch is called t (DT) stretch.

CYCLE SKIPPING
Worse than DT stretch is the occurrence of triggering at the second or even third cycle ( Figure 3:
Cycle Skipping).

Figure 3

Cycle skipping leads to a marked sudden shift to a higher t value and later to a similar abrupt
shift back to the correct value. This problem is often caused by the presence of gas, or fractures,
or borehole rugosity. In this regard, cycle skipping should be regarded more as a diagnostic tool
than as a nuisance.
The actual travel time measurement is determined at the first arrival peak. However, the tools
internal trigger mechanism for detecting this peak is subject to errors. Figure 4 illustrates two
common problems.

Figure 4

In the first, the bias level is set too high and the travel time is triggered by a later peak, causing an
erroneously long time to be measured (this is known as cycle skipping). In the second, the bias is
set too low and the travel time is triggered by noise, causing an erroneously short travel time.
In the BHC mode, it is not always possible to distinguish between cycle skipping and noise, since
two measurements are effectively averaged by the tool.
Cycle skipping is not a subtle problem; during logging it will be readily apparent on the logging
screen when the curve starts jumping back and forth. In many cases, this problem can be rectified
while logging by simply dropping back down, and then re-logging the interval at a slower speed.
This approach will provide a valid and useable sonic curve from which to calculate porosity, etc;
however, by removing the cycle skipping from a gas zone, the "flag" which called attention to the
gas zone will also be removed.

HYDROCARBON EFFECT
In the presence of hydrocarbons, the interval transit time of a formation will increase, causing the
sonic porosity to read too high. According to Hilchie (1978), the following empirical corrections
should be applied to counteract the hydrocarbon effect:

sonic 0.7( gas)

sonic 0.9(oil )

SHALE EFFECT

When logging through a sandstone, the presence of shale laminae will affect sonic porosity
values. The t values usually increase in proportion to the bulk volume fraction of the laminae,
because tsh values of the shale are usually greater than tma values of the matrix.

EFFECT OF UNCONSOLIDATED SAND

Unconsolidated formations exhibit longer travel times than can be accounted for by the Wyllie time
average equation. This discrepancy can be handled in two ways: conventionally, and by the Hunt
transform. The conventional method merely adapts the Wyllie time average equation by
introducing the factor Bcp, such that

t t ma
1

t f t ma B cp

where Bcp is some number greater than 1. This can be done by estimating B cp from the transit time
in shales adjacent to the formation of interest. Then
Bcp= tshale / l00
Thus, if, in a shallow sand-shale sequence, log shale is 130 sec/ft, then a B cp of 130/100, or 1.3,
should be used. The Hunt transform is based on empirical observations from sonic logs and
porosity determinations from other means. Figure 5: Sonic Porosity Determination shows the
generalized form of the Hunt-Raymer transform compared to the Wyllie formula,

Figure 5

and plots t against porosity for sandstone, limestone, and dolomite. An acceptable equation
relating porosity to t for this transform is given by:

1
( ma f )

1-

ma

Note that t fluid does not appear as a term in this equation. The assumption is that the fluid is
liquid (not gas) and is built into the coefficient 1/(ma -f). In sandstones this coefficient is very close
to 5/8.

PHYSICAL LIMITATIONS
A graph of transmitter-receiver (TR) distance against the time to travel from T to R ( Figure 6:
Effect of TR Spacing, No Altered Zone) shows that the fastest sound path is through the mud at
spacings less than critical spacing Xc.

Figure 6

For larger spacings, the wave path that takes the shortest time to travel, is the one that passes
through the formation.
The formation velocity v1 is measured only when the spacing X1 is larger than X c. However
assuming that the tool is centered in the hole X c increases with increasing hole diameter D (larger
mud-path Xm), or decreasing formation velocity v1 (slope 1/v1 becomes steeper, and Xc will be
larger). A spacing, TR1, of 3 feet is usually sufficient to avoid these problems
An "altered" zone around the borehole can exist where the formation has sucked up mud-filtrate
and as a result has a lower sonic velocity. Examples are soft hydroscopic clays. This low velocity
zone can be circumvented in the same way as the low velocity mud layer by increasing the

spacing between transmitter and receiver. However due to the smaller difference between the
altered zone velocity and the undisturbed zone velocity the spacing has to increase substantially
before the wave that travels through the high velocity undisturbed zone out-runs the wave through
the low velocity altered zone.
The distance Xc even under these adverse conditions is seldom more than 10 feet, hence sonde
spacings with this length usually produces accurate readings, whereas the BHC would give too
high t readings. When the velocity of the shear wave is lower than the compressional velocity of
the mud it is physically impossible for the shear wave to leave the formation. The shear wave
should, according to Snells law for Vmud > Vforrmation , be refracted away from the normal but the
wave that travels along the borehole has already an angle of 90 with the normal. Hence, for this
case, the shear wave will not produce a secondary compressional wave in the borehole, and
detection of the shear wave velocity with a conventional sonic tool is not possible. The critical
shear velocity can be calculated with:

sin( formation )
sin( mud )

Vmud
Vformation

in which the sin (formation) = 1

CALIBRATION AND QUALITY CONTROL

It bears repeating that acoustic logs are subject to very easily detectable errors, such as cycle
skips and noise. And many such problems can often be cured by simply decreasing the logging
speed. However, even when the tool is triggering properly, we require proof that the recorded t is
correct.
A true calibration test shows the response of the tool to a standard environment. An excellent
check is to record the transit time in steel casing; where it should read approximately 57 s/ft
(provided that the casing is not bonded to a formation of high interval velocity, such as a tight
limestone). The tool can be checked in open hole below casing if the log is run through such
marker beds as
salt (t = 67 sec/ft)
anhydrite (t = 50 sec/ft)
limestone (t = 47.6 sec/ft).
As with all logs, a repeat section of at least 200 feet should be recorded, and this repeat section
should overlay within a few sec of the main log over the same interval.

POROSITY AND OTHER APPLICATIONS

Given the wide range of signals obtained by modern wireline sonic logging tools (compression,
shear, Stoneley, etc.), it is possible to apply sonic data to a variety of pursuits. Most of applications
fall into 3 broad categories.
Mechanical Property Analysis: wellbore stability, perforation stability or sanding analysis, and
hydraulic fracture height prediction, anisotropy evaluation
Formation Evaluation: gas detection, fracture detection, qualitative evaluation of permeability,
and borehole visualization (for more information, see the Formation Evaluation Topic on Borehole
Visualization).
Geophysical Interpretation: synthetic seismograms, vertical seismic profiling, calibrating AVO
In this section we will explain sonic porosity measurements, and review some of the other
applications which depend on various sonic tools for their data.

The fact that compressional waves travel faster through solid matrix material than through fluid is
the basis for the method used to determine formation porosity from sonic logs. Figure 1: Sonic
Porosity Measurement gives a schematic in which the pore space and the solid matrix have been
separated for the purposes of illustration.

Figure 1

If tf is the time taken to travel through the pore space and tma is the time taken to travel through
the matrix, the total travel time measured will be t, and the porosity will be given by:
t = tf + (1-) tma

or

sonic

t t ma
t f t ma

This is known as the Wyllie time average equation. Note that it is not an exact solution for porosity,
but an approximation.
Matrix travel time depends on the matrix itself. The table below provides partial listing of interval
travel times for matrix materials and fluids commonly seen in the borehole.
Table 1: tma for Common Matrix Materials and Fluid
Material or
Medium

Dolomite

Travel Time
t (s/ft)
43.5

Velocity
(ft/s)

Density (g/cc)

23000

2.87

Limestone

47.5

21000

2.71

Sandstone

55.6

18000

2.65

Anhydrite

50.0

20000

2.97

Gypsum

52.5

19000

2.35

Salt

67.0

15000

2.03

5000

1.00

Water (fresh)

200

Water (100,000 ppm NaCl)

189

5300

1.06

Water (200,000 ppm NaCl)

176

5700

1.14

Oil

232

4300

--

Air

919

1088

--

Casing

57

17000

--

Fluid travel time is a function of the temperature, pressure, and salinity of a solution. A commonly
used default value for
tf is 189 sec/ft.
Unconsolidated formations exhibit longer travel times than can be accounted for by the Wyllie time
average equation. This discrepancy can be handled in two ways: conventionally, and by the Hunt
transform. The conventional method merely adapts the Wyllie time average equation by
introducing the factor Bcp, such that

t t ma
1

t f t ma B cp

where Bcp is some number greater than 1. This can be done by estimating B cp from the transit
time in shales adjacent to the formation of interest. Then

Bcp=tshale / l00
Thus, if, in a shallow sand-shale sequence, log shale is 130 sec/ft, then a B cp of 130/100, or 1.3,
should be used. The Hunt transform is based on empirical observations from sonic logs and
porosity determinations from other means. Figure 2: Sonic Porosity Determination shows the
generalized form of the Hunt-Raymer transform compared to the Wyllie formula,

Figure 2

and plots t against porosity for sandstone, limestone, and dolomite. An acceptable equation
relating porosity to t for this transform is given by:

1
( ma f )

(1-

t ma
)
t

Note that t fluid does not appear as a term in this equation. The assumption is that the fluid is
liquid (not gas) and is built into the coefficient 1/(ma -f). In sandstones this coefficient is very close
to 5/8.

SECONDARY POROSITY
Carbonates often contain vugs or fractures that are much larger than the pore space which
constitutes the primary porosity of the formation. In vuggy formations, the sonic tool predominantly
logs the primary intergranular porosity. If total porosity (taken from neutron/density tools) is known,
then the secondary porosity can be calculated by subtracting the value of sonic porosity from total
porosity, thus leaving secondary porosity.

2 ndry total sonic

DETECTION OF OVERPRESSURED ZONES

Compaction effects manifest themselves on sonic logs as a decrease of t with depth.
This is particularly evident in shales. The deeper a shale is buried, the more compact
it becomes and the shorter the t. In cases where there is no escape for the water
contained within the shale, compaction ceases and over-pressure results. For this
reason, an anomalously high t in a shale at that depth is generally an indicator of
formation over pressure. Obtaining readings on a sonic log in shales only and plotting
thesetsh values against depth yields a "normal" gradient. Departures from this
gradient indicate overpressure.

FULL WAVEFORM RECORDING

The long-spaced acoustic tool is capable of recording waveforms for later processing. The longer
spacing allows a larger time separation for the compressional and shear wave arrivals.
The various transmitter-receiver combinations permit four waveforms to be recorded at 6-in.
intervals. Figure 3: Long Spaced Sonic Waveform illustrates composite waveforms received at
the near and far receivers when the upper transmitter is fired.

Figure 3

Digitization of the waveforms is normally made at a 5 sec sample interval for 512 samples, i.e.,
2560 microseconds. A delay of 200 to 500 microseconds is selected by the logging engineer as
an input parameter.
Waveform recording considerably extends the range of applications of acoustic logging both in
open holes and cased holes. The principal benefit is determination of the shear wave velocity of
the formation.
The objective of waveform processing is to distinguish between the compressional and shear
wave arrivals and to measure their interval transit times. Furthermore, in cased holes, formation

arrivals are usually distinct from casing arrivals, thereby permitting a viable acoustic measurement
where previous acoustic devices would have been ineffective.
Data-processing methods used to extract shear wave arrival times are somewhat complex, and
mirror seismic-processing methods; i.e., multiple waveforms are "stacked." Yet it is quite common
to "see" shear arrivals on variable density displays of the sort shown in Figure 4: Variable Density
Display with Compressional and Shear Wave First Arrivals Indicated.

Figure 4

VERTICAL SEISMIC PROFILE (VSP)

Another seismic application related to the acoustic log is the vertical seismic profile (VSP).
By suspending a geophone in the wellbore and actuating an energy source at surface,
reflections of compressional waves may be recorded. Some of these arrive at the geophone
after being reflected from beds below the bottom of the well. Thus the VSP affords a method
of looking ahead of the drill bit. A schematic of the setup to make a VSP survey is shown in
Figure 5: Setup for a VSP Survey,

Figure 5

and an example of the results in Figure 6: Results of a VSP Survey.

Figure 6

Special Open Hole Tools

Caliper Logs
The caliper log measures the diameter of the borehole. The first caliper logs were
developed to determine borehole size in holes shot with nitroglycerin. These early
logs showed large variations in hole size, even in the portions of the hole that had
not been shot. This illustrated the need for the caliper log over the entire hole.
Methods of Recording Several types of caliper are currently in use. One type consists
of three or four spring-driven arms that contact the wall of the borehole. The
instrument is lowered to the total depth, and the arms are released either
mechanically or electrically. The spring tension against the arms centers the tool in
the well. The arms move in and out with the change in wellbore diameter. The arm
motion is transmitted to a rheostat so that change in the resistance of an electric
circuit is proportional to the hole diameter. The borehole diameter is recorded at the
surface by measuring the potential across this resistance.
Another instrument uses three flexible springs that contact the wall of the borehole.
These springs are connected to a plunger that moves up or down as the springs
expand or contract with changes in borehole diameter. The plunger passes through
two coils. When an alternating current is passed through one coil, an electromotive
force (emf) is induced in the other coil. The amount of this induced emf is a function
of the plunger position and is proportional to borehole diameter.
Both of these instruments may be adjusted to record borehole area rather than hole
diameter. If the caliper log is used to determine hole volume, it is desirable to record
area on a linear scale. If the caliper log is used to determine hole configuration, the
hole diameter is recorded on a linear scale.
A third type of caliper log, the microcaliper, is discussed in connection with the
electrical-log microdevices. This instrument uses two pads rather than arms or
flexible springs. Hole diameter is determined by the movement of these pads, which
are held against the borehole wall by springs.
Typical Configuration on the Borehole A schematic drawing of a typical borehole (
Figure 1 ) shows that some formations cave considerably, causing enlarged holes.

Figure 1

Other formations do not cave, and because of the presence of mudcake, the hole size
may actually be reduced to less than bit size. Some formations (not shown here)
may swell, causing reduction in hole size.
The primary cause of formation caving is the action of the drilling fluid, bit, and
drillpipe. Most drilling muds, composed primarily of water, exert chemical action on
shales (hydration of the shales), often causing them to disintegrate and slough into
the hole. The amount and rate of this sloughing depend on the nature of the mud
and shale. "Heaving" shales swell rather than disintegrate.
If a fresh-water mud is used to drill a salt section, it dissolves salt until the mud
becomes salt-saturated. The drilling fluid does not "react" with rock such as
limestone, dolomite, and sandstone. If those formations are permeable, however, a
mudcake will rapidly form ( Figure 1 ). Mudcake character (density and thickness)
varies with the mud used to drill the well, and its thickness is limited by erosion of
the circulating drilling fluid.
If/when shallow portions of the hole are drilled with water, loosely cemented sands
encountered may cave.
The action of the bit is not very important, but if a thin sand is surrounded by shales
that have caved, the bit probably knocks off part of the sand ledge with each round
trip.

Action of the drillpipe against the side of the hole causes some enlargement even in
sandstones and limestone. Though this enlargement may not be great enough to
affect hole volume appreciably, it may cause keyseating and necessitate a fishing
job. Formation "wear" by the drillpipe causes the hole to be noncylindrical, in which
case a four-arm caliper will display the long and short axes of the hole.

Interpretation and Application of Caliper Logs

Caliper logs are usually recorded on vertical scales from 1 in. = 100 ft to 5 in. - 100
ft. The horizontal scale is selected to show a detailed picture of hole diameter and is
usually in the order of 1 in. = 4 in. Because of the difference in scales, it is easy to
get the impression from caliper logs that tremendous cavities are created. Keep in
mind that when a normal borehole is plotted on the same horizontal and vertical
scales, it is evident that it is quite "regular."
The primary uses of the caliper log are:

to compute hole volume to determine the amount of cement needed to fill up to

a certain depth

to determine hole diameter accurately for use in interpreting other

logs

to locate permeable zones as evidenced by the presence of a filter

cake
Other applications of the caliper log include proper location of casing centralizers and packer
seats for openhole drillstem tests.
Caliper logs are referred to as borehole geometry logs in conjunction with hole
deviation and hole azimuth measurements. Figure 1 is an example of such a log using
a standard three-track presentation.

Figure 1

The borehole orientation is displayed in track 1 while the two independent orthogonal
caliper readings are recorded in track 2 with a standard scaling. The caliper data in
track 3 show a reduced sensitivity, and are displayed together with the bit size and
future casing size. This visual display, enhanced by the shading between the calipers
and the bit size, quickly gives a clear impression of the borehole shape. Within the
depth track, the total hole volume integration is recorded along the edge of track 1,
and the cement volume (the difference between the total hole volume and future
casing volume) is presented along the edge of track 2.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Nuclear magnetic resonance logging measures the signal generated by hydrogen
nuclei as they rotate (process) about the earth's magnetic field after a field that
aligned them is shut off. The tool measures how many hydrogen nuclei stay aligned
long enough to be measured and how long it takes to align them.
The signal reflects all the hydrogen nuclei except

those in water in intimate contact with surfaces. The tool does not see the fluid
in a shale and does not see the irreducible water in a sand. Thus, the fluid it does
see is called free fluid. In a clean carbonate, even a very fine-grained one, the
tool sees all the fluid.

those in oil more viscous than about 500 Cp at reservoir

temperature. Oil heavier than l4-l8 API is usually not seen except at
high temperatures.
Nuclear magnetic resonance can be used for various purposes.
Identification of Permeable Formations The free fluid index (FFI) presented on the
log represents. the portion of total pore fluids free to flow. FFI is thus zero except
where fluids in pores flow in response to a pressure gradient.
Reflection of Permeability Differences Measurements enable prediction of sandstone
permeability. Several empirical relations have been shown to reflect how permeability
increases with increasing FFI, and time alignment of hydrogen nuclei (Tl). Each
permeability representation depends on parameters determined from comparisons
with core-measured permeability.
Recognition of Zones with Heavy Oil Containing Movable Water The signal from very
viscous oil decays so rapidly that it is difficult to detect it. Thus, these tools show
movable water only and can be used to predict the response to injected steam.
Measurement of Residual Oil Chemicals can be added to the mud in order to cause
rapid decay of the signal from mud filtrate. A recording after invasion of such mud
filtrate measures accurately the residual oil target for tertiary recovery.
Measurement of Carbonate Porosity Total porosity in clean carbonates independent of
whether they are limestone or dolomite.
Simplification of Log Interpretation in Lithologies Where Other Logs are Ambiguous
Potentially, the magnetic resonance logging can simplify log interpretation in
diatomites, chalks, and other special lithologies.

Borehole Gravimeter (BHGM)

By measuring the acceleration due to gravity, G, at two different stations in a well,
the density of the slab of rock between these stations can be calculated. Since the
variations in G due to rock density are very small, a very sensitive device is required.
The nominal value of G at the surface of the earth is 980 cm/sec2 or 980 gal. To be of
practical use, a BHGM tool needs to measure microgals. Assuming such
measurements can be made in an accurate and repeatable fashion, the average
density of a layer of rock between two points in a well can be calculated. Figure 1
illustrates the principle.

Figure 1

The further apart the two measurements are made, the greater the accuracy of the
result calculated. For example, if the difference in G between two stations, G, is
measured to an accuracy of 7 microgals, then the corresponding accuracy for the
calculated density of the layer of rock encompassed between those two stations is
0.028 gm/cc if the spacing is 10 ft, but 0.014 gm/cc if the spacing is 20 ft. This
interplay of tool accuracy (sensitivity), station spacing, and detectable density
variation is illustrated in Figure 2 .

Figure 2

The volume of rock investigated by BHGM surveys is a function of the spacing

between stations. Short spacing measurements investigate small rock volumes,
longer measurements larger volumes. Figure 3 illustrates this concept.

Figure 3

If measurements are made at the top and bottom of a slab of formation 100 ft thick,
90% of the measured G effect will come from within an annulus round the borehole
of 500 ft radius. For a 30 ft station difference, the 90% response is from within a

radius of 150 ft. A rough rule of thumb is that the BHGM "reads out" to five times the
spacing between stations.
At all events the tool investigates a very large volume of rock compared to a
conventional formation density tool, which reads a few inches at most into the
formation.
There are currently two main applications for the BHGM:

obtaining formation density in completed wells not logged with a modern

logging suite

detecting lithology, porosity, and fluid changes in the formation some

distance from the borehole
An example of the first application is the detection of gas zones in an old well that has only an
electric log. At the time these wells were logged and completed, gas production was not an
economic proposition. Now that it is, the question remains of how to distinguish high-resistivity
zones seen on the old ES log that are gas-bearing from low-porosity tight zones that have the
same high resistivity. A BHGM survey can determine formation density over 10 to 20 ft intervals.
Gas-bearing zones are likely to show densities closer to 2.0 gm/cc than the 2.5 gm/cc or more
shown in tight zones.
An example of the second application is the detection of better porosity or gas some
distance from an otherwise dry well. (The BHGM has been particularly successful in
the Niagaran Reef plays in Michigan.) If the density distant from the borehole is
calculated to be less than the density indicated by the conventional density log, then
the well may be fractured over the more attractive gas-bearing or higher porosity
zones.
Two tools are commercially available. They are the vibrating string type and the
Lacoste-Romberg zero-length spring type. The Lacoste-Romberg device is the one
used most frequently, due to its superior accuracy, repeatability, and temperature
rating. Figure 4 illustrates the principal components of this device.

Figure 4

Figure 5 illustrates both an electric log and BHGM survey in a Gulf Coast Miocene

sand/shale series.

Figure 5

Of interest are the two high-resistivity kicks seen at 2735-2750 ft and 2765-2780 ft.
Either could be hydrocarbon-bearing or tight. The BHGM survey successfully
predicted gas production from the upper sand from the calculated density of 2.08
gm/cc in contrast to the 2.38 gm/cc density in the lower sand. The well was
perforated in the upper sand for an absolute open-flow potential (AOF) of 1.7
MMscf/D.
Figure 6 illustrates a carbonate well in which a featureless zone (6732-6750 ft) on the

formation-density-compensated (FDC)

Figure 6

log was successfully completed for 1.5 MMscf/D because of the disparity between the
BHGM density of 2.58 gm/cc and the FDC density of 2.72 gm/cc.

Borehole Televiewer (BHTV)

The BHTV is an acoustic device that scans the surface of the wellbore or casing by
rotating an acoustic source (transducer) in the horizontal plane while the tool is
moved vertically along the wellbore axis ( Figure 1 ). The amplitude and/or travel
time of the acoustic signal reflected from the borehole or casing wall is displayed as a
photograph of the section logged.

Figure 1

With the help of a flux gate compass, an oriented acoustic picture of the inside of the
wellbore is provided as if it were split vertically along the north axis and laid flat.
The acoustic picture is presented in shades of gray and is a record of the amount of
acoustic energy reflected from the borehole wall. A smooth surface reflects better
than a rough one, a hard surface better than a soft, and a normal surface produces
larger reflections than an oblique or slanted surface.
When a smooth, normal borehole wall is scanned, maximum energy is reflected, and
the resulting image is a series of bright lines. However, when a feature such as a
fracture with its attendant discontinuities is surveyed, a minimum amount of energy
is reflected, and the feature appears as a dark line (dark represents reduced
reflected energy).
In addition to fractures, features such as vugs, bedding planes, and changes in
lithology, as well as perforations, ruptures, or pits in casing can be seen on the
televiewer log.
In openhole, the BHTV is used to detect and measure the dip of fractures and
bedding planes. Figure 2 is an isometric sketch of a wellbore intersected by a
nonvertical fracture or bedding plane and a corresponding BHTV log.

Figure 2

To determine dip, one merely finds the minimum of the sinusoid (indicated by the
arrow) and reads the direction from the azimuth scale at the bottom of the log. Dip
angle is determined by measuring the peak-to-peak amplitude, h, of the sinusoid and
combining it with the diameter, d, of the wellbore:
dip angle = tan-1(h/d)
Figure 3 is a view of a high-angle fracture or bedding plane intersecting the wellbore with north
dip.

Figure 3

If a high-angle fracture intersects the wellbore with west dip, the BHTV anomaly is a full sine
wave with a minimum to the west and a maximum peak occurring to the east, as shown in
Figure 4 .

Figure 4

In the case of a fracture or bedding plane dipping to the east, the minimum would be to the east
and the maximum to the west.
Figure 5 is an isometric view of a vertical fracture intersecting the wellbore in an east-

west direction and a corresponding BHTV log.

Figure 5

The fracture appears as two vertical dark lines 1800 apart.

In a cased hole the BHTV may be used to detect perforations ( Figure 6 ),

Figure 6

or evaluate damaged casing ( Figure 7 ).

Figure 7

The BHTV can be run in any gas-free liquid such as fresh water, saturated brine,
crude oil, or drilling mud. Operating limits for various mud weights and hole sizes
may be determined from published charts.
Prerequisites for a top-quality log are a centered tool in a round hole. The log shown
in Figure 8 meets these requirements.

Figure 8

There is a dark area on the left side of the log caused by the tool being slightly off
center. Otherwise, the symmetrical intensity from left to right indicates a centered
tool in a round hole.

Cased Hole Logs

Pulsed Neutron Logs
A pulsed neutron log provides a means of evaluating a formation after the well has
been cased. It is of particular value for

evaluating old wells, where the original openhole logs are inadequate or
nonexistent

monitoring reservoir performance over an extended period of time

monitoring the progress of the secondary and tertiary recovery
projects

evaluating the formation, as a last resort, should the drillpipe

become stuck

It is the most widely used and most direct logging method in cased holes at the present time.
Other nuclear measurements are being developed that may eventually give superior results;
these include the carbon/oxygen type logs and activation logs.
Though all commercially available tools are designed to measure the same formation
parameters, their operating systems are all slightly different.
Principle of Measurement Regardless of the tool used, the principle of measurement
remains the same. When a neutron generator is turned on for a very short period of
time, a "burst" of neutrons leaves the tool. Since neutrons can easily pass through
both the steel housing of the tool and the tubing/ casing, a "cloud" of neutrons
gathers in the formation. Fast neutrons soon become "thermalized" by collisions with
atoms in the formation. The most effective thermalizing agent is the hydrogen
present in the pore space in the form of water or hydrocarbon. Once in the thermal
state, a neutron is liable to be captured. The capture process depends on the capture
cross section of the formation. In general, chlorine dominates the capture process.
Since chlorine is present in formation water in the form of salt (NaCl), the ability of
the formation to capture thermal neutrons reflects the salt content and, hence, the
water saturation. The capturing of a thermal neutron by a chlorine atom gives rise to
a capture gamma ray. Pulsed neutron tools therefore monitor these capture gamma
rays. Thus, the common elements of all commercial pulsed neutron tools are a
pulsed neutron generator and two gamma ray detectors at different distances from
the neutron generator. Figure 1 illustrates a generalized neutron tool.

Figure 1

The cloud of neutrons produced by the initial neutron generator burst results in a
cloud of thermal neutrons in the vicinity of the tool, which dies away as the neutrons
are captured by chlorine atoms or other neutron absorbers in the formation. If there
is plenty of chlorine present (i.e., high water saturation), the cloud of thermal
neutrons disappears quite quickly. If, however, hydrocarbons are present (i.e., low
water saturation), the cloud of thermal neutrons decays much more slowly.
The rate of decay is measured by monitoring how many capture gamma rays enter
the gamma ray counter(s) as a function of time. Figure 2 plots the relative counting
rate on the y-axis, and time, in microseconds, following the initial burst of fast
neutrons, on the x-axis.

Figure 2

Note that after a few hundred microseconds a straight-line portion of the decay curve
develops. Note also how the water line has a steeper slope than the oil line. At later
times note the background gamma ray count rate that remains substantially
constant.
The y-axis in Figure 2 is logarithmic but the x-axis (time scale) is linear. Thus, the
straight-line portions represent exponential decay. If N is the number of gamma rays
observed at time t and No is the number observed at t = 0, then
N = No et/
where r is the time constant of the decay process. is measured in units of time. It is convenient
to quote values of in microseconds (1 microsecond = l0-6 seconds). The capture cross section
of the formation, the property of interest, is directly related to by the equation:
= 4550/
where is the capture cross section measured in capture units (CU).
Thus S is best measured by finding the straight-line portion of the capture gamma
ray decay, and measuring its slope. This is accomplished in different ways by various
commercially available tools.
On a typical pulsed neutron log as many as 9 curves may be displayed. Figure 3

Figure 3

illustrates a typical presentation:

Curve Name

Units

Logs Track

Remarks

Sigma ()

CU

2&3

Main curve

Tau ( )

-sec

2&3

Ratio

Pseudoporosity

Near Counts

cps

Near detector, gate 1

Far Counts

cps

Far detector, gate 1

Monitor or
Background

cps

Near detector, gate 3

Quality Control

Check of 7 loop

Gamma Ray

API

Natural gamma

Casing Collar
Log

Both memorized and direct

The Sigma Curve The curve, the principal pulsed neutron measurement, behaves
rather like an openhole resistivity curve; i.e., it deflects to the left (high values of in
wet zones and to the right (low values of in hydrocarbon-bearing zones or lowporosity formations.
Since values in shales are quite high, they tend to mask the effect of hydrocarbons,
making shaly pay zones at first appear to be water-bearing. Figure 4 is a comparison
of with resistivity.

Figure 4

The Tau Curve is just another way of looking at . In fact, is the basic
measurement of the tool (the decay time constant for the thermal neutron
population). However, all interpretation equations for pulsed neutron logs are linear
functions of . Thus, it is much easier to work with than with . It is recommended
that be recorded on tape but left of f the log presentation, since its scaled
reciprocal () gives exactly the same information in a form that is easier to work
with.
Ratio Curve The ratio curve is a porosity indicator derived by taking the ratio of
gamma ray counts seen during gate 1 at the near and far detectors. The ratio curve,
behaving very much like a compensated neutron porosity curve, deflects to the right
(low ratio) in low porosity or in the presence of gas. Figure 5 shows the ratio curve
response to a pocket of gas trapped below a packer behind a tubing nipple.

Figure 5

In the absence of any openhole porosity logs, the ratio can be used in combination
with to find formation porosity.
Near and Far Count-Rate Display In track 3 the near and far count rates are
displayed as an overlay ( Figure 6 ). When the correct scales are chosen for the near
and far count rate displays, the result is a useful "quick-look" log with the following
properties:
in gas Fl > Nl (dotted left of solid)

Figure 6

in shales Fl < Nl (dotted right of solid)

and in clean oil- or water-bearing zones, the two curves lie practically on top of one another.
Background and Quality Curves The background curve is a very insensitive natural
gamma ray curve. Little movement shows on this curve except in "hot" zones, which
are very radioactive. This curve is sometimes omitted without any great loss.
To summarize, the most important curves to work with are:

for water saturation

Ratio

for porosity

GR

for shale content

Near/far display

for gas indications

Capture Cross Sections

The capture cross section of a formation depends on the chemical elements present,
and on their relative abundance. values vary over a wide range.
Common matrix materials (sand, lime, and dolomite) exhibit capture cross sections
in the range of 8 to 12 CU. Pore-filling fluids such as water, oil, and gas also show a
wide range, brines varying from 22 CU (fresh water) up to 120 CU (saturated brine).
Oils, depending on the amount of dissolved gas they contain, range from 18 to 22
CU. Gases, depending on their gravity, temperature, and pressure, range from 4 to
12 CU.
Interpretation of Pulsed Neutron Logs Practical interpretation of pulsed neutron logs
in clean formations is conceptually very simple. The total formation capture cross
section () recorded on the log, is the sum of the products of the volume fractions
found in the formation and their respective capture cross sections. Thus, in its
simplest form:
log = matrix (1 -) + fluid
Figure 1 should clarify the mathematical relationship.

Figure 1

If the "fluid" is a mixture of oil and water, the log response is described by
log = ma (1 -) + w Sw + hy (1 - Sw)
By rearrangement of the equation, we have

Reservoir Monitoring-Time Lapse Technique Pulse neutron logs are useful for monitoring the
depletion of a reservoir. The time lapse method is used. A base log is run in the well shortly after
initial completion but before substantial depletion of the producing horizons. A few days, weeks,
or even months of production are required to "clean up" near-wellbore effects of the drilling
operation, such as mud filtrate invasion. Once a base log is obtained, the well may be relogged at
time intervals over the life of the field, depending on production rate variations.

Successive logs may be overlaid so that changes in saturation can be easily spotted
by changes in . A good example of this ( Figure 2 ) shows a base log and three
additional logs at roughly six-month intervals. Note the rapid rise of the oil-water
contact(s) with passage of time.

Figure 2

Log-Inject-Log The log-inject-log technique is used to find residual oil saturations.

Once a base log is run, the formation is injected with waters of different salinities
and logged again. In Figure 3 , the formation was injected with brine and logged,
then injected with seawater and logged a third time.

Figure 3

Provided the capture cross section of the seawater and brine flushes are known, all
the unknown quantities may be normalized out and the residual oil saturation found,
using

Note that it is not necessary to know either ma or oilThe technique has many variations, some
using specially chlorinated oil that has a high capture cross section.

Inelastic Neutron-Gamma (Carbon-Oxygen) Logs

High-energy neutrons (14 Mev) produced by a pulsed-neutron source are directed
into the formation, and the energy spectrum of gamma rays produced by the
neutron bombardment is sampled at various times both during and after the neutron
burst. Neutrons can interact with matter in two distinct ways to create gamma rays:
by inelastic scattering with nuclei at high energies (>5 Mev) and, through capture or
absorption, by nuclei at low energies (<.025 Mev). The gamma rays produced from
each of these reactions have unique energies that depend on the type of nucleus

with which the neutron reacts. By measuring the number and energy of gamma rays
produced by neutron bombardment, the elemental composition of the formation can
be inferred.
Applications These tools provide a measure of the oil saturation, C/O ratio; lithology,
Si/(Ca + Si) ratio; porosity, H/(Ca + Si) ratio; shale, Fe/(Ca + Si) ratio; and salinity,
Cl/H ratio, in open or cased holes. This logging method is used to determine the
presence of hydrocarbons behind casing, regard-less of formation water salinity.
At present, reliable measurements can be made only with optimum borehole and
formation conditions. The major interpretive uncertainty stems from the inability of
the measurement to distinguish between carbon associated with carbonates (e.g.,
limestone, CaCO3) and carbon associated with hydrocarbons.
Depending on the tool used, the tool either (a) measures the number of gamma rays
in two energy "windows," centered around the expected carbon and oxygen inelastic
scattering energies during the burst and around the silicon and calcium thermal
capture energies after the burst, or (b) employs a "spectral fitting analysis" to
determine the yields of carbon, oxygen, calcium, silicon, and several other elements.
This spectral fitting analysis uses three gates: the burst gate, the background gate,
and the capture gate. The burst gate is at the source, the background gate cuts
down on borehole interference, and the capture gate gives capture readings. The
burst gate minus the background gate gives the inelastic spectrum and the capture
gate gives the capture spectrum ( Figure 1 ).

Figure 1

Ratios of element yields (C/O, Si/Ca, Cl/H, etc.) are normally presented. Given a
constant porosity and lithology, an increase in the carbon-oxygen ratio indicates an
increase in oil saturation. It should be noted that by taking elemental ratios, any
variations in neutron output from the source are normalized.
Note the following considerations:

The log is generally run in cased holes when conditions are not favorable for pulsed
neutron logs because of low formation water
salinities.
Optimum formation conditions are high porosity (>20%), low water salinity (<50,000
ppm NaCl), and consistent or known lithology. The log can be useful where salinities are
unknown or variable.
Depth of investigation is very shallow for measurements on the inelastic scattering
spectrum. This limits the tools openhole use and forces consideration of the effects from
the casing annulus.
Optimum borehole conditions are a small-diameter hole and constant fluid composition
in the casing. If an oil-water contact or varying salinities are expected in the casing, a
fluid displacer should be considered.
At present, the statistical uncertainty in analyzing the spectrum is the tools limiting
feature. Advances in detector design and spectrum analysis should
solve these problems.
Figure 2 shows a continuous carbon/oxygen log.

Figure 2

The curves it presents are:

Track 1

Monitor
Silicon correlation

Tracks 2 and 3

Silicon-calcium ratio (capturespectrum)Carbon-oxygen ratio

Calcium-silicon ratio (inelastic spectrum)

Figure 3 shows an inelastic neutron gamma log of the sort that employs spectral

filtering.

Figure 3

The data it records are:

Track 1

Ion-Indicating ratio Fe/(Si+Ca) Porosity indicating ratio (H/(Si+Ca)

Tracks 2 and 3 Lithology indicator (Si/(Si+Ca)

Carbon/oxygen ratio (C/O)
Salinity indicator (Cl/H)

Casing Inspection Logs

Casing Inspection Logs

Inspection of the mechanical state of the completion string is an important aspect of

production logging. Many production (or injection) problems can be traced back to
mechanical damage to, or corrosion of, the completion string. A number of inspection
methods are available, including
multifingered caliper logs
electrical potential logs
electromagnetic devices
borehole televiewers or borehole TV
The majority of these devices measure the extent to which corrosion has taken
place. Only the electrical potential logs indicate where corrosion is currently taking
place. With the exception of the caliper logs, all the devices require that the tubing
be pulled before running the survey, since most methods are designed to inspect
casing rather than tubing, and most employ large-diameter tools.

Caliper Logs
Various arrangements of caliper mechanisms are available to gauge the internal
shape of a casing or tubing string. Figure 1 illustrates three such tools.

Figure 1

Tubing profile calipers determine the extent of wear and corrosion and detect holes in
the tubing string--all in a single run into the well. The large number of feelers on
each size of caliper ensures detection of even very small irregularities in the tubing
wall.
In pumping wells, the tubing caliper log may be run by one person, not a whole
pulling unit crew. A "pull sheet" showing the maximum percentage of wall loss of
every joint of tubing in the well may be prepared. Before the well is pulled, a
program of rearranging the tubing string can be provided. Moving partially worn
joints nearer the surface and discarding thin-wall joints substantially prolongs the
effective life of tubing strings and reduces pulling costs in pumping wells. In flowing
or gas lift wells, the tubing profile caliper provides an economical method of
periodically checking for corrosion damage, monitoring the effectiveness of a
corrosion inhibitor program, or detecting and removing damaged tubing joints when
"working over" a well.
One accessory tool that may be run in combination with the tubing profile caliper is a
split detector. This tool, functioning much like a magnetic collar locator, is designed
to detect and log vertical splits or hairline cracks in the tubing that might be difficult

to locate with the profile caliper. In practice, the split detector is used to log down
the tubing, and the profile caliper to log up the tubing. This gives a complete
inspection for wall thickness and splits in one run of the cable in the well.
Casing profile calipers, which log 4 1/2-in. through 20-in. OD casing, are especially
valuable where drilling operations have been carried on for an extended period of
time through a string of casing. The determination of casing wear is of great
importance when deciding if a liner can be safely hung, or if a full production string is
required. In producing wells, the casing profile caliper will locate holes or areas of
corrosion that may require remedial work. The tool is also valuable when abandoning
wells because it permits grading of casing to be salvaged before it is pulled.

Electrical Potential Lags

An electrical potential log determines the galvanic current flow entering or leaving
the casing.
This indicates not only where corrosion is taking place and the amount of iron being
lost, but also where cathodic protection will be effective. The magnitude and
direction of the current inside and outside the casing is derived mathematically from
electrical potential measurements made at fixed intervals throughout the casing
string. In order to achieve reliable results from this kind of survey, the borehole fluid
must be an electrical insulator; i.e., the hole must either be empty or filled with oil or
gas. Mud or other aqueous solutions cause a "short" that invalidates the
measurements. The log itself is a recording versus depth of the small galvanic
voltages detected. Figure 1 illustrates such a log, showing three runs, for each of
which a different cathodic protection voltage was applied to the casing string.

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 2

and Figure 3 show an interpretation of casing potential profile logs run both with and
without cathodic protection.

Figure 3

Note that in Figure 3 the metal loss has been reduced to practically zero by
application of an appropriate cathodic protection.

Electromagnetic Devices
The most commonly used casing corrosion inspection tools are of the
electromagnetic type. They come in two versions: those that attempt to measure the
remaining metal thickness in a casing string, and those that try to detect defects in
the inner or outer wall of the casing.
They operate in a manner similar to openhole-induction tools. Each consists of a
transmitter coil and a receiver coil. An alternating current is sent through the
transmitter coil. This sets up an alternating magnetic field that interacts both with
the casing and the receiver coil ( Figure 1 ).

Figure 1

The coils are spaced about three casing diameters apart to ensure that the flux lines
sensed by the receiver coil are those that have passed through the casing.
The signal induced in the receiver coil will be out of phase with the transmitted
signal. In general, the phase difference is controlled by the thickness of the casing
wall. Thus, the raw log measurement is one of phase lag in degrees and the log is
scaled in degrees. Figure 2 illustrates an ETT log in severely corroded casing.

Figure 2

Note that an increasing thickness corresponds to an increase in the phase shift

angle. Some presentations of this log show a rescaling in terms of actual pipe
thickness. This requires that the operator make some calibration readings in the type
of casing present in the well. It is common to see large differences in thickness
between adjacent stands due to a number of variables, such as the drift diameter of
the pipe, the weight/foot, and the magnetic relative permeability of the steel used.
Another closely related measurement uses a slightly different technique and forms
the basis of the pipe analysis log (PAL), also known as the vertilog. Two
electromagnetic measurements are of interest in the context of the pipe analysis
tool: magnetic flux leakage and eddy current distortion.
If the poles of a magnet are positioned near a sheet of steel, magnetic flux will flow
through the sheet ( Figure 3 ).

Figure 3

As long as the metal has no flaws the flux lines will be parallel to the surface.
However, at the location of a cavity, either on the surface of the sheet or inside it,
the uniform flux pattern will be distorted. The flux lines will move away from the
surface of the steel at the location of the anomaly, an effect known as flux leakage.
The amount of flux distortion will depend upon the size of the defect. If a coil is
moved at a constant speed along the direction of magnetic flux parallel to the metal
sheet, a voltage will be induced in the coil as it passes through the area of flux
leakage.
The larger the anomaly, the greater the flux leakage, and therefore the greater the
voltage. The magnetic flux is distorted on both faces of the sheet, regardless of the
location of the defect, and therefore the coil only needs to be moved along one
surface to survey the sheet completely. As the coil must be moved through a
changing magnetic flux to produce a voltage, no signal is generated when it is moved
parallel to the surface of an undamaged sheet of steel.
When a relatively high frequency alternating current is applied to a coil close to a
sheet of steel, the resulting magnetic field induces eddy currents in the steel (
Figure 4 ).

Figure 4

These eddy currents in turn produce a magnetic field that tends to cancel the original
field, and the total magnetic field is the vector sum of the two fields. A measure
voltage would be induced in a sensor coil situated in the magnetic field. The
generation of eddy currents is, at relatively high frequencies, a near-surface effect,
so if the surface of the steel adjacent to the coil is damaged, the magnitude of the
eddy currents will be reduced and, consequently, the total magnetic field will be
increased. This will result in a variation in the sensor coil voltage. A flaw in the sheet
of metal on the surface away from the coils will not be detected and, depending upon
its distance from the surface, a cavity within the sheet will not influence the eddy
currents either.
The measuring sonde of the pipe analysis tool consists of an iron core with the pole
pieces of an electromagnet at each end, and twelve sensor pads in two arrays
between the pole pieces ( Figure 5 ).

Figure 5

The two arrays are juxtaposed to ensure complete coverage of the inner surface of
the casing. Each of the pads contains a transmitting coil for the eddy current
measurement, and two sensor coils wound in opposite directions for both the flux
leakage and eddy current measurements. The two sensor coils are wound in opposite
directions so that for both measurements there is zero voltage so long as no anomaly
exists, but a signal will be produced when the quality of the casing is different below
the two coils. The same sensor coils can be used for both measurements, as two
distinct frequencies are involved. A frequency of 2 kHz is used for the eddy cur-rent
measurement, giving a depth of investigation of about 1 mm. The sensor pads are
mounted on springs so that they are held in contact with the casing, facilitated
through centralization of the sonde. Various sizes of magnet pole pieces are available
and are selected according to the inside diameter of the casing (casing ID) to
optimize the signal strength for the flux leakage measurement.
Six measurements of flux leakage and eddy current distortion are made on each
array, and the maximum signal from each array is sent uphole to the surface
instrumentation. Four signals are recorded, both eddy current and flux leakage data
from the two arrays.
The flux leakage data correspond to anomalies located anywhere in the casing, while
eddy current distortion only occurs at the inside wall of the casing. The standard

presentation of the measurements is as shown in Figure 6 , with the data from the
two arrays displayed in tracks 2 and 3.

Figure 6

Enhanced data are displayed in track 1, making any anomalies more obvious. At any
particular depth the larger of the two flux leakage readings is selected and held for
about 0.3 seconds on the display; the same is done for the eddy current data. This
enhancement only occurs if the signal amplitudes exceed a certain threshold, to
ensure that only significant defects are made more apparent. The holding of the
signal allows signal levels to be seen more clearly.

Cement Bond Logging

This variant of acoustic logging makes use of the observation that on acoustic logs
run inside casing with good cement bonding, the amplitude of the signal detected at
the receiver is much reduced, while in unsupported casing the signal remains strong.
The log format may include a gamma ray and casing collar log for depth control, a
transit-time curve, and an amplitude measurement for evaluation of bonding. There
may also be a "signature" or a "variable density" display of the actual waveforms.
These displays aid both quality control and log evaluation. In Figure 1 , a typical

cement bond log presentation, GR and casing collar logs are omitted.

Figure 1

Measurement Principle A cement sheath bonded to the casing can be intuitively

predicted to attenuate sound propagation in the pipe. CBL tools are able to
differentiate between "no cement" and "solid cement." In the in-between range,
however, these tools are not yet able to provide unambiguous answers to the
question, Will the cement job prevent high-pressure fluid flow in the annulus? Even
so, the tool is a valuable and much-used adjunct to completion work.
Cement bond logs began as auxiliaries to the acoustic log, run with tools designed
for D-type logging. The information supplied was important enough to motivate
development of special CBL tools, which now do the majority of the bond-logging
measurements.
The chief problem with acoustic-type CBL tools is that the casing-signal attenuation
is not directly related to the degree of hydraulic sealing provided by the annular
cement. Hence, no matter how accurately the attenuation is measured, answers are

still in terms of probabilities, except in the extreme conditions of perfect or no

bonding.
Figure 2 illustrates the interplay of cement presence, bonding, signature, variable

density display, and amplitude.

Figure 2

A CBL log should always include a section above the presumed cement top, where
the pipe is completely unbonded. This gives one endpoint for the log; the amplitude
curve should never read higher than this. The other endpoint is given by the zero
point on the log scale. The curve never reads zero, but comes close (2-3 mv) in wellbonded pipe.
The paradox of acoustic-amplitude-type CBL logging is that the signal of most
interest is zero or near it, but the equipment triggers on a finite signal in normal
operating mode. As the signal approaches zero, it gets harder and harder to finetune the system to pick up the right signal. To correct this, the more sophisticated
tools allow a detection window set at a selected time interval after the first pulse.
This time is normally close to the casing transit time.
As with normal interval transit time logging, good quality control with the CBL
requires the use of an oscilloscope picture. With most equipment, this is the only way
to be sure that the amplitude measurement is made on the first-arriving half-cycle of

acoustic energy, essential for meaningful interpretation. Figure 3 illustrates this

concept.

Figure 3

In normal logging mode, the system triggers on the first arriving (E l) half-cycle,
measuring both its single-receiver travel time (time from transmitter to receiver) and
its amplitude. Two things can prevent this: (1) weak signals in well-bonded pipe can
go below the detection threshold and (2) in hard-rock country, it is possible for
formation signals to arrive ahead of casing signals. In the first case, cycle skips
appear on the log ( Figure 4 ), and the amplitudes recorded in the "skip" intervals are
not interpretable.

Figure 4

In the second case, the transit-time curve departs from the fairly straight-line value
of casing transit time, and begins to follow formation variations. The scale is not
directly correlatable, since the CBL transit time is a 3-ft single-receiver measurement
and is not borehole-compensated. Normal casing transit time is 3 ft X 57 sec/ft plus
the travel time from tool to casing and back again, usually around 250-260 sec.
Most CBL tools assume in-phase arrivals through all sides of the casing, meaning
that the tool must be centered. The degree of centering can be judged from the
transit-time curve. A poorly centered tool produces shorter transit times. Centering
may be virtually impossible in deviated holes or large casings.

Borehole Televiewer
Tools with TV capability are available for borehole scanning.
The oldest is the borehole televiewer (BHTV), which uses a rotating ultrasonic
transmitter and receiver to produce an image of the borehole or casing. There is also
a borehole television camera that uses a TV camera and an intense light source to
transmit a visual image of the borehole wall to the surface ( Figure 1 ).

Figure 1

The borehole television camera records on videotape and can be viewed with
conventional video playback equipment.

Production Logs
Production Logs
Production Logs fit into three categories: profile logging, fluid identification, and
temperature logging.
Profile Logging Profile logging may be used to monitor injection rates in injection
wells, to monitor production rates in producing wells, or to detect casing, tubing,
and/or packer leaks, and channeling behind pipe in poorly cemented zones.

Although some tools can handle both environments, there are some methods
applicable only to injection profiling.
In general, profiles may be obtained without disturbing dynamic well behavior by
using the proper pressure control equipment and operating techniques; i.e., logs can,
and should, be run through tubing without having to kill the well or pull the tubing.
Before attempting to obtain a profile log, plan the operation in advance with the
logging service company, paying particular attention to:

expected flow rate

casing and tubing size, type, and weight
expected wellhead pressure
type of Christmas tree connections
tubing restrictions
corrosive or poisonous production fluids
completion records
openhole logs
Profiling tools available for measurement of fluid flow rates fall into three major categories:
continuous flowmeters

packer or restrictor type flowmeters

radioactive tracers (velocity and tracer modes)
Figure 1 ,

Figure 1

Figure 2 ,

Figure 2

and Figure 3 illustrate the three types of flowmeter--the packer,

Figure 3

the continuous, and the fullbore; Figure 4 illustrates a radioactive tracer tool.

Figure 4

The accuracy of fluid flow rate measurements depends on:

the number of commingled phases

the well deviation
the type of tool and the way it is run
hole diameter variations
production/injection rate variations
Greater confidence in results can be expected when there is only one phase flowing (oil or water
or gas), when the well is vertical, and when the appropriate tool is used for the particular well
conditions. A lesser degree of confidence can be placed in results in deviated wells, conditions
producing froth or slug flow, in wells that are "heading," and where the design limitations of the
tools are exceeded (e.g., continuous flow-meters in low flow rate wells). For safety reasons,
radioactive tracer surveys should only be run in injection wells.

Figure 5 shows a production profile made from a flowmeter survey.

Figure 5

Figure 6 shows a radioactive tracer survey made in a "time-lapse" mode.

Figure 6

Note the final destination of the released tracer material.

Fluid Identification
Production logging tools that can differentiate between oil, gas, and water in a
producing well allow diagnosis of a number of completion problems, better
understanding of reservoir performance, and monitoring of secondary and tertiary
recovery projects.
In particular, they help to pinpoint gas, oil, and water entries into, and exits from,
the production string, as well as to determine, in combination with flow
measurements, how much of which fluid is produced from which horizon.
Many tools are available to distinguish one type of fluid from another. Their functions
are measurement of fluid density, measurement of fluid dielectric constant, recovery
of a fluid sample at well flowing pressure, and measurement of frequency spectrum
of noise generated by fluid flow.
Two commonly used devices are:

the gradiomanometer ( Figure 1 ), which measures the pressure difference in

the wellbore between two pressure sensors a fixed distance apart

Figure 1

the fluid density log (

Figure 2 ),

Figure 2

which measures the absorption of gamma rays by the fluid between a

gamma ray source and a detector
The hydro log ( Figure 3 ) measures the dielectric constant of the fluid flowing in the wellbore.
Because of the large difference between the dielectric constant of oil and water, the holdup of the
flowing mixture may be estimated.

Figure 3

Figure 4 illustrates a downhole fluid sampler.

Figure 4

This instrument may be used to retrieve a sample of fluid from the well. It is useful
for collecting oil, water, and gas samples for PVT analysis and pinpointing fluid levels
in a well.
Turbulent fluid movement generates noise. Both the amplitude and frequency of this
noise vary with the quantity and type of fluid and the medium through which the
fluid is flowing. Measurements of these characteristic sounds can be interpreted to
indicate the type of fluid flow and its location. In the case of gas, it is possible to
calculate the approximate rate of flow.

TEMPERATURE LOGGING
Temperature logs may be used to monitor fluid flow in production or injection wells; they have the
added advantage of detecting fluid flow outside the completion string in tubing/casing annulus or
casing/formation annulus. They are particularly useful for finding gas entries to, or exits from, the
wellbore; channels in poorly cemented sections; lost circulation zones in openhole; and the
cement top in a recently cemented well.
Three types of temperature measurements are commonly available: a conventional
temperature survey, a differential temperature survey, and a radial differential
temperature survey.

Figure 1 illustrates a conventional thermometer and associated temperature survey.

Figure 1

Figure 2 illustrates the radial differential thermometer and its associated survey,

Figure 2

in connection with which the operator should

choose an appropriate scale so that there are no excessive scale changes over
the zone of interest

log going down where possible so that the presence of the tool and
cable in the wellbore does not influence the measurement being made

remember that temperature-measuring devices are normally quite

sensitive to temperature changes, but not very accurate in absolute
terms
Figure 3 illustrates a temperature log showing oil production through a perforated interval.

Figure 3

Sampling & Testing

Sidewall Coring Devices
The objectives of coring are to bring a sample of the formation and its pore fluids to
the surface in an unaltered state, to preserve the sample, and to transport it to a
laboratory for analysis.
These objectives are hard to meet since the very act of cutting a core will, to some
extent, alter both the properties of the rock itself and the saturation of the fluids in
its pores.
A number of techniques exist for minimizing the damage to formation samples. Other
techniques, aimed at restoring the original state of the formation sample when it was
at reservoir conditions, may also be brought into play at the time the core is
analyzed.
Two methods of retrieving formation samples using wireline tools are currently in
use: the conventional sidewall core gun, and a relatively new device, the core
plugger.

Sidewall Cores Figure 1 illustrates a sidewall core gun; Figure 2 shows it in close-up.

Figure 1

The body of the gun carries a number of hollow steel bullets that can be fired
selectively into the formation by means of explosive charges.

Figure 2

Once lodged in the formation, the bullet can be retrieved by means of attached
flexible steel wires. By raising the gun in the borehole, the tension on the wires is
usually increased sufficiently to dislodge the bullet.
Once samples have been collected, the gun is raised to the surface and each core
plug stored in a glass jar marked with the well name and the depth from which it was
cut. Subsequently, these cores may be analyzed for porosity, permeability, and
hydrocarbon content.
Note that the gun is equipped with an SP electrode. This allows the tool to be placed
at the correct depth in the well prior to sampling by correlation of a short section of
the Sp log with other openhole logs already run.
These guns come in a variety of shapes and sizes. On average, they are capable of
retrieving 60 samples in one trip into the hole. The diameter of the core barrel may
be anywhere between 3/4 in. and 1 1/8 in. The length of the core retrieved is a
function of many variables. Depending on the strength of the explosive charge used,
the type of core barrel selected, and the hardness of the formation, the length of the
recovered sample may be as long as 2 in., or as short as nothing at all.
There are obvious limitations to the amount of data that can be obtained from
sidewall cores. In the first place, the sample is taken from a part of the formation
that has been flushed with mud filtrate. Secondly, the act of explosively firing the

coring bullet into the formation may induce local fracturing. Occasionally, the retainer
wires used to retrieve the core barrel may sever and the bullet will be lost in the
hole. Lastly, the trip up the hole to the surface involves a considerable amount of
flushing through the mud column. Despite these drawbacks, sidewall cores are still
good quick-look indicators of formation properties. It is normal practice to inspect
these cores at the wellsite for hydrocarbon odor, fluorescence, stain, and cut if a mud
logging unit or geologists doghouse is available.
Core Plugger The core plugger uses a motorized circular bit to bore into the wall of
the formation in order to retrieve samples. Currently, this tool is capable of cutting
up to 12 core samples in one run in the hole. Core size is 15/16 in. in diameter and 1
3/4 in. long. Each core takes about five minutes to cut. This device works better than
the conventional sidewall core gun in consolidated formations, and causes no
physical damage to the sample.

Wireline Formation Testers

Wireline formation testers serve a number of useful purposes, including obtaining a
sample of formation fluid, gauging formation permeability, and measuring formation
pressure to determine formation pressure gradients.
Wireline formation testers have been used for many years to recover samples of
formation fluid both in open and cased holes. Traditional tools suffered from a
number of drawbacks, such as lack of resolution and accuracy of pressure gauges,
and the inability of the instrumentation to tell the operator whether or not a good
packer seal was obtained until it was too late to rectify the situation.

These inadequacies have now largely been overcome by the introduction of two key
features of modern repeat formation testers, namely quartz crystal pressure gauges
and pretest capabilities that allow the operator to rectify a bad seal before it leads to
undesirable results. An added bonus is the ability of these tools to make pressure
tests independent of sample taking. Indeed, in practice nowadays it is quite common
to use these tools solely to make pressure tests.
Tool Characteristics and Applications Most service companies now offer a repeat
formation tester that includes pretest chambers, sample chambers, and a highresolution pressure gauge.
Wireline formation testers are particularly useful

when investigating zones of interest in which conventional tests are not

feasible, such as those too far above TD, those lacking good intervals for setting
straddle packers, or those with very short intervals, where depth control is critical

for pinning down water-oil, gas-oil, or gas-water contacts

when rig time is critical

when pressure control is critical because of time of day or rig

locations

When ordering the service, give plenty of notice to the service company. Variables such as
sample size, packer hardness, choke size, pressure gauges, and water cushions may not be
universally available. If a sample of recovered hydrocarbons is needed for PVT lab analysis, a
special pressure cylinder should be requested.
When running the tool, a valid test is one that recovers significant quantities of fluid
and/or records formation and hydrostatic pressure.
A dry test is indeterminate, and the tool should be repositioned several times to
determine whether the formation is impermeable (in which case all tests will be dry)
or the tool was set in a shale or tight streak (in which case repositioning should
result in a valid test).
A lost packer seal is also indeterminate. In that case, the tool should be repositioned.
Openhole logs are particularly helpful in resolving dry tests and lost packer seals.
The microlog, if available, is useful as an indicator of tight streaks, and caliper logs,
particularly the four-arm type, are useful for avoiding hole conditions leading to lost
packer seals.
Operating Principles Figure 1 shows the RFT tool in the closed position (a) for
descending into the well, and in the open (set) position (b) for pressure
measurement and sample taking.

Figure 1

Communication between the formation and the tool interior is established through
the probe. Figure 2 is a schematic of the tools sampling system.

Figure 2

Note the details of the actuation of the filter probe: in the setting cycle it is forced to
cut through mudcake, and in the sampling cycle it is retracted to open the path for
formation fluids.
Note also the pretest chambers and the position of the sample chambers. The two
pretest chambers, automatically activated every time the tool is set, withdraw 10 cc
of formation fluid each. Chamber 2 has a higher flow rate than chamber 1. The
actual rates of fluid withdrawal vary with the tool and the downhole conditions but
are approximately 50 cc/min for chamber 1 and 125 cc/min for chamber 2, resulting
in pretest times of roughly 12 seconds and 5 seconds. The pretest samples are
expelled back into the mud column and are not saved.

Figure 3 shows a typical log produced during a test.

Figure 3

Since the tool is stationary in the hole during the test, the recording is made on a
time scale with increasing time in the down-hole direction on the log. Notice that in
track 1, pressure is recorded in analog form. Four subtracks record the units, tens,
hundreds, and thousands of psi.
Each record shows the following pressures:

before tool is set--hydrostatic

during pretest--drawdown
after pretest--buildup
after buildup--formation pressure
The standard gauge used in the RFT is a strain gauge calibrated by a "dead weight" tester. The
accuracy of this system, after applying temperature corrections, is 0.41% of full scale, i.e., 41 psi
for a 10,000 psi gauge. The resolution of the gauge is about I psi, with a repeatability of 3 psi. The
accuracy may be improved to 0.31% full scale if a special calibration technique is employed
involving placement of the gauge and the downhole electronics in a temperature-controlled oven.

Where greater accuracy is required, a high-precision quartz gauge may be used. The
accuracy is then 0.5 psi, provided that the temperature is known within 1 C.
Resolution is on the order of 0.01 psi.
It should be noted ( Figure 4 ) that the quartz gauge is located lower in the tool than
the reference measurement point that is the strain gauge. Hence, the pressure
recorded by the two gauges is different due to the hydrostatic head of a column of
silicone grease.

Figure 4

In some cases, a further pressure difference may be noted between the two gauges,
since the strain gauge is calibrated in psig and the quartz gauge is psia.
Interpretation In order to make the greatest use of RFT data, the analyst should be
able to interpret the following types of RFT records:

pretest records for formation permeability

post pretest buildup for formation permeability

large-sample fill-up time for formation permeability

sequential pressure readings versus depth for pore pressure
gradients

large-sample collection data for expected formation product ion

Pretest Records for Formation Permeability Figure 5 shows a typical pretest record.

Figure 5

In reality, only one pretest is required to estimate formation permeability. The magnitude of the
pressure differential (P) between pretest sampling pressure and formation pressure coupled
with the flow rate during pretest is sufficient to define permeability. In general, this may be found
by a relation of the form
k = A C q / P
where:
k is permeability in millidarcies
A is constant to take care of units
C is the flow shape factor
q is the flow rate in cc/second
is the viscosity of the fluid in cp
P is the drawdown in psi

A number of flow regimes may exist around an RFT tool and the borehole. It is generally agreed
that the flow is somewhere between hemispherical and spherical. Computer modeling of the
probe/formation system for one service companys tool shows that the combination of constants A
C to be used should be such that

The flow rate is derived by dividing the 10 cc volume of the pretest chamber by the sampling time
read from the pressure record. The viscosity, is considered to be that of the mud filtrate and
may be estimated from published charts. P is read from the pressure recording as the difference
between pretest sampling pressure and formation pressure.
The pretest method of permeability determination has these limitations:

If the permeability is very high, the drawdown is very small and cannot be
measured accurately.

If the permeability is very low, the sampling pressure may drop

below the bubble-point, in which case gas or water vapor is liberated
and the
flow rate of the liquid withdrawn is less than the volumetric
displacement rate of the pretest pistons.

The volume of formation investigated is small and hence the

permeability measured may be that of the damaged zone, if present,

and thus not representative of the formation as a whole.
In general, a good estimate of formation permeability may be obtained from a visual inspection of
the pretest record.
Post Pretest Buildup for Formation Permeability Permeabilities obtained from pretest
may be subject to the errors mentioned above; they also may not be measuring
absolute permeability but the relative permeability to the water in the flushed zone.
Figure 6 marks the pretest region on a set of relative permeability curves, from which
it can be deduced that the pretest permeabilities are less than half absolute
permeability when measured in an invaded oil zone.

Figure 6

A preferred method of calculating permeability is the analysis of the late-time portion

of the pressure buildup record after the pretest disturbance has been made. A much
larger rock volume can be investigated in this fashion. The method effectively
measures kro close to Swirr, very close to k absolute (see Figure 6 ) when the
measurement is made above the transition zone.
Figures 7a and 7b illustrate two modes of propagation of a pressure disturbance;
Figure 7a is for spherical propagation and Figure 7b for cylindrical propagation.

Figure 7a

In a thin bed, the cylindrical mode predominates, whereas in a thick bed the
spherical mode prevails.

Figure 7b

In order to determine whether cylindrical or spherical flow is predominant in a test,

the pressure may be plotted against one of two time functions, respectively derived
on the assumption of cylindrical and spherical flow. The characteristics of these time
functions are such that a plot of pressure versus the relevant time function for the
actual flow regime involved produces a straight line whose slope is proportional to
the formation permeability and whose intercept at the zero time point gives the
formation pressure. Figure 8 gives an example of such time-pressure plots.

Figure 8

Large-Sample Fill-Up Time for Formation Permeability When a large sample of

formation fluid is recovered, the time taken to fill the sample chamber can be used
as an indicator of permeability. Drawdown is here considered to be the formation
pressure itself, since the sample chamber is for all practical purposes at atmospheric
pressure. This may not hold true if the fill-up time is limited by a water cushion and a
choke. Use this method with discretion and take it for what it is: a quick and dirty
way of finding permeability.
For one service companys large sample chamber, the following equation may be
used:

where:
k is fill-up permeability in mud
C is flow-shape factor

q is flow rate in cc/sec

is fluid viscosity in cp
P is drawdown pressure in psi
Sequential Pressure Readings versus Depth for Pore Pressure Gradients Since many formation
pressure measurements may be made on one trip in the hole, pressure gradients can be
calculated and plotted. The easiest method is to plot formation pressure against depth. It is useful
to plot hydrostatic pressure on the same plot.
Gas-oil and oil-water contacts are evident on a plot of this nature. The fluid density
can be deduced from the pressure gradient, by using
fluid density gm/cc = pressure gradient (psi/ft) 2.3072
Care should be taken in low-porosity transition zones where capillary pressure effects are
pronounced. Log-derived oil-water contacts (OWC), for example, may appear somewhat
shallower in the well than the free water level indicated from plots of formation pressure versus
depth.
Formation Production Estimates When a large sample is recovered, it is possible to
predict formation productivity by analysis of the recovered oil, water, and gas. At the
surface a miniseparator is used to measure the volumes of oil, water, and gas
recovered ( Figure 9 ). The water recovered will be a mixture of mud filtrate and
formation water. The amount of formation water is calculated from the relationship:

Figure 9

%
Empirical charts then link recovered volumes to predicted production. Three areas
are delineated on the chart indicating formations that are gas, oil, and water
productive. An estimate of water cut can also be made using: