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Abstract
In this paper we have described some interesting mathematical connections with various
expressions of some sectors of String Theory and Relativistic Quantum Gravity, principally with
the Palumbo-Nardelli model applied to the bosonic strings and the superstrings, and some parts of
the theory of the Cubic Equation. In Appendix A, we have described the mathematical connections
with some equations concerning the possible Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity. In conclusion
In Appendix B, we have described a proof of Fermat's Last Theorem for the cubic equation case n =
3
Cubic Equation
(1)
(2)
Thence:
1
(3)
Putting:
u + v + z = r
z (u + v ) + uv = p
uvz = q
(4)
because the term r become null, is necessary and sufficient that z = (u + v ) . Thence:
x 3 (u + v + z )x 2 + [uv + z (u + v )]x zuv = 0 ;
x 3 [u + v (u + v )]x 2 + [uv (u + v )(u + v )]x [ (u + v )uv ] = 0 ;
x 3 uv (u + v ) x [ (u + v )uv ] = 0 ;
3
[ (
)]
[uv u 2uv v ]x + u v + uv = 0 ;
( uv u v )x + uv(u + v ) = 0 ;
x uv u + 2uv + v 2 x + u 2v + uv 2 = 0 ;
x
x3
x 3 u 2 + uv + v 2 x + uv(u + v ) = 0
(5)
Putting:
u 2 + uv + v 2 = p
uv(u + v ) = q
(6)
(7)
1
1 i 3
v v 2 4v 2 v 3v 2
1
3i 2
3i 2
;
=
= vv
= v
= v
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2) v 2 + uv + u 2 = 0 ;
v=
1
1 i 3
u u 2 4u 2 u 3u 2
1
3i 2
3i 2
.
=
= u u
= u
= u
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
u + uv + v = p
1 i 3
u = v
2
2
v = u 1 i 3
2
1 i 3
uv = uv
2
2
2
1 i 3
u = u u = uv
2
2
2
1 i 3
2
v = v v = uv 2 2
(7a)
thence:
2
2
1 i 3 2
1 i 3
1 i 3
+ uv
+ uv
= (uv + uv + uv ) = p ;
uv
2
2
2
2
2
2
p
3uv = p ; uv =
(8)
3
2
2
1 i 3 2 1 i 3
1 i 3 1 i 3
1 i 3 1 i 3
+ uv +
+ uv +
=
uv +
2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
1 i 3 3 1 i 3
+ uv 1 + i 3 3 1 i 3 + uv 1 + i 3 3 1 i 3 =
= uv +
4
4
2
4 2
2
2
4 2
2
2
4 2
2
4
1 i 3 1 i 3
1 i 3 1 i 3
1 i 3 1 i 3
+ uv +
+ uv +
=
= uv +
2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
1 3
1 3
1 3
= uv + + uv + + uv + =
4 4
4 4
4 4
p
= (uv + uv + uv ) = p ; 3uv = p ; uv = .
3
Now:
2
2
u v + uv = q
1 i 3
u = v
2
2
v = u 1 i 3
2
(8b)
1 i 3 2
1 i 3
+ v ( v )
= q;
u 2 ( u )
2
2
2
2
that for the (8b) and for sign + , for example, become:
2
1 i 3 1 i 3 2 1 i 3 1 i 3
v +
+u +
u +
=q
v +
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1 i 3 1 i 3
1 i 3 1 i 3
( v ) + u 2 +
( u ) = q
v 2 +
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1 3
1 3
v3 + u 3 + = q ; v3 u 3 = q ;
4 4
4 4
2
u 3 + v3 = q
(9)
Finally, we have:
u 3 + v 3 = q
p
uv =
3
u 3 + v 3 = q
3 3
p3
u
v
=
27
thence:
(10)
x=u+v
u + v = q
3uv = p
3
3uv(u + v ) = p(u + v ) ;
u 3 + v 3 = q
p
uv =
3
thence, in conclusion:
u 3 + v 3 = q
3 3
p3
u v =
27
(11)
From the relations (10) and (11), we obtain the sum and the product of u 3 and v3 . We have that u 3
and v3 must be roots of the following quadratic equation:
t 2 + qt
p3
;
27
(12)
This equation is defined the resolving of the cubic equation (2). Thence, we have:
t 2 + qt
p3
27
3
p3
q q 4(1) q q 2 + 4 p
3
27
27 = q 1 q 2 + 1 4 p =
=
2
2
2
4
4 27
2
q
q 2 p3
+
.
2
4 27
t1 = u 3 =
q
q 2 p3
+
+
2
4 27
(13)
q
q 2 p3
t2 = v 3 =
+
2
4 27
from this, we obtain:
u=3
if
uv =
p
;
3
v=
q
q 2 p3
+
+
;
2
4 27
p
, we obtain:
3u
p
v=
.
2
33
q
q
p
+
+
2
4 27
x=3
q
q 2 p3
+
+
2
4 27
(14)
q
q 2 p3
33 +
+
2
4 27
The expression (14) is the resolving formula of the cubic equation (2), from this we have the three
roots in correspondence of the three values of the cubic radical. If p = 0 the eq. (2) become the
binomial equation x 3 + q = 0 , solved from the formula x = 3 q .
The expression (14) is written generally in the Cardano or Tartaglia form:
x=3
q
q 2 p3 3 q
q 2 p3
+
+
+
+
.
2
4 27
2
4 27
(15)
The solution that Cardano gives of the cubic equation of type x 3 + px = q , leads to the following
formula:
5
q
p q
+ + 3
2
3 2
x=3
q
p q
+ ;
2
3 2
(15b)
while for the cubic equation of type x 3 + px 2 = q , we have the following formula:
2
x=
q
q p
+ 3
2
2 3
q p q
. (15c)
2
2 3
(16)
Putting
3
q = u v = 3;
x=
=3
512 9 3 3
+ +
27 4 2
=3
512
p
8
; we apply the formula:
= uv = =
27
3
3
2
q
p q
+ + 3
2
3 2
1805 3 3
+
108 2
512 9 3 3
+ =
27 4 2
q
p q
+ =
2
3 2
2048 + 243 3 3
+
108
2
3
1805 3 3
=
108 2
1805 2 3 3
i +
108
2
2048 + 243 3
=
108
2
3
1805 2 3
i
=
108
2
1805 2 3
1805 2 3 3 3 6
i +
i + = + = = 3.
108
2
108
2 2 2 2
33 8 3 = 3 ;
8 x = x3 3 ;
24 = x 3 3 ;
27 24 = 3 ;
3=3
24 = 24
We know that the number 24 is related to the modes that correspond to the physical vibrations of
the bosonic strings by the following Ramanujan function:
cos txw'
x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142
4 anti log
2
t 2
w'
t w'
4
(
)
e
itw
'
w
'
24 =
,
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+
log
4
4
(a)
x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142
4 anti log
2
t 2
w'
t w'
4
(
)
'
e
itw
w'
= x3 3
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+
log
4
4
(17)
for x = 3
A mathematical connection that link the cubic equation x 3 8 x = 3 with the number 24, i.e. with
the modes that correspond to the physical vibrations of the bosonic strings.
We note also that 3 and 8, i.e. p and q are also Fibonaccis numbers.
2) Let
x 3 + 8 x = 24 .
(18)
Putting
3
q = u v = 24 ;
x=
q
p q
+ + 3
2
3 2
2
=3
512 24
24 3
+ +
27 2
2
512
+ 144 + 12 3
27
p
8 512
; for the formula:
= uv = =
27
3
3
3
q
p q
+ ;
2
3 2
we obtain:
512 24
24
+
=
27 2
2
512
+ 144 12 = 3 162,962 + 12 3 162,962 + 12 =
27
23 + 8 2 = 24 ;
24 = x 3 + 8 x ;
8 + 16 = 24 ;
24 = 24 ;
cos txw'
x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142
4 anti log
2
t 2
w'
t w'
4
(
)
'
e
itw
w
'
= x3 + 8 x ;
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+
log
4
4
(19)
for x = 2
The further connection that link this cubic equation with the modes that correspond to the
physical vibrations of the bosonic strings.
Creation and solution of cubic equation incomplete, without the first degree, defined Premonica.
Let u, v and z three roots of a same equation. Obviously the equation is cubic and the factorization
of it is:
x 3 + px 2 + rx + q = 0 (20)
(x u )(x v ) = x 2 ux vx + uv = x 2 (u + v )x + uv ;
[x
(u + v )x + uv ( x z ) = x 3 (u + v )x 2 + uvx zx 2 + z (u + v )x zuv =
thence:
(21)
u + v + z = p
z (u + v ) + uv = r
uvz = q
z (u + v ) = uv whence
z (u + v ) + uv = 0 ;
z=
uv
.
u+v
(22)
The (22) is defined the fundamental relation . Substituting in the eq. (21) the value found of z ,
we obtain:
x 3 (u + v + z )x 2 + [uv + z (u + v )]x uvz = 0
uv 2
uv
(u + v ) x uv uv = 0 ;
x3 u + v
x + uv
u+v
u+v
u+v
x3
(u + v )2 uv x 2 + u 2v 2
u+v
u+v
=0;
(23)
With this relation we can solve a cubic equation in Premonica form, i.e. without the first degree.
x 3 + px 2 + q = 0 . For example, 3 x 3 7 x 2 + 4 = 0 , we will use the following system:
u + v = 3
2
(u + v ) uv = 7
2 2
u v = 4
9 uv = 7
2 2
u v = 4
(23b)
uv = 2
2 2
u v = 4
uv = 2
uv = 2
u + v = 3
uv = 2
whence
t 2 3t + 2 = 0 ;
t=
3 9 8 3 1 t1 = 2 = u = x1
=
=
2
2
t 2 = 1 = v = x2
Because the equation not admit the term of first degree, the third root must be necessarily
z=
uv
1 2
2
=
= = x3
u+v
2 +1
3
(24)
We want solve this equation by a system of relations between roots and coefficients. This procedure
will be valid for each equation in form Monica form, i.e. without the second degree, whatever the
coefficients.
Let u and v two of the roots of the equation, the third root will be necessarily u + v and thence we
have
x1 = (u + v ) + u = v
x1 = u ;
x2 = v ;
x3 = u + v ; (25)
(25b)
x2 = (u + v ) + v = u
Now:
(x u )(x v ) = x 2 (u + v )x + uv ;
[x2 (u + v )x + uv][x + (u + v )] = x3 (u + v )x 2 + uvx + (u + v)x2 (u + v)2 x + uv(u + v ) =
2
= x 3 [(u + v ) uv ]x + uv(u + v ) ;
from this, we have:
x 3 (u + v ) uv x + uv(u + v ) = 0 .
2
(26)
This equation is a cubic equation in the form Monica, i.e. of type x 3 + px + q = 0 , where we put:
(u + v )2 uv = p
uv(u + v ) = q
Now, we put
u + v = t and uv = z , we have:
9
t 2 z = p
tz = q
t = z p
tz = q
t 2 = z p
tz = q
tz = q ;
z p = q;
z 3 pz 2 q 2 = 0 .
(27)
This last equation is a Premonica and we can find u and v applying the Caccioppoli-Grablovitz
method (comparison system between roots and coefficients). We resume the eq. (24)
x3 2 x + 1 = 0
Decompose the equation. We have that:
(x
+ x 1 ( x 1) = x 3 x 2 + x 2 x x + 1 = x 3 2 x + 1 ;
(x
x2 + x 1 = 0 ;
+ x 1 ( x 1) = 0 ;
x 1 = 0 ;
thence:
x =1
1+ 5
x =
1 1 4(1)( 1) 1 1 + 4 1 5 1
2
=
=
2
2
2
x = 1 5
2
2
1+ 5 1 5
;
.
2
2
Now, x 3 2 x + 1 = 0 applying the relation (27), we have:
z 3 pz 2 q 2 = 0 ;
u + v = 1
2
(u + v ) uv = 2
2 2
u v = 1
z3 2z 2 1 = 0
u + v = 1
1 uv = 2
uv = 1
u + v = 1
uv = 1
uv = 1
u + v = 1
uv = 1
Thence:
t2 t 1 = 0 ;
1+ 5
u=
1 1+ 4
2
=
2
v = 1 5
1
5 1
5
+
+
= 1 . The other two roots,
2 2 2 2
1 5
1+ 5
; and x2 = v =
.
2
2
5 1
We note that the x2 =
= 0,61803398... is equal to the aurea section.
2
will be: x1 = u =
10
Now we want to analyze some mathematical connection with some parts of relativistic quantum
gravity.
Starting from the Schrodinger equation we may obtain the expression for the energy of a particle in
periodic motion inside a cubical box of edge length L . The result is:
En =
n 2h2
,
8mg L2
n = 1,2,3,...
(28)
We note that the term h 2 / 8mg L2 (energy) will be minimum for L = Lmax where Lmax is the
maximum edge length of a cubical box whose maximum diameter d max = Lmax 3 is equal to the
L
maximum length scale of the Universe. Now, we have that L = nLmin or L = max . Multiplying
n
d
these expressions by 3 and reminding that d = L 3 , we obtain d = nd min or d = max . These
n
equations show that the length (and therefore the space) is quantized.
The minimum energy of a particle is obviously its inertial energy at rest mg c 2 = mi c 2 . Therefore we
can write
n2h2
= mg c 2 . (29)
2
8mg L max
Then, from the equation above it follows that
mg =
nh
cLmax 8
(30)
Now, if we take the eq. (29), after some steps, we obtain that:
8=
n2h 2 1
.
c 2 L2max mg2
(30b)
This formula contain the number 8 that is a Fibonaccis number and is connected with the modes
that correspond to the physical vibrations of a superstring by the following Ramanujan function:
cos txw'
x 2 w '
e
dx
0 cosh x
142
4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'
w'
e 4 w' (itw')
1
. (b)
8=
3
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+
log
4
4
11
x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142
4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'
w'
e 4 w' (itw')
1
n2h 2 1
= 2 2 2.
3
c Lmax mg
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+
log
4
4
(30c)
This is a new possible relationship of a relativistic theory of quantum gravity. (See also Appendix
A)
Now, we take the d max = Lmax 3 . For the (7a) or (8b):
1 i 3
;
u = v
2
2
u=
v i 3v
+
;
2
2
2u + v = iv 3 ,
2u = v + i 3v ;
(31)
we have that:
d max = Lmax 3
d max = (2u + v )
Lmax = iv
(32)
1 5
is equal to the aurea section changed of sign, i.e. 0,61803398... or
We note that
2
0,61803398... i 2 , where i is the imaginary unit. Furthermore, from the eq. (24), where
x2 = v =
1+ 5
, we note that
2
1 5
2
2 is equal to i ( v )
d max
2 .
2
2
12
Lmax
cos txw'
x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142
4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'
w'
4
e
w' (itw')
1 5
1
;
3=
+
3
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
2
+
log
4
4
cos txw'
x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142
4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'
w'
e 4 w ' (itw')
1 5
1
;
= Lmax 3
3
2
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
log
4
4
d max
cos txw'
x 2 w '
e
dx
0 cosh x
142
4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'
w'
e 4 w' (itw')
1 5
1
;
=
+
3
10 + 11 2
2
10 + 7 2
log
+
4
4
(33)
(33b)
(34)
1 i 3 1 i 3
u
. Thence, we have also the following
d max = 2v
2 2
2
2
interesting relationship:
But
d max = 2u + v ;
cos txw'
x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142
4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'
w'
4
w' (itw')
e
1 i 3 1 i 3 1
1 5
u +
=
.
2v +
+
10 + 11 2
2 2
2 3
10 + 7 2
2
2
+
log
4
4
(35)
This last relationship, link the maximum length scale of the Universe, the roots of a cubic equation,
the modes that correspond to the physical vibrations of a superstring and the aurea section
changed of sign, i.e. 0,61803398... or 0,61803398... i 2 , where i is the imaginary unit.
From (35), we have also that:
13
cos txw'
x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142
4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'
w'
4
e
w' (itw')
1 i 3 1 i 3 1 5
1
u +
.
= 2v +
3
2 2
2 2
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
2
+
log
4
4
1 i 3
, and since
Multiplying the expression (35) for
2
2
1 i 3 1 i 3 1 3
+
= + =1;
2
2 2
2 4 4
(i
(35b)
=1
1 i 3
{
2v u =
2
2
cos txw'
x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142
4 anti log
2
t 2
w'
t w'
4
(
)
e
itw
'
1 5
w'
1
}.
+
3
10 + 11 2
2
10 + 7 2
log
4
4
(36)
1 i 3 1 i 3
1 i 3 1 i 3
2
+
+
= +
= = 1 = i 2 .
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
(a)
Thence:
2
1 i 3 1 i 3
+
+
= i2 = i = 1
2
2 2
2
(b)
On some equation concerning the thermodynamics of black holes in anti-de sitter space
The metric of the covering space of anti-de Sitter space can be written in the static form
14
r2
b2
(37)
3
b
The substitution = it , where i = 1 is the imaginary unit, makes the metric ds 2 in (37)
Euclidean, i.e. positive definite.
The path integral over the matter fields and metric fluctuations on the anti-de Sitter background can
be regarded as giving the contribution of thermal radiation in anti-de Sitter space to the partition
function Z . For a conformally invariant field this will be:
3
b
4 b
log Z = 3 b T f (T )dT =
g + O . (38)
90
0
T
2 3
E =
4 4 3
log Z = 3 2b3 f (T )
gT b . (39)
30
Z ( ) = N (E )e E dE . (40)
0
N (E ) =
+ i
1
Z ( )e E d . (41)
2i i
(42)
Thus the path of steepest descent is parallel to the imaginary axis. This means that N (E ) is real and
is given approximately by:
4
N (E ) exp
3
gb3 4 3
4
E . (43)
30
( )
I =
)(
2 2 2 2 2
0
0
0
m 2pb 2 1
2
9
0
) .
(44)
The one-loop term about the black hole metrics will contribute a factor of order one or
4 3 3
i exp gb respectively. The factor of i arises in the lower mass case from the negative
90
nonconformal mode.
4 3 3
For (b), concerning the roots of a cubic equation, we have that the expression i exp gb can
90
1 i 3 1 i 3
4
+
+
exp gb 3 3 .
2
2 2
2
90
(44b)
In the higher mass case, if E > M 0 , the stationary phase point in eq. (41) will be at
4b 2 r+
2
,
b + 3r+2
(45)
1 2 r+2
E = m p r+ 1 + 2 . (46)
2
b
The second derivative of the logarithm of the integrand is T 2M / T > 0 . Thus the path of steepest
descent will be parallel to the imaginary axis and N (E ) will be real and given by
N (E ) exp(m 2p r+2 ) exp
( 2m b E ) ,
3
for E >> M 0 =
1
3
2m 2pb .
(47)
If E0 < E << M 0 , the stationary phase point will be at the larger root of
E = M + Erad
m 2p
8
4
30
gb3 4 ,
(48)
where a black hole of energy M is in equilibrium with thermal radiation of energy Erad .
Furthermore, we note that we can rewrite the eq. (48) also as follows:
16
cos txw'
x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142
4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'
w'
4
e
w' (itw')
1
8=
, we have that:
3
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+
log
4
4
cos txw'
x 2 w '
e
dx
142
0 cosh x
4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'
w'
e 4 w' (itw')
1
3
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
log
+
4
4
5 3 4
gb (M + Erad ) = m 2p . (49)
30
u +
gb (M + Erad ) = i 2 m 2p .
2v +
2 2
2 2 30
(49b)
where a black hole of energy M is in equilibrium with thermal radiation of energy Erad and is
connected with the modes corresponding to the physical vibrations of the superstring for the eq.
(49) and with the roots of the cubic equation, thence with the imaginary unit for the eq. (49b). In
both the expressions is present , the transcendental number always present in the string theory.
The second derivative of the logarithm of the integrand of (41) will be negative at each of these
saddle points. Thus the path of steepest descent will be parallel to the real axis. This will introduce a
factor i which will cancel the factor of i arising from the negative nonconformal mode. Thus
N (E ) will be real and will be given by:
4
N (E ) exp 4m p 2 M 2 +
3
gb 3 4 3
Erad ,
30
(50)
where M and Erad are the two terms of (48) that add up to E . If E < E0 , eq. (48) has no solution
for a black hole in equilibrium with radiation, so one obtains only the contribution (43) of pure
thermal radiation.
For eq. (48), can be rewritten the eq. (50) also as follows:
2
2 4 gb3 4 3
2 mp
4
+
N (E ) exp 4m p
Erad =
8
3
30
2 2
3
m
4 4 gb 4 3
N (E ) exp p +
Erad , (51)
3 30
16
17
m 2p 2
4
N (E ) exp
+
2 2v 1 + 1 3 u 1 + i 3 1 5 3
2
2 2
2 2
gb3 4
30
3
Erad .
(52)
2
1
E
2 mp
N (E ) =
Z ( )e d exp 4m p
2i i
4
+
gb3 4 3
Erad ;
30
(52a)
+ i
m 2p 2
1
4
E
(
)
N (E ) =
Z
e
d
exp
+
2i i
2 2v 1 + 1 3 u 1 + i 3 1 5 3
2
2 2
2 2
gb 3 4
30
3
Erad .
(52b)
In the first expression is present 8, i.e. the number of the modes corresponding to the physical
vibrations of the superstrings, while in the second expression with the roots of the cubic equation,
thence with the imaginary unit. In both the expressions is present , the transcendental number
always present in the string theory.
We note that there are in the equations of this section, some mathematical connections with some
5 +1
frequencies connected to the aurea ratio i.e.
= 1,61803398...
2
We have that:
4
30
= 3,2469... 3,2461 ;
4
= 4,18879 4,18885 ;
3
2 4
4
= 12,9878 =
4;
15
30
4
90
= 1,0823 1,0820 ;
= 0,349065 0,349072 ,
where 3,2461
12,9878 1,0820 4,18885 and 0,349072 are all frequencies connected with the
5 +1
aurea ratio, i.e. with
= 1,61803398...
2
On some equations concerning the Stephen Hawkings theory of imaginary time and the HartleHawking wave-function
We start from the Pythagoras's Theorem, c2 = a2 + b2 c = a 2 + b 2 . Well, it turns out that's is
just a specific application of the distance formula in 3D space. Generally, if a point has coordinates
(X, Y, Z), then its distance from the origin, the point (0, 0, 0), is D2 = X2 + Y2 + Z2.
18
Now let's go to relativity. Instead of points in space, we have events in spacetime. If an event has
coordinates (T, X, Y, Z), then its spacetime interval distance is S2 = -T2 + X2 + Y2 +Z2. Notice the
negative sign for the time component. The sign difference between space and time is crucial for all
the weird things that happen in relativity.
But suppose we invent a new variable t that is related to the old T by T = it, where i is the imaginary
unit ( i = 1 ). Then T2 = (i)2 t2 = -t2. So the spacetime interval becomes S2 = t2 + X2 + Y2 + Z2. All
the signs are the same.
By using imaginary time, we convert the time dimension into a space dimension indistinguishable
from the other spatial dimensions. So spacetime becomes a 4D space. This allow us to study
spacetime as a pure geometric object.
Why is this useful? It eliminates the question of "what happened before the Big Bang?" Let's
suppose that after transforming spacetime into a geometric spatial object, we get a sphere. So the
time dimension becomes just a space dimension on the sphere, say, the direction of north-south.
Asking what happened before the beginning of time is thus like asking what's north of the north
pole: simply it does not make sense. So, we tend to say that the universe simply "is", i.e. exists.
The universe is assumed to have the geometry
ds 2 = N (t ) dt 2 a (t ) (dr 2 + sin 2 (r )(d 2 + sin 2 ( )d 2 )) ,
2
(53)
(54)
where
1 ij kl
1
1
H0 =
ik jl ij kl R + 2 +
i j ij + V ( ) ,
2
H i = ijj + ijk jk + j ij .
We note that, if we put = 3 , in the eq. concerning H 0 , we have:
1
= 0,57735 ;
3
1
2 3
3
= 0,28867 ;
6
3
= 0,86602 ;
2
3 1
= .
2 3 2
(55)
We have, thence, the value corresponding to the fix number of a regular hexagon that is just
0,86602. Furthermore, we note that:
19
1
(0,866 6 ) = 2,598 that is the constant of the regular hexagon and is very near to the number
2
2
5 + 1
= 2 = 2,61803398... (see eqs. (A52-55) Appendix A)
2,618 that is
2
Because of the symmetry we have assumed for our fields, H i is automatically equal to zero, and we
can write the action in terms of a , and their conjugate momenta a and so that
S = a a& + & NHdt ,
H =
(56)
1 2
1
a 6a + 3 2 + a 3V ( ) .
24a
2a
(57)
1 2
1
S = a a& + & N
a 6a + 3 2 + a 3V ( )dt .
2a
24a
(57b)
(x + 1)2 = 9
has no real solution, since the square of a real number cannot be negative. Complex numbers
provide a solution to this problem. The idea is to extend the real numbers with the imaginary unit i
where i = 1; i2 = 1, so that solutions to equations like the preceding one can be found. In this
case the solutions are 1 + 3i and 1 3i, as can be verified using the fact that i2 = 1:
(x + 1)2 = 9 ;
x2 + 2x + 1 + 9 = 0 ;
x 2 + 2 x + 10 = 0 ;
2 4 40 2 36 2 36i 2 2 6i 1 + 3i
=
=
=
=
2
2
2
2
1 3i
and
20
A complex function is one in which the independent variable and the dependent variable are both
complex numbers. More precisely, a complex function is a function whose domain and range are
subsets of the complex plane.
For any complex function, both the independent variable and the dependent variable may be
separated into real and imaginary parts:
z = x + iy and
w = f (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y)
where x, y and u (x, y), v (x, y) are real-valued functions.
In other words, the components of the function f (z),
u = u (x, y) and
v = v (x, y)
can be interpreted as real-valued functions of the two real variables, x and y.
The zeroth order action is just:
0
( )
(59)
24 V0 a f
24
=
1 i
, (60)
V0
6
V0
Thence:
3
( )
(0 )' 2
24 V0 a f
24
d =
1 i
, (60b)
V0
6
V0
1 i 3 1 i 3
+
+
= i 2 = i = 1 , we can rewrite also as follows:
2
2 2
2
( )
(0 )' 2
24 V0 a f
24
d =
1 i
=
V0
6
V0
2
2
2
24 V0 a f
1
i
3
1
i
3
24
+
1 +
=
V0
6
2
2 2
2 V0
3
2
2
V
a
1
i
3
1
i
3
1
0
f
.
= 24
1 +
+
V0
6
2
2 2
2 V0
But, we know that 24 is related to the modes that correspond to the physical vibrations of the
bosonic strings by the following Ramanujan function:
21
cos txw'
x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142
4 anti log
2
t 2
w'
t w'
4
(
)
e
itw
'
w
'
24 =
.
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+
log
4
4
S (a f , f ) = a a d = 12a
(0 ) (0 )'
(0 )
(a )
(0 )'
24 V0 a f
24
d =
1 i
=
V0
6
V0
cos txw'
x 2 w '
e
dx
0 cosh x
142
4anti log
2
t 2
3
w'
t w'
4
2
(
)
'
e
itw
V
a
w
'
=
0 f 1
V0
6
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
log
+
4
4
2
2
1 i 3 1 i 3 1
+
+
2
2
V .
2
2
(60c)
This expression link complex path to zeroth order, physical vibrations of the bosonic strings and the
roots of the cubic equation, thence with the imaginary unit.
The function, S0 (a f , f ) is a Hamilton-Jacobi function for the = 0 system, in that it obeys the
equation
2
1 S
1 S 0
3
6a + 2 0 + a V0 = 0
24a a
2a
(61)
(see eq.(57)) which is the Hamilton-Jacobi form of the constant equation for = 0 .
Now, the first order equations for a and are required to find the second order action. The
equations are:
12a (0 )'a'+2V0 a (0 )a + a (0 )2 f = 0 (62)
(a( ) ')' = a ( ) .
03
03
(63)
a =
i cos(i ) sin (i )
2V0
(64)
i 1
2
3
cos (i ) cos(i ) +
1
3
3
.
' = (0 )3 a (0 )3d =
3
0
a
sin (i )
22
(65)
Because ( 0 ) = 0 , we have
0
( ) = ' d~
' =
(0 )3
a (0 )3d~ .
(66)
(67)
Because of the 1 / a 3 term in the integrand for , its value will depend, among other things, on the
way in which the path in space wraps around the poles where a = 0 . We get
2
V0
( ) =
1 + cos(i )
1
1
+ ln
.
1 + cos(i 0 ) 1 + cos(i 0 )
1 + cos(i )
(68)
( ) = ' d~ =
1 + cos(i )
2
1
1
+ ln
.
V0 1 + cos(i )
1 + cos(i 0 ) 1 + cos(i 0 )
(68b)
Given the first order solutions, we can calculate the action to second order in .
2 S = 2f
0
d2
2
S (a f , f ,V0 ) a (0 )3 ( ') d .
2 0
0
dV0
(69)
We have
0
a (0 )3 ( ') d =
2
i
= 6
9
1
2
1
3
cos (i ) cos(i ) + d =
5
3
sin (i ) 3
3
cos (i 0 )
(1 z )( z + 2 )
dz
1+ z
(70)
with z = cos(i ) which has poles of order 2 in the integrand at z = 1 or = i (2m + 1) / . Each
time the integrand circles one of these poles, we accumulate a residue, and it is clear that the residue
is the same at each of the poles in space, since it is the same pole z = 1 in z space. Thus, we
have
0
a
0
(0 )3
(71)
where 0 is some fiducial path from the point = 0 to = 0 , and k is the total net number of times
that the actual path wraps around the various pole.
Assuming that a f > 1 , we can take the fiducial path as a straight line connecting = 0 to = f .
We finally get
2 2 S 0 (a f , f ,V0 )
192 8i 12
Z +1
3
S = f
k
12
ln
17
12
Z
Z
+
+
,
V03 V03 Z + 1
V02
2
23
(72)
where Z = cos(i 0 ) = i
V0 a 2f
6
1 .
192 8i 12
Z +1
3
S = f
k
+
+
12
ln
+
17
12
Z
+
Z
.
V02
V03 V03 Z + 1
2
1 i 3 1 i 3
+
+
= i2 = i = 1 ;
For
and the modes that correspond to the
2
2 2
2
cos txw'
x 2 w '
e
dx
142
0 cosh x
4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'
w'
e 4 w' (itw')
1
8=
,
3
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+
log
4
4
We have that
2 2 S 0 (a f , f ,V0 )
192 8i 12
Z +1
3
S = f
k
12
ln
17
12
Z
Z
+
+
V02
V03 V03 Z + 1
2
cos txw'
x 2 w '
e
dx
142
0 cosh x
4 anti log
2
t 2
w'
t w'
4
2
(
)
e
itw
'
(
)
S
a
,
,
V
w
'
1
192
0
f
f
0
2 S = f2
k 3 +
2
3
V0
V0
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2 3
+
V0
log
4
4
1 i 3 1 i 3
+
+
2
2
2
2
12
Z +1
3
+ 12 ln
+ 17 12Z + Z . (73)
2
Z +1
This expression link complex path to second order action, the modes corresponding to the
physical vibrations of the superstrings and the roots of the cubic equation, thence with the
imaginary unit.
Further, we note that
192 12 = 2304 ;
And that:
963 + 852 + 471 = 2286 = 2304 18;
where 24, is related to the modes that correspond to the physical vibrations of the bosonic strings
by the following Ramanujan function:
cos txw'
x 2 w '
e
dx
0 cosh x
142
4 anti log
2
t 2
w'
t w'
4
(
)
e
itw
'
w
'
24 =
.
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+
log
4
4
From (57)
H =
1 2
1
a 6a + 3 2 + a 3V ( ) ,
24a
2a
we have that:
H mod =
1 2
2
1
a 6a + 3 2 + a 3V ( ) 288 4 3 .
24a
V0 a
2a
(74)
Let us examine the classical solutions obtained by using S R as Hamilton Jacobi function for the
solution. We are interested in the motion for a f > 1 . Furthermore, we expect V0 to enter into the
complete action only in the combination V = V ( f ) = V0 + f . Thus, we define
y=
Va 2f
6
(75)
and have
S R
y
24 3
4
1 + iy
y + 2 3 12
+ 6i ln
+ 12y + y 3 24k .
2
1+ y
1 iy
V
V
(76)
We note that
288 = 285 + 3; 288 + 288 9 = 576 9 = 567;
24 12 = 288 = 285 + 3 ; 24 24 = 576 = 582 6 .
The equations relating the derivatives with respect to time of the dynamic variables and the
Hamilton Jacobi function are
S
S
a = 12aa& = R ; = a 3& = R . (77)
a
S R a 4
V ( )
1 2
1+
.
6 6V 2
25
(78)
24
17
4
S R
1 + 2 2 y 2 2 2
V
6V
3V
+ 2O y 5 + O 3 .
( ) ( )
(79)
Since
y2 2
4
V
1
2
0 (a aT )(2aT ) + aT2 + O (a aT ) ,
2
3V
6
6
(80)
where
aT =
6
2
1 + 2 2 , (81)
V0
3V0
aT2
24
17 2 V0 aT
(
)
+
+
S R
1
a
a
T
V 6V 2
3
6
(82)
2
24
8
2
=
=
=2
= 1,6329... that is a value very near to the aurea ratio, i.e.
3
9
3
3
5 +1
2 = 1,61803398 .
Defining = a aT , we have
6
24
17 3 V a
1 + 2 2 0 T
V0
6V0 2 3
aT2
2 17 V0 aT
12aT 1 +
+ .
6V02 3
6
= aT3&
V0 aT
a2
+ T
3
6
(83)
24 3 aT2 V0 aT
a2
6a 2 V0 aT
a2
+ T T
+ T , (84)
V0 2 6
3
6
V0
3
6
where we have only kept terms to lowest order in and . Solving these equations we find that
V0 aT
a2
Va
+ T = 0 T
3
6
6
35
1 + 2
t .
6V02
(85)
x 2 w '
e
dx
0 cosh x
142
4 anti log
2
t 2
w'
t w'
4
(
)
'
e
itw
w
'
24 =
.
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+
log
4
4
In conclusion, we have:
cos txw'
x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142
4 anti log
2 22
t 2
w'
t w'
4
(
)
e
itw
'
w
'
log
4
4
For the first series, we note a certain proximity with the Fibonacci's numbers, that we have
compared in Table 1
27
(86)
TABLE 1 :
Numbers first
series S
Fibonacci's
numbers
Differences
S-F
near to F
near or equal to
the numbers F
2
-1
4=2*2
6=2*3
8=2*4
9=2*4+1
12
13
-1
12=2*6
17
17 mean
17=2*8+1
of 13 and 21
24
21
24=2*12
35
34
35=2*17+1
96
89
78
96 = 4*24
192
188,5
3,5 3
192=2*96
mean
192=8*24
288
288
337
233
89
288=2*144
Fibonacci's
number
288=12*24
55
Fibonacci's
number
28
Besides the obvious coincidence (for 2,3 and 8) or proximity (for 4, 6, 9,12, 24, 35 and 96) with the
Fibonacci's numbers or their means (17, 192), which is also repeated for the differences S - F, we
also note that in the fourth column, as multiples of S, we notice often 8 and 24, already, in itself,
same numbers of the S series, andimportant in the modes of vibrations of the strings, as we
already know. Hence two important connections of these numbers both with the Fibonacci numbers,
and with the modes of vibration of the strings.
Now we see some possible connections with partitions numbers
1,1,2,3,5,7,11,15,22,30,42,56,77,101,135,176,231,
297,385,490,627,792,1002,1255,1575,1958,2436,3010,
3718,4565,5604,....
TABLE 2
Numbers first
series S
Numbers of
Partitions P near
to S
Differences
S-P
2
-1
-1
12
11
17
15
24
22
35
30
96
101
-5
192
176
16 15
288
297
-97,
-9 11
29
Also in this comparison, up to 96 the differences S P are very small, and also all of these equal or
very near to other partition numbers smaller. Therefore also this comparison shows a connection
with the partition numbers, although weaker than that with the Fibonacci's numbers. Finally, we try
also with the numbers Lie, of form n2 + n + 1, halfway between Fibonacci's numbers and partition
numbers (and important in the Standard Model because at the basis of the five sporadic groups of
symmetry)
Numbers L = 1, 3, 7, 13, 21, 31, 43, 57, 73, 91, 121
... 183 ... 273
TABLE 3
Numbers first
series S
Numbers of
Differences
Lie L equal or
near to S
S-L
-1
13
-1
24
21
35
31
4 3
96
91
57
192
183
97
288
273
15 13
9
12
17
Also here, the numbers S are very near to the Lie's numbers, and also the their differences S L.
We can therefore say that the numbers S are connected especially with the Fibonacci's numbers and
30
with the modes of vibration of the strings, and in a somewhat weaker also with the partition of
numbers and the numbers of Lie, all numbers related to many natural phenomena, starting with by
strings.
Second series 3, 15, 30, 90
First, we note that 15= 3*5 , 30=15*2 e 90= 30*3, and that the factors are respectively 2, 3 and 5,
i.e. only the first three prime numbers, which are also Fibonacci's numbers:
3=3
15=3*5,
30=2*3*5,
90 =2*3*3*5
Further, also these few numbers of this series are connected to Fibonacci, to partitions and to the
Lie's numbers
TABLE 4
Numbers S
Fibonacci
Partitions
Lie
15
13
15
13
diff. 2
30
34
diff. 2
30
diff. - 4
90
31
diff. -1
89
101
91
diff. 1
diff.-11
Diff -1
Also here small differences, and for the partitions also three perfect coincidences: 3, 15 and 30.
Obviously, between the Fibonacci numbers missing 5 and 8 between 3 and 15, the 21 between 13
and 34, the 55 between 34 and 89.
Thence, also the Table 4 we could give some numerical information and therefore also useful
mathematics on the second series.
31
741, 417, 528, 852, 396, 639, 243, 324, 111, 1269
Some numbers are permutations of other, for example, 741 and 417, 528 and 852, 396 and 639, 243
and 324 (see the next numerical series)
TABLE 1
Subsequent ratios in the order indicated
Numbers
Subsequent
ratios
Prime numbers
>3 of form 6k-1
(-)
Form 6k+1 (+)
741
741/417=1,77
>1,618
3, 13, 19
++
417
0,78
> 0,618
3, 139
528
0,619
0,618
2^4, 3, 11
852
2,15
2,61 =1,618^2
2^2, 3, 71
396
0,619
0,618
2^2,3^2, 11
639
2,62
2,61 =1,618^2
3^2, 71
243
0,75
> 0,618
3^5
324
2,91
2,61 =1,618^2
2^2, 3^4
111
0,08
1,618
3, 37
3^3, 47
=1,06 - 1
1269
TABLE 2
Subsequent ratios in the natural order of the numbers involved
32
Numbers
Subsequent
ratios
Prime numbers
>3 of form 6k-1
-)
form 6k+1 (+)
111
3, 37
243
243/111= 2,18
2,61 =1,618^2
3^5
324
1,33
1,27=1,618
2^2, 3^4
1,33=3,14
396
1,053
1,618
2^2, 3^2,11
=1,06
417
1,26
1,27=1,618
3, 139
528
1,21
1,19 mean
2^4, 3, 11
3^2, 71
3, 13, 19
2^2, 3, 71
3^3, 47
1,618
1,618
639
1,15
1,19 mean
1,618
1,618
741
1,14
1,48
and
1,19 mean
1,618
1,618
852
and
and
1,33=3,14
1269
The connections with Fibonacci seem obvious, some connections there are also with pigreco
About the factors> 3 and their numerical form 6k-1 and 6k + 1 does not appear to be any particular
connections, only a slight alternation in TABLE 2
33
Second series (permutations of 147, 258 and 396, with difference 3 between their consecutive
digits with difference 3 or 6, instead, for their permutations)
The numbers in red are the permutations of the base number 369
The numbers in blue are the permutations of the base number 147
The numbers in black are the permutations of the base number 258
In these numbers of the second series is missing the base number 234 present only in the first series
with his permutation 324
34
So we see this regularly: two numbers in 3rd and 6th position and in 2nd and 3rd position a way
alternated from the base number smaller to the base number largest. We also note that the base
numbers, and obviously also their permutations, are all divisible by 3, have sum of the digit that is
divisible by 3, always increasing, though not in the same order:
147 and its permutations: digit sum 1+4+7 = 12
234 and its permutations : digit sum 2+3+4 = 9
258 and its permutations : digit sum 2+5+8 = 15
369 and its permutations : digit sum 3+6+9 = 18
This is also a small regularity that might be useful in some way in this work on gravity and quantum
physics
Fibonaccis
near
numbers
234
258
369
Factors
and Subsequent
ratios
connections
with between the base
Fibonacci (in green)
number
and
the
precedent
144
3, 7^2
Diff .3
7 8
233
2, 3^2, 13
1,5918
Diff. 1
3^2 =9 8
1,618
233
2, 3, 43
1,1025
Diff. 2523 +2
43 2*21
1,12 =1,618
377
3^2, 41
1,4302
Diff. - 8
41 2*21
1.4440=
(1,618 +1,618)/2
4144,5 =(34+55)/2
36
Also here we note the mathematical connections with Fibonacci, specially in the first and in the
fourth column.
We note also that:
852 / 528 = 1,613636;
5 +1
= 1,61803398...
2
We have also that:
639 / 396 = 1,613636 value very near to the aurea ratio that is
852 29,18
528 22,97 ; 29,18 + 22,97 = 52,15;
639 25,27
396 19,89 ; 25,27 + 19,89 = 45,16;
6,99 1,6259...
852 9,480
639 8,613
The mean between 1,6259 and 1,606 is 1,61595 value that is very near to the value of the aurea
5 +1
= 1,61803398...
ratio
2
With regard the approximation to , we note that:
9,480 / 3 = 3,16;
29,18 / 9 = 3,24;
The mean between 3,16 and 3,105 is 3,1325 value very near to .
Appendix A
S = m g c ds
a
(A1)
or
37
t2
S = mg c 2 1
t1
V2
dt ,
c2
(A2)
V2
.
c2
(A3)
V2
dt , preceded by the plus sign, cannot have a minimum. Thus, the
t1
c2
integrand of eq. (A2) must be always positive.
r
r
The momentum is the vector p = L / V . Thus, from eq. (A3) we obtain
t2
The integral S = mg c 2 1
r
p=
r
mgV
1
V2
c2
r
= M gV .
The (+) sign in the equation above will be used when mg > 0 and the (-) sign if mg < 0 .
r
Consequently, we will express the momentum p in the following form
r
mgV
r
p=
V2
1 2
c
r
= M gV .
(A4)
r r
We know that p V L denotes the energy of the particle. Thus, we can write
mg c 2
r r
Eg = p V L =
= M gc2 .
2
V
1 2
c
(A5)
where
and
mg 2
m
m
mi c 2
mi c 2 = g (Ei 0 + EKi ) = g Ei ,
mi c +
2
2
mi
mi
1V / c
mi
(A6)
Ei 0 = mi c 2
EKi =
mi c 2
2
V
c2
mi c 2 .
We have that Ei = Ei 0 + EKi is the total inertial energy, where EKi is the kinetic initial energy.
From eqs. (A5) and (A6) we thus obtain
38
mi 0c 2
Ei =
V
c2
= M i c 2 . (A7)
r
The gravity, g , in a gravitational field produced by a particle of gravitational mass M g , depends on
the particles gravitational energy, Eg (given by eq. (A5)), because we can write
g = G
Eg
r 2c 2
= G
M gc2
r 2c 2
(A8)
GM g
Gmg
V2
r 1 2
c
(A9)
Then, we get
=
r
Gmg
r
V2
1 2
c
(A10)
The gravitational potential energy per unit of gravitational mass of a particle inside a gravitational
field is equal to the gravitational potential of the field. Thus, we can write that
U (r )
. (A11)
m' g
U (r )
= m' g
= G
r
r
mg m' g
r
V2
1 2
c
(A12)
Comparison between (A5) and (A7) shows that Eg 0 = Ei 0 i.e., mg 0 = mi 0 . Consequently, we have
Eg + Ei = Eg 0 + Ei 0 = 2 Ei 0 .
(A13)
(A14)
Note the symmetry in the equations of Ei and Eg . Substitution of Ei 0 = Ei EKi into (A14) yields
39
Ei Eg = 2 EKi .
(A15)
Squaring the eqs. (A4) and (A5) and comparing the result, we find the following correlation
between gravitational energy and momentum:
Eg2
c
= p 2 + mg2 c 2 .
(A15b)
(A16)
Starting from the Schrodinger equation we may obtain the expression for the energy of a particle in
periodic motion inside a cubical box of edge length L . The result now is:
n 2h2
En =
8mg L2
n = 1,2,3,...
(A17)
We note that the term h 2 / 8mg L2 (energy) will be minimum for L = Lmax where Lmax is the
maximum edge length of a cubical box whose maximum diameter
d max = Lmax 3
(A17b)
mg =
nh
cLmax 8
(A19)
mg (min ) =
h
cLmax 8
(A20)
Now, if we take the eq. (A19), after some steps, we obtain that:
8=
n2h 2 1
.
c 2 L2max mg2
(A20b)
40
This formula contain the number 8 that is a Fibonaccis number and is connected with the modes
that correspond to the physical vibrations of a superstring by the following Ramanujan function:
cos txw'
x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142
4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'
w'
e 4 w' (itw')
1
8=
. (a)
3
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+
log
4
4
x 2 w '
e
dx
0 cosh x
142
4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'
w'
e 4 w' (itw')
1
n2h 2 1
= 2 2 2.
c Lmax mg
3
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+
log
4
4
(A20c)
mg
V2
1 2
c
M g (min ) = mg (min ) .
(A21)
r
The propagation number k = k = 2 / is restricted to the values k = 2n / L . This is deducted
assuming an arbitrarily large but finite cubical box of volume L3 . Thus, we have
L = n .
(A22)
Lmax
min
(A23)
and
(A25)
L = nLmin
(A26)
Lmax
.
n
(A27)
or
L=
Multiplying (A26) and (A27) by
d = nd min
d max
n
or
d=
or
L 3=
(A28)
Lmax 3
n
(A28b)
Equation above show that the length (and therefore the space) is quantized. By analogy to (A19)
we can also conclude that
M g (max ) =
nmax h
,
cLmin 8
(A29)
x 2 w '
e
dx
0 cosh x
142
4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'
w'
2
e 4 w' (itw')
1
n h2
1
= max
2
.
2 2
c
L
M
3
10 + 11 2
min
g
(
max
)
10 + 7 2
+
log
4
4
(A29b)
Equation (A25) tells us that Lmin = Lmax / nmax . Thus eq. (A29) can be rewritten as follows:
M g (max ) =
n 2 max h
,
cLmax 8
42
(A30)
cos txw'
x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142
4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'
w'
4
4
e
w' (itw')
1
1
nmax h 2
= 2 2 2
.
3
c Lmax M g (max )
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+
log
4
4
(A30b)
(A31)
M g = n 2 mg (min ) . (A32)
This equation shows that the gravitational mass is quantized. The substitution of eq. (A32) into eq.
(A8) leads to the quantization of gravity, i.e.,
g=
GM g
r
Gmg (min )
= n 4 g min . (A33)
= n 2
2
(rmax / n )
x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142 2 2 2
4 anti log
2 c L Mg
t 2
w'
t w'
4
(
)
e
itw
'
w'
1
1
n4 =
2,
3
h
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+
log
4
4
(A33b)
thence:
cos txw'
x 2 w '
e
dx
142 2 2 2
0 cosh x
4 anti log
2 c L Mg
t 2
w'
t w'
4
(
)
e
itw
'
GM g
Gm
w
'
1
1
g ( min )
=
2 g min (A33c)
g = 2 = n 2
2
h
r
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
(rmax / n ) 3
log
+
4
4
A Master Equation of a possible relativistic theory of quantum gravity, that show the quantization
of a gravitational mass and that include also the modes that correspond to the physical vibrations
of a superstring.
43
The redshift z is often described as a redshift velocity, which is the recessional velocity that would
produce the same redshift if it were caused by a linear Doppler effect. To determine the redshift
velocity vrs the relation:
vrs cz ,
(A34)
is used.
The redshift velocity agrees with the velocity from a low-velocity simplification of the so-called
Fizeau-Doppler formula
v
c 1 v .
z = o 1 =
v
e
c
1
c
1+
(A35)
(A36)
where t0 is some reference time. If light is emitted from a galaxy at time te and received by us at t0 ,
it is red shifted due to the expansion of space, and this redshift z is simply:
z=
R(t0 )
1.
R(te )
(A37)
Suppose a galaxy is at distance D , and this distance changes with time at a rate dtD . We call this
rate of recession the recession velocity vr :
vr = d t D =
dt R
D.
R
(A38)
dt R
,
R
vr = HD . (A39)
From the Hubbles law, it follows that
44
~
~ d
Vmax = Hlmax = H max
2
~
~ d
Vmin = Hlmin = H min
2
(A40)
whence
Vmax d max
=
.
Vmin d min
(A41)
Equations (A28) tell us that d max / d min = nmax . Thus the equation above gives
Vmin =
Vmax
nmax
(A42)
Vmax
n
(A43)
V=
= H
n = n 2 .
n
2
(A44)
(A45)
( )
~
Vmax = nV = n Hl
(A46)
t=
0
x0
1 x
= ~ . (A47)
Vmax nH l
45
~
Since V = Hl
and V = Vmax / n
V
~
we can write that l = Vmax H 1 / n = max
~ . Thus, we have that
nH
x0 ~
~
= H (nt ) = Htmax . (A48)
l
Therefore, we can finally write
0
1 ~
1 x
t = ~ = ~ Htmax = tmax / n . (A49)
nH l nH
Note that the eq. (A49), remember that d = l 3 , can be also write as follows:
0
x0
1
3
1 x
t = ~ = ~ x 0
= 3 ~ . (A49b)
d
nH l nH
nHd
x0
From this equation we can to observe that tmax = 3 ~ .
Hd
From eqs. (A26) and (A49) we can easily conclude that the spacetime is not continuous it is
quantized:
d
d
L = nLmin
= n min ,
3
3
0
x0
1 ~
1
3
1 x
t = ~ = ~ Htmax = tmax / n ~ x 0
= 3 ~ . (A50)
d
nH
nH l nH
nHd
Now we take the eq. (A44):
V=
For
~
Vmax ~ lmax 3 1 Hlmax 3
=
.
= H
n
n
2
n
2
~
Hlmax
= i , i.e. the imaginary unit i = 1 , we have that
n
V=
Vmax i 3
=
.
n
2
(A51)
This expression show that the quantized velocity is related to the imaginary unit multiplied the
irrational number 0,866025.
We remember that the equilateral triangle ABC is divided into two congruent rectangular triangles
whose catheti are the height and half of the side of the equilateral triangle and the hypotenuse is the
a
side of the triangle ABC. Indicating with ( h, , a ) respectively, the measures of catheti and of the
2
hypotenuse of the rectangular triangle HBC, and applying the theorem of Pythagoras, we have: the
46
measure of the height of an equilateral triangle is obtained by multiplying the half of his side for the
square root of 3.
a2
3a 2 a
3
a
2
h = a = a
=
=
3=a
= a 0,866
4
4
2
2
2
2
In this picture, we note that the hexagon inscribed in the circle is formed from the six equilateral
triangles and the side a , in this case, is equal to the radius of the circle inscribed. Thence, also here
come out the number 0,866
3
is the fix number of the regular hexagon. The regular hexagon
2
can be divided also in 6 equal isosceles triangles whose height is equal to the apothem of the
hexagon, namely, to the radius of the circle inscribed. In each hexagon there is always the same
ratio between apothem and side, i.e.
a = l 0,866
47
and
l=
a
.
0,866
(A52)
p
A=
l 3
2 ;
2
(A53)
4 3
l 3
24
2 =
2 = 24 4 0,866 = 83,136 = 2,598 . (A54)
2
2l
2 16
32
32
5 + 1
. Indeed, the value of A = l 2 = 16 2,598 = 41,568
But, we note that 2,598 2,618 =
2
2
5 +1
= 16 2,618 = 41,888 = 41,8 41,56
is very near to A = l
2
From (54), we have also that:
3 2l
=
, (A55)
2
p
2
Thence:
3 2( ) l
,
2
p
2
(A56)
5 +1
= 1,61803398 is the aurea ratio.
2
V
i 3
In conclusion, the eq. (A51) V = max =
, can be rewritten also as follows:
n
2
where =
Vmax i 3 i 2( ) l
=
.
n
2
p
2
V=
(A57)
This expression show that the quantized velocity is related to the imaginary unit and to the
aurea ratio.
48
Appendix B
PROOF OF FERMAT'S LAST THEOREM FOR THE CUBIC EQUATION CASE N = 3
The equation
x3 + y3 = z3
(B1)
(B2)
(2) x is even and z and y are odd (the case in which y is even is obtained by swapping the role
between x and y)
For the same reasons as the previous case, we put
49
z - y = 2p
z + y = 2q
thus obtaining
y=qp
z=p+q
where p and q are positive, in fact, q > 0 (since q = (z + y)/2 and p = (z-y)/2) and so q > p (because
z > y).
Besides for the same reasons as the previous case, they are prime between them and in opposite
parity so p and/or q are one even and one odd.
Substituting into (B1) with an immediate calculation
x3 = z3 y3 = (z - y) (y2 + zy + z2) = 2p (p2 + 3q2)
(B3)
So we were able to transform a difference of cubes in a product of cubes which is much more
simple to manage.
At this point we just have to prove that 2p and (p2 + 3q2) are coprime, and that the only way for
their product is a cube is that they are themselves cubes.
2p must be a cube
p2 + 3q2 must be a cube
we know that if p2 + 3q2 is a cube only when we have
p = a3 - 9ab2 = a (a2 9b2) = a (a - 3b) (a + 3b)
q = 3a2b - 3b3 = 3b (a2 b2) = 3b (a - b) (a + b)
with a and b (not necessarily positive) co-prime and of opposite parity.
so that p2 + 3q2 = (a2 + 3b2)3.
We have so that
2p = 2a(a 3b)(a + 3b)
But this is impossible to be a cube because for the same reason we must have that:
2a must be a cube
a 3b must be a cube
a + 3b must be a cube
if we put
50
a 3b = c3
a + 3b = h3
2a = w3
So
c3 + h3 = w3 (B4)
This seems to be a solution of (B1) with integers smaller than the solution original. Indeed
c3 h3 w3 = 2a(a + 3b)(a 3b) = 2p
by equations (B2) and (B3) we get that
z3 = 2p (p2 + 3q2);
z3 = c3 h3 w3 (p2 + 3q2)
x3 = 2p (p2 + 3q2);
x3 = c3 h3 w3 (p2 + 3q2)
z>x
and then we have that
chw < z
and then we have
c<z
h<z
w<z
since c < z, h < z and w < z, the equation (B4) is satisfied and is in contrast with Lemma Infinite
Descent because we obtain an infinite descent of positive integers
This theorem proofs a property that, if satisfied by a positive integer, it can be satisfied by a positive
integer smaller. The method of infinite descent shows that some properties or relations are
impossible, if applied to positive integers, in fact, if we try these apply to any number, they must
also apply when considering numbers smaller; but the latter, in turn, for the same reasons earlier,
hold for some numbers even smaller, so to infinity. This process is impossible, as a sequence of
integers cannot decrease indefinitely.
Then x*3 + y*3 = z3 has no positive x, y and z integer solutions.
51
Observations
The golden section is found in quantum physics (electron orbitals, masses of quarks, strings),
chemistry (atomic numbers of the elements most stable), visible macrocosm (flowers, pine cones,
etc.), astronomy (Bode's law on the orbits of the planets, etc.).
It could be defined, together , a kind of glue between the two worlds (relativistic and quantum),
then an indication of the truth of a possible future TOE.
We note that the golden ratio, as well as in this paper, is present in all four fundamental forces of
nature, and this could be one of the possible unifying factors for future Theory of Everything that
unifies, in fact, all four the forces referred to above, possibly thanks to string theory and its
connections with some sectors of the Theory of Numbers, Fibonacci in particular.
In previous work we have discovered the presence of the golden section in
- Strong force, by the masses of the quarks,
- Gravity, in the orbits of the planets and in the rings of Saturn
- Electromagnetism;
- Weak force
References
52
7) SFERE DI HILL
Ing. Pier Franz Roggero, Dott. Michele Nardelli, P.A. Francesco Di Noto
8) ALLINEAMENTO DEI PIANETI
Ing. Pier Franz Roggero, Dott. Michele Nardelli, P.A. Francesco Di Noto
9) UNA NUOVA CONNESSIONE FIBONACCI ORBITALI ELETTRONICI - Gruppo
B.Riemann - Francesco Di Noto, Michele Nardelli
10) La particella (fermione) di Majorana e la superconduttivit (brevi considerazioni teoriche e
sperimentali) - Francesco Di Noto, Michele Nardelli, Pierfrancesco Roggero
11) Stefania de Luca http://nautil.us/issue/29/scaling/will-quantum-mechanics-swallow-relativity
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank my beloved Master Prof. Antonio Grablovitz, whose culture
mathematics he was able to transmit me with great mastery, and has made possible the
publication of this my research and all those who until now have published. Ive dedicate this
paper to his beloved sons.
53