Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 45 63

www.elsevier.com/locate/jgeoexp

Application of geostatistical methods in gold geochemical

anomalies identification (Montemor-O-Novo, Portugal)
A.P. Reis a,b,*, A.J. Sousa b, E. Cardoso Fonseca c
a
Bolseira BPD, FCT, Portugal
CVRM, Instituto Superior Tecnico, Av. Rovisco Pais 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
c
Departamento de Geociencias, Universidade de Aveiro, 3810, Aveiro, Portugal

Received 26 September 2002

Abstract
The study described herein concerns the application of geostatistical methods to data soil from Montemor-O-Novo area
(Southern Portugal). In the area, the gold mineralised zones (Banhos, Caeiras, Fales, Gamela, Malaca and Monfurado) are
characterised by different geological settings and mineralogical assemblages. A total of 1211 soil samples were collected in
Montemor-O-Novo area and analysed for Cu, Pb, Zn, As, Ba and Au by atomic absorption spectrometry.
To account for spatial structure, simple and cross variograms were computed for the main directions of the grid sampling.
From the experimental variograms a linear model of coregionalization composed of three structures, a nugget effect and two
anisotropic spherical structures, was fitted to each of the six variables. The coregionalization matrices deduced from the
theoretical model show the relationships between the variables at different scales. These matrices were compared with those
obtained by principal component analysis (PCA).
This methodology was the basis for estimating the corresponding spatial components (Y0, Y1 and Y2) using factorial
kriging analysis (FKA). Maps of raw data, Y0, Y1 and Y2 were made for each variable.
The use of multivariate analysis permit the study of the spatial structure intrinsic to geochemical data and the identification
and refinement of significant anomalies related to Au-bearing mineral deposits.
D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Gold; Factorial analysis of coregionalizations; Factorial kriging; Geochemical exploration; Portugal

1. Introduction
Gold occurs in association with mineralised rocks
related to igneous intrusives that range in composition
from felsic to ultramafic; hydrothermal systems rang* Corresponding author. CVRM, Instituto Superior Tecnico, Av.
Rovisco Pais 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal. Tel.: +351-234-370804;
fax: +351-234-370605.
E-mail addresses: pmarinho@geo.ua.pt (A.P. Reis),
ajsousa@ist.utl.pt (A.J. Sousa).

ing in temperature pressure relationships from hypothermal to epithermal; contact metamorphic, pegmatitic and replacement deposits; porphyries and
disseminated deposits and placer deposits of Au and
other metals (Antweiler and Campbell, 1982). Most
auriferous deposits contain essentially the same suite
of elements, but the content range widely from traces
to minor amounts (Boyle, 1979).
Chemical and mechanical processes contribute to
the formation of the secondary dispersion halo of
Au. The balance between both processes depends,

0375-6742/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0375-6742(02)00269-8

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A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563

essentially, on the morphological and climate conditions and the type of mineralisation. The geochemical signature of Au at the surface mostly
depends upon the behaviour of Au and accompanying minerals in the relevant supergene environment.
A large number of elements (e.g. Cu, Ag, Zn, Cd,
As, Sb, Bi, Se and Te) are enriched in Au-bearing
deposits, occurring either in accompanying metallic
minerals, in native gold or in various other Au
minerals (Boyle, 1979). Most of these elements are
useful as indicators of the presence of gold (pathfinder
elements) and should be considered in all types of
geochemical surveys.
The main purposes of this paper are (1) the
definition of regional geochemical patterns of gold
and its pathfinder elements, and (2) the detection of
anomalies at a smaller scale, using geostatistical
methods such as variography, factorial analysis of
coregionalization and factorial kriging analysis.
These methodologies have been used successfully
by several authors on different scientific domains:
geochemical exploration (Jimenez-Espinosa et al.,
1992), soil sciences (Goovaerts and Webster, 1994),
mining (Sousa, 1989) or environment (Batista et al.,
2000).

2. Geostatistical methodology
The variography allows the description of the
spatial pattern of a continuous attribute zj, say a
pollutant concentration of a chemical element or the
anomalous concentrations of a metal orebodies with
economic interest. Given a data set for the variable zj
at n locations ua, zj(ua), a = 1, 2,. . ., n, the experimental cross variogram cjj V*(h) measures the average
dissimilarity between data variables j and jV separated
by a vector h (Goovaerts, 1999).
N h

cjj V *h

1 X
Zj xi h  Zj xi 
2N h 1
 Zj V xi h  Zj V xi 

When j = jVthis expression gives the simple variogram

of variable j.

These experimental variograms can be fitted by a

linear model of coregionalization (Wackernagel,
1988) giving rise to a set of coregionalization matrices.
The coregionalization matrices can be viewed as
partitions of the variance covariance matrix, showing
the relationships between the variables at different
scales. Each matrix may be submitted to a principal
component analysis (PCA) as suggested by Wackernagel (1988).
Factorial kriging analysis (FKA) is a geostatistical
method used in geochemical exploration for filtering
purposes (Sandjivy, 1984; Wackernagel, 1988). With
FKA it is possible to estimate spatial components
corresponding to different scales of variability (sample scale phenomenon, local and regional events),
revealed by simple and cross variogram functions.

3. Montemor-O-Novo mining district

The Montemor-O-Novo mining district is an elongated area trending NW SE with an approximated
length of 35 km (Fig. 1). This area is located on a
large anticlinorium structure, limited at W and NE by
two major thrust zones. Fig. 1 shows the geology
(Gonhas and Martins, 1986; Carvalhosa and Zbyzewski, 1994) of the Montemor-O-Novo mining district.
Economic concentrations of Au in these area
deposits (Banhos, Caeiras, Fales, Gamela, Malaca
and Monfurado) are characterised by slightly different
geological settings and mineralogical assemblages.
Banhos mineralisation is at the contact between
amphibolites/leptites of Escoural Unit and a small
granitic intrusion. In this area Au is associated to
arsenopyrite. Caeiras deposit is in Monfurado Unit
(micaschists and gneisses, leptites associated to
amphibolites). Monfurado deposit is at the contact
between Monfurado Unit and Escoural Unit (lyddites,
quartzite, micaschists and subordinated amphibolites).
Lyddites occur as layers in the quartzite and are
mineralised (pyrite, pyrrotite, Fe-oxides/hydroxides,
gold). Gamela is at the contact between orthogneisses
and Monfurado Unit. The Monfurado Unit leptites
have a pyrite-Fe oxides/hydroxides-minor arsenopyrite mineralogical assemblage whilst the orthogneisses have arsenopyrite. In these three areas gold is

A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563

47

Fig. 1. Geologic map of the study area.

associated with pyrite. Malaca and Fales deposits are

in the Escoural Unit and Au is associated with
arsenopyrite/minor stibnite.
Soil development is characterised by the presence
of a Mediterranean, reddish soil type (Carvalho Cardoso et al., 1971). A Mediterranean temperate climate
prevails in the area, with an annual rainfall of about
656 mm.

4. Sampling and analysis

The total of 1211 soil samples from Montemor-ONovo mining district were collected in six sampling
areas: 233 samples from Monfurado, 255 from Banhos, 138 from Caeiras, 278 from Fales, 189 from
Gamela and 118 soil samples from Malaca. For each
sampling area, the soil samples were collected in a

Table 1
Elementary statistics on raw data for Cu, Pb, Zn, As, Ba and Au

Cu
Pb
Zn
As
Ba
Au

Geometric
mean

Mean

Standard
deviation

Minimum

Maximum

1jQ

3jQ

Skewness

Mean
(log)

Standard
deviation
(log)

Skewness
(log)

1211
1211
1211
1211
1211
1211

22
6
32
18
106
9

27
8
42
37
198
31

20
12
50
66
447
97

3
1
5
5
15
2

220
260
1210
800
4300
1657

16
4
18
5
62
3

32
8
52
40
139
19

4
12
12
5
6
9

1.34
0.78
1.50
1.24
2.03
0.95

0.27
0.27
0.31
0.49
0.38
0.59

 0.16
0.94
0.50
0.65
1.64
0.94

Values of mean, standard deviation and skewness coefficient for the log-transformed raw data.
Cu, Pb, Zn, As and Ba data in ppm; data for Au in ppb.

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A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563

rectilinear grid, at equal distance (50 m) along evenly

spaced line (100 m). The baseline for Banhos sampling grid has an orientation approximately N45jE
whilst Caeiras baseline is N50jW. Fales, Monfurado,
and Malaca have N60jW orientated baselines whereas
Gamela sampling grid has a N65jW baseline. At each
sampling location it was collected approximately 1 kg
of soil.
The soils were dried and sieved trough a  80mesh sieves. All samples were analysed by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectroscopy for Cu, Pb, Zn, Ba, As and Au. The precision
for analytical results if approximately of 4% for Cu,
6% for Pb, 5% for Zn, 19% for As and 22% for Au.

5. Results
5.1. Elementary statistics
Table 1 presents some elementary statistics for Cu,
Pb, Zn, As, Ba and Au. Data from Table 1 shows that
maximum values of all the elements are very high
relative to the corresponding mean values. These
extreme values have a dominant impact on the results
produced by the methods used in this paper that rely
on mean values. The logarithmic transformation of
raw data is a very effective procedure to reduce the
asymmetry of the distribution for the data populations,
as indicated by the skewness coefficients. Moreover,
the lognormality test of Ahrens (1954) applied to the
data suggests a lognormal distribution for the elements (values for arithmetic mean/geometric mean
are: 1.21 for Cu, 1.31 for Pb, 1.34 for Zn, 2.10 for
As, 1.87 for Ba and 3.45 for Au). Therefore, it was
decided to work with the natural logarithms of the
data instead of the raw values.
5.2. Variography
In order to account for spatial structure, simple
and cross variograms of Cu, Pb, Zn, As, Ba and Au
were computed for directions  15,  60, 30 and 75
(in Fig. 2), equivalent, respectively to N15jW,
N60jW, N30jE and N75jE. These four directions

49

Table 2
Sills of the direct and cross variograms for the three structures
(coregionalization matrices)
Cu

Pb

Zn

As

Ba

Au

C0first structure
Cu 0.0224

Pb
0.0018 0.0168
Zn 0.0076 0.0035
As 0.0112 0.0058
Ba 0.0036 0.0004
Au 0.0044 0.0000

0.0090
0.0000
0.0080
0.0000

0.0510
0.0054
0.0180

0.0120
0.0041

0.1240

C1second structure
Cu 0.0272

Pb
0.0094 0.0328
Zn 0.0084 0.0132
As 0.0193 0.0101
Ba 0.0148 0.0092
Au 0.0151 0.0006

0.0200
0.0012
0.0073
 0.0008

0.0690
0.0202
0.0736

0.0220
0.0076

0.0960

C2third structure
Cu 0.0168

Pb
0.0040 0.0192
Zn 0.0024 0.0110
As 0.0012 0.0200
Ba 0.0084 0.0100
Au 0.0000 0.0000

0.0170
0.0000
0.0002
0.0000

0.141
0.0000
0.0140

0.0860
0.0050

0.0920

were selected based on the soil sampling grids,

which are parallel to the Hercynian structures and
have similar orientations (Fig. 1). From the experimental variograms a linear model of coregionalization was fitted to Cu, Pb, Zn, As, Ba and Au, which
allowed the recognition of three structures of continuity: a nugget effect (C0), a first anisotropic
spherical structure (C1, represents the local events)
with a 300-m range and a second anisotropic spherical structure (C2, representing the regional events)
with a 440-m range. The ellipses for each structure
have a major axis with an orientation of N60jW
(direction  60 in Fig. 2). This direction is similar to
those of the Hercynian structures. Fig. 2 shows
simple and cross directional variograms for Au and
As. Directional variograms for the remaining variables are not shown although the model was jointly
fitted to all. Table 2 shows the sills of the direct and
cross variograms for each structure (coregionalization matrices).

Fig. 2. Experimental simple variograms for Au and As, and experimental cross variograms for Au As. The solid lines represent the fitted model
of linear coregionalization.

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5.3. Factorial analysis of coregionalizations

Fig. 3 presents the projections of the variables
obtained through a principal component analysis for
each coregionalization matrix and standard correlation
matrix (classical PCA).
An analysis of Fig. 3 suggests that the PCA reflects
with accuracy the first spherical structure (C1)
revealed by the factorial analysis of coregionalization,
i.e., the association of the variables Au/As, Ba/Cu and
Zn/Pb. The three spatial structures and the classical
PCA show that Ba is generally related to Cu. Though,
at the nugget scale Ba appears related to Zn and these
elements are associated with Cu in the construction of
the first axe. The pair Au/As is everywhere associated

with F2 although Au is near the limit of significance

on the second spherical structure. The association Pb/
Zn does not occur at the nugget scale.
5.4. Factorial kriging analysis
The structural analysis of the data set from Montemor-O-Novo survey area suggests that the spatial
variability of the variables is the sum of three structures, the nugget effect C0 representing the smallscale events, the first structure C1 representing local
events and a second structure C2 representing a
regional event. This methodology was the basis for
estimating the corresponding spatial components (Y0,
Y1 and Y2) using factorial kriging analysis. Maps of

Fig. 3. Projection of the variables on the first vectorial plane (F1/F2) of the principal component analysis for each coregionalization matrix and
standard correlation matrix (classical PCA).

A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563

Fig. 4. Geochemical mapping for gold (raw data) in the sampling areas of Montemor-O-Novo mineralizations district.

51

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A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563

Fig. 5. Mapping of gold for the first spatial component (Y0) in the sampling areas of Montemor-O-Novo mineralizations district.

A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563

Fig. 6. Mapping of gold for the new structured component (Y1 + Y2) in the sampling areas of Montemor-O-Novo mineralizations district.

53

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A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563

Fig. 7. Geochemical mapping for arsenic (raw data) in the sampling areas of Montemor-O-Novo mineralizations district.

A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563

Fig. 8. Mapping of arsenic for the first spatial component (Y0) in the sampling areas of Montemor-O-Novo mineralizations district.

55

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A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563

Fig. 9. Mapping of arsenic for the new structured component (Y1 + Y2) in the sampling areas of Montemor-O-Novo mineralizations district.

A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563

57

Fig. 10. Geochemical mapping for arsenic and gold (raw data) of Gamela deposit. Notes of field geology observations overlay the geochemical
map.

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A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563

Fig. 11. Mapping of arsenic and gold for the first spatial component (Y0) of Gamela deposit. Notes of field geology observations overlay the
geochemical map.

A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563

59

Fig. 12. Mapping of arsenic and gold for the structured component (Y1 + Y2) of Gamela deposit. Notes of field geology observations overlay
the geochemical map.

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A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563

Fig. 13. Geochemical mapping for arsenic and gold (raw data) of Monfurado deposit. Notes of field geology observations overlay the
geochemical map.

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61

Fig. 14. Mapping of arsenic and gold for the first spatial component (Y0) of Monfurado deposit. Notes of field geology observations overlay the
geochemical map.

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A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563

log-transformed raw data and of spatial components

Y0, Y1 and Y2 were made for Au and As. The
individual analysis of the estimated spatial components has shown that the spherical structures are
identical and no additional information arises from
them separately. Such a result it is to be expected
since the model of coregionalization, deduced from de
experimental variograms, shows two anisotropic
spherical structures that are similar in range (C1
300 m range and C2440 m range). Therefore, the
spherical structures were transformed in a structured
component Y1 + Y2.
Figs. 4 6 show the results for Au and spatial
components (Y0, Y1 + Y2), in Banhos, Caeiras, Fales,
Gamela, Malaca and Monfurado sampling areas. Figs.
7 9 show the results for As and spatial components
(Y0, Y1 + Y2). The levels used in the mapping correspond to the minimum and percentiles 25, 50, 75,
85, 90, 92, 94, 96 of the data population.
The analysis of the maps shows that the results are
similar for the prospected areas. The first spatial
component (Y0) mapping (Figs. 5 and 8) shows
anomalies with a punctual nature (X in Figs. 5 and 8)
that are not visible in the geochemical mapping (Figs. 4
and 7). Furthermore, this first component enhances
anomalies (W in Figs. 5 and 8), also with punctual
natures, which have small expression in the raw data
(Figs. 4 and 7). The new structured component
Y1 + Y2 (Figs. 6 and 9) enhances anomalous areas
with or without significant expression on geochemical
mapping, the later is the case for Fales. Along with this
enhancement ability, this component has a restraining
capacity on spread anomalies (the case of Gamela).
The comparison of Figs. 4 and 7 shows that maps
for As are similar to those of Au (confirming that
arsenic is a pathfinder for gold), with the exceptions of
Monfurado, Caeiras and Gamela.
At Gamela and Monfurado areas, field notes taken
in a geological survey were overlaid to raw data, Y0
and Y1 + Y2 maps in order to explain the results of
factorial kriging analysis (Figs. 10 14).
An analysis of Gamela As and Au raw data maps
(Fig. 10) shows that As geochemical signature unlike
Au (Fig. 10), marks the contact between the orthogneisses with arsenopyrite and the leptites of Monfurado Unit (Fig. 1). However, spatial components Y0
(Fig. 11) and Y1 + Y2 (Fig. 12) improve the similarity between arsenic and gold anomalies. The first

structure (Y0) appears to be generally related to Feenrichment of soil (Fe-soil, Fe-pit, presence of magnetite hoematite lymonite, Fe-boulders) whilst the
structured component (Y1 + Y2) marks the existence
of small quartz veins with pyrite and arsenopyrite
hosted by the leptites of Monfurado Unit (A in Fig.
12).
Fig. 13 (raw data mapping for As and Au) and Fig.
14 (Y0 mapping for As and Au) show the results of
Monfurado deposit. An analysis of Y0 maps shows
that arsenic and gold anomalies follow the contact (C
in Fig. 14) between Monfurado Unit (amphibolites,
leptites) and Escoural Unit (lyddites with sulphides).
These anomalies are connected with the geochemical
signatures obtained by raw data mapping (Fig. 13). In
addition, factorial kriging analysis (Y0 and Y1 + Y2)
enhances the alignment of the anomalies by the geological contact.

6. Conclusions
The application of multivariate analysis to soil data
from Montemor-O-Novo survey area leads to the
identification of geochemical patterns for Au and As.
To account for spatial structure, simple and cross
variograms were computed for the main directions of
the grid sampling. From the experimental variograms
a linear model of coregionalization was fitted to the
six variables which allowed the recognition of three
structures of continuity.
The coregionalization matrices resulting from the
factorial analysis of coregionalization show the association between the variables Au/As, Ba/Cu and Zn/
Pb. The PCA reflects with accuracy the first spherical
structure (C1).
The spatial components Y0, Y1 and Y2 estimated
by factorial kriging are effective in: (a) the detection
of anomalies that were undetected by the geochemical
mapping, (b) enhancing anomalous areas without
expression on geochemical mapping.
The mineralogical assemblage (Reis et al., 1999)
occurring on Gamela, Monfurado and Caeiras (gold
associated to pyrite) are responsible for the difference
between Au and As geochemical signatures. However, spatial components mapping has increased the
similarity between the images of Au and As and
improved the interpretation of the anomalies.

A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563

In Banhos, Fales and Malaca areas gold and arsenic

anomalies are similar and related to the existence of
quartz veins with arsenopyrite/pyrite and Fe-oxides
hosted by the lyddites and leptites of Escoural Unit.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their thanks to
Moriminas Company and to Dr. Luis Martins of the
Instituto Geologico e Mineiro of Portugal for
graciously providing the data, to the Geosciences
Department of Aveiro University and to the CVRMIST of the Technical University of Lisbon for
supporting this project, finally to Fundacao para a
Ciencia e a Tecnologia for the scholarship granted to
the first author.
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