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Science Yearly Notes
Science Yearly Notes
Chemical Reactions:
Reactants: Reactants are the starting substances in the chemical reaction
Products: Products are the substances produced in a chemical reaction
Conservation of Mass: Chemical equations show that atoms are conserved
in the reaction; this is known as the conservation of mass
o Total mass of products = Total mass of reactants
- In a chemical reaction, no atoms are destroyed or created
Acids
Properties of Acids: Acids have certain properties which distinguish it from
bases:
o Taste sour
o Corrosive
o React with solid substances
Bases
Properties of Bases: Bases have certain properties which distinguish it
from acids:
o Taste Bitter
o React with the hydrogen in acids
Indicators
Indicators are substances that can be used to tell whether a substance is
an acid or base.
Types of Indicators
- An example of an indicator is litmus paper
o Acid turns blue litmus paper red
o Acids do not change the colour of red litmus paper
- Another example of an indicator used for acids is the metal test
o Acids wear away metals
o Hydrogen gas is given off while the metal is changing
Universal Indicator & pH:
- pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution
o The lower the pH the more acidic the solution
o Strongly acidic solutions have pH around 0 to 2
o The higher the pH the more basic the solution
o Strongly basic solutions have pH around 12 to 14
Chemical Reactions:
- A chemical reaction is when substances combine to form new
substances.
o Indicated by change in colour odour,
o Exothermic (gives off heat)
o Endothermic (heat is absorbed)
o Gas is given off
A Chemical equation: chemical equation summarises the events of a
chemical reaction.
Types of chemical reactions:
- Metal/acid Reaction: acid+metalsalt+hydrogen gas
Structure of an Atom:
The atoms of all matter are electrical and are made up
of three small subatomic particles:
Electromagnetic waves:
- There are two types of waves:
o Electromagnetic waves and
o Mechanical waves.
- Electromagnetic waves are composed of electric and magnetic fields and
do not need particles to transfer energy, that is, they can travel through a
vacuum. The electromagnetic spectrum contains several types of
electromagnetic waves:
Radio Waves:
Microwaves:
Infrared waves:
Visible Light:
UV Rays
Note: As
the wave transmits energy, the trough becomes the crest and the crest
becomes the trough because the wave is moving up and down.
Parts of wave:
- Crest: Crest is the top part of a wave.
-Trough: The trough is the bottom part of a wave.
-Wave Length: Wave length is the distance between each group.
-Amplitude: is the distance from the imaginary line to the crest or the
imaginary line to the trough.
-Frequency: the number of waves produced per second, measured in Hertz
(Hz)
-Wave Speed (m/s) = Frequency (Hz) x wavelength (m)
Electromagnetic Waves:
Reflection:
o
o
o
Refraction:
When light passes through a glass slab, the light is transmitted and
bent.
This bending of light is called refraction.
Air is less dense than glass.
Light bent when the medium changed.
Refraction occurs when light passes from one medium to another,
When light travels from a less dense medium to a denser medium
the lights travel towards the normal.
When light travels from a denser medium to a less dense medium
the lights travels away from the normal.
Always Speed depends on density.
Different substances have different densities. For example water is
denser than air.
Laws of Refraction:
1.
Light that moves at an angle from a ales dense medium to a
more dense medium bends towards the normal.
2.
Light that moves straight on from one medium to another
does not bend. It is not refracted.
3.
Light that moves at an angle from a denser medium to a less
dense medium bends away from the normal.
Reproduction:
Reproduction is a life function, it means creating new
life.
Asexual Reproduction:
Asexual reproduction occurs when there is only on parent. It occurs in
less complex organisms such as unicellular organisms.
Sexual Reproduction:
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Step One:
o Cell becomes larger
o Chromosomes become visible
- Step Two:
o Chromosomes double by splitting into two and pair up
- Step Three:
o Double chromosomes line up across the equator of the cell
o Membrane of nucleus disappears
- Step Four:
o Doubles separate
o Chromosomes move on the spindle form to go to opposite
poles (ends) of the cell
- Step Five:
o Membrane divides the cell into two
o Each new cell have the same number of chromosomes as the
original
- Step Six:
o Chromosomes form nucleuses of the new cells
Meiosis:
Meiosis is the divion of cells to create sex cells. Sex cells only have 23
chromosomes.
Process of Meiosis
-
Step One:
o Cell becomes larger
o Chromosomes become visible
Step Two:
o Chromosomes double by splitting into two and pair up
Step Three:
o Membrane divides the cell into four
o Each new sex cell has half the number of chromosomes as
the original
Step Four:
o Chromosomes form nucleuses of the new cells
Genetics
Genetics refers to the study of hereditary and inherited characteristics.
Chromosomes
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Instructions in the gene code for the production of protein which are
essential to the cell
- The life processes inside your body are carried out by a group of
proteins called enzymes
- Before the instruction can be carried out it must be copied so that the
master plan remains in the cell
RNA
-
DNA Mutation:
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Types of Mutations:
o Aneuploidy: When an individual has an abnormal chromosome
number.
o Polyploidy: When an individual has one or more extra sets of
chromosomes.
Changes in DNA sequence:
o Most mutations involve changes in the DNA sequence.
o Large changes may alter the structure of chromosomes and be
visible when looking at chromosomes under the microscope.
o
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The structure of DNA was worked out in 1953 by James Watson and
Francis Crick, in what became one of the famous scientific
discoveries of modern science.
DNA STRUCTURE:
o
o
o
o
o
Replication:
o
o
o
o
Nucleic Acids:
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Types of Cells:
Alleles:
Genetic Engineering:
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Receptors:
o
Receptors are highly specialised cells that are able to pick
up a stimulus.
o
Types of receptors:
1. Light receptors
2. Taste receptors
3. Smell receptors
4. Sound receptors
5. Touch receptors
6. Temperature receptors
7. Pressure receptors
Effectors:
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Endocrine System:
- Endocrine system helps the body to adjust to the changeas outside and
inside the body
- What does the Endocrine System do?
1. It produces hormones (Chemical messages)
2. Helps control chemical reactions
3. Hormones move through ducts and they do not empty directly into
the blood stream, where the hormones are used.
4. Ducts are tubes.
Parts of the Endocrine System:
Glands
Location
Hormones
Functions
Produced
1- The Thyroid
Attached to
Thyroxine
Controls the speed of
gland
windpipe
chemical reactions in
cells.
2- Adrenal
On top of the
Adrenalin
Prepares your body for
Glands
kidney
action
3- Ovaries
Reproductive
Oestrogen
Gives girls their female
system
feature such as
breasts, soft skin, and
a feminine voice.
4- Pituitary
Under the brain
Makes many
Control growth.
glands
hormones
In females it controls
the release of eggs
from ovaries & the
birth of a baby.
5- The pancreas Below the
Insulin
Insulin controls the
stomach
amount of glucose in
the blood
6- Testes
Reproductive
Testosterone Give boys their male
system
features such as
deeper voices and
more body hair than
females.
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Transmission of Diseases:
- A disease is a condition that prevents or stops the body or any of its
parts from working well.
- Diseases are divided according to whether they are infectious or noninfectious.
Infectious diseases:
o Infectious diseases are those that can be spread or transferred from
one person to another.
o Infectious disease is triggered by an infection or the growth of
pathogen.
Pathogen
o A disease producing organism
o Pathogenic bacteria damage the cells of animals and plants causing
disease.
o Sometimes they produce poisonous wastes or toxins.
o A pimple is caused when a bacteria gets into you sweat glands.
Microbe:
o A microbe is usually just a single cell and so cannot be seen without a
microscope.
o Microbes are used to make bread and cheese.
Bacteria:
o Bacteria are one-celled organisms; they are among the smallest and
simplest living things.
o They carry out all the life functions.
o Bacteria cells dont have a definite nuc leus.
o Most bacteria cant move by themselves, they are carried by air or
moving water.
Diseases caused by bacteria:
Disease
What it does
How it spreads
Tonsillitis
Headache, sore throat,
Sneezing, coughing,
raised temperature.
spitting.
Whooping cough
Bad cough, raised
Sneezing, touching,
temperature
spitting
Salmonella food
Diarrhoea, feeling sick
Eating infected food
poisoning
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Viruses:
o Viruses are bundles of genetic material that attack cells and take
chemicals from them.
o They cannot exist on their own.
o Some viruses are easier to catch than others and sometimes you dont
catch them again after you have had them once.
Examples of viruses:
Disease
What it does
How it spreads
Influenza Aches, pains, runny nose, high
Water droplets in the
temperature
air
Measles
Small red spots and a skin rash
Close contact
Chicken
Raised itchy spots on skin
Close contact
pox
Mumps
Swollen cheeks and neck
Close contact
AIDS
Destroys some of the cells of the
Sexual contact or blood
immune system
Ross river Fatigue and high temperature
Blood-sucking insects
fever
Parasites:
o A parasite Is an organism that benefits at the expense of the host.
o Vectors carry parasites and pathogens from one host to another.
Diseases caused by parasites:
Disease
What it does
How it spreads
Malaria
Severe recurring fever
Mosquito
Typhus
Fever, muscle pain,
Lice, mites, ticks, fleas
rash
Amoebic dysentery
Diarrhoea, blood in the Protozoan in food and
faeces
water
Bilharzia
Rash, cough, diarrhoea Water snail
Antibodies:
o
o
o
They are special proteins that are produced by cells of the immune
system and circulate in the blood.
Antibodies attack pathogens when they enter the body, the immune
response makes the invader harmless.
The immune system produces substances that are specifically
selected to attack a particular invading pathogen.
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Electricity
Static Electricity
Static electricity is electricity that is not moving.
Laws of Static Electricity
-
Symbol
2 Dry cells
Motor
Light bulb
Switch (open )
Switch (closed)
Wire
Resistor
Variable resistor
Voltmeter
Ammeter
Series Circuit
-
Parallel Circuit
-
Electric Current
The size of electric current depends on how many electrons pass a point in
a circuit every second. More electrons mean a larger current while fewer
electrons mean a smaller current.
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In a circuit series, the electrons have only one path to follow, the
switch is closed which makes the circuit complete.
Advantages of circuit series:
All voltages are added up together
Disadvantages of circuit series:
Two lamps are only half s bright as one lamp, because
the electrons use their energy to light the lamp, you can
make them bright by increasing the voltages, and you
can only turn off both lamps together. If one lamp
breaks the other breaks too.
Parallel Series:
o The light globes are shining and they are bright. There are 2 paths
for the electrons to follow. If one lamp is damaged the other will
continue to function because they dont share the same path of
electrons.
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Energy Efficiency:
Ecological sustainability means that the needs of the present
population can be met without endangering the ability of future
generations to meet their needs
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
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Pollution
Pollution is the spoiling or poisoning of the environment through human
activity.
Air Pollution:
Major Pollutants:
o Smoke, dust, sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide and lead.
o Low concentrations may harm living organisms, including humans,
and high concentrations may kill them.
Water Pollution:
Major pollutants:
o
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o
o
Simple Machines
Simple Machines:
o
o
o
o
o
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Disadvantages:
o
o
o
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Time taken
o The more the friction the less the acceleration.
o 2 things that affect acceleration: - Mass & forces (friction)
o Deceleration is the decrease in speed.
Speed= Distance/time
Distance= speed x time
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Time = Distance/speed
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Evolution:
o
Evolution can only take place if the living things in a population are
not all the same.
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In any population there are variations, all the members of one species
are not identical.
In any generation there are offspring that do not reach maturity and
reproduce; the characteristics of these organisms are removed from
the population.
Those organisms that survive and reproduce are well adapted to that
environment, they have favourable variations.
Favourable variations are passed on to offspring; they become more
and more common in the population.
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Cycles of nature:
The water cycle:
o Water in the atmosphere falls to the earths surface as rain or snow.
o Water falling on land will evaporate back into the atmosphere, drain
into the oceans via lakes or rivers, or become trapped far below the
surface in artesian basins.
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o
o
o
o
o
o
Photosynthesis:
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Respiration:
The flow of energy from one living thing to another can be shown
diagrammatically in a food chain:
Green plant plant-eateranimal-eater
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o
o
Food webs:
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