Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Welding Inspection
Welding Inspection
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Main Responsibilities
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1.1
Code compliance
Workmanship control
Documentation control
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Personal Attributes
1.1
Honesty
Integrity
Knowledge
Good communicator
Physical fitness
Good eyesight
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Basic Requirements
BS EN 970 - Non-destructive examination of fusion
welds - Visual examination
Welding Inspection Personnel should:
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Welding Inspection
1.2
Vision Access:
eye should be within 600mm of the surface
viewing angle (line from eye to surface) to be not less than
30
600mm
30
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Welding Inspection
1.3
usually by
agreement
Other aids:
welding gauges (for checking bevel angles, weld profile, fillet
sizing, undercut depth)
dedicated weld-gap gauges and linear misalignment (high-low)
gauges
straight edges and measuring tapes
magnifying lens (if magnification lens used it should have
magnification between X2 to X5)
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1.3
Measuring devices:
Welding gauges
Voltmeter
Ammeter
Magnifying glass
Gas flow-meter
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10mm
G.A.L.
G.A.L.
1.3
1
2
S.T.D.
16mm
3
4
S.T.D.
16mm
5
6
IN
1/4 1/2 3/4
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Misalignment Gauges
Hi-Lo Gauge
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Voltmeter
1.3
Ammeter
Tong Tester
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Before welding
(Before assemble & After assembly)
During welding
After welding
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1.5
Before Welding
Preparation:
Quality Plan/Inspection & Test Plan/Inspection Checklist details of inspection requirements, inspection procedures
& records required
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1.5
Before Welding
Welding Procedures:
Welder Qualifications:
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Pre-heat
if specified
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1.5
During Welding
Weather conditions
Welding Process(es)
Welder
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1.6
During Welding
Welding consumables
in accordance with WPS
in suitable condition
controlled issue and handling
Welding Parameters
current, voltage & travel speed as WPS
Root runs
if possible, visually inspect root before single-sided welds are
filled up
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1.6
During Welding
Inter-run cleaning
in accordance with an approved method (& back gouging) to
good workmanship standard
Distortion control
welding is balanced & over-welding is avoided
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1.6
After Welding
Weld Identification
identified/numbered as required
Visual Inspection
Dimensional Survey
Other NDT
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1.6
After Welding
Repairs
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1.6
After Welding
Documentation
ensure any modifications are on as-built drawings
ensure all required documents are available
Collate / file documents for manufacturing records
Sign all documentation and forward it to QC department.
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Summary of Duties
It is the duty of a Welding Inspector to ensure all the welding and
associated actions are carried out in accordance with the
specification and any applicable procedures.
Observe
To observe all relevant actions related to weld quality throughout
production.
Record
To record, or log all production inspection points relevant to quality,
including a final report showing all identified imperfections
Compare
To compare all recorded information with the acceptance criteria
and any other relevant clauses in the applied application standard
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Welding Inspector
Terms & Definitions
Section 2
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2.1
What is a Weld?
An Autogenous weld:
A weld made with out the use of a filler material and can
only be made by TIG or Oxy-Gas Welding
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2.1
What is a Joint?
The junction of members or the edges of members that are
to be joined or have been joined (AWS)
A configuration of members (BS499)
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Edge
Cruciform
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Tee
Lap
Butt
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Fillet
A_________Welded
butt joint
Compound
A____________Welded
butt joint
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Fillet
A_________Welded
T joint
Butt
A_________Welded
T joint
Compound
A____________Welded
T joint
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Butt weld
Edge weld
Fillet weld
Spot weld
Plug weld
Compound weld
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2.4
Design Throat
Thickness
Design Throat
Thickness
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Actual Throat
Thickness
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Weld
metal
Heat
Affected
Zone
Weld
Boundary
D
Root
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Excess
Cap height
or Weld
Reinforcement
Actual Throat
Thickness
Design
Throat
Thickness
Excess Root
Penetration
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solid
weld
metal
solid-liquid Boundary
grain growth zone
recrystallised zone
partially transformed zone
tempered zone
unaffected base
material
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Included angle
Angle of
bevel
Root
Radius
Root Face
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Root Face
Root Gap
Root Gap
Single-V Butt
Single-U Butt
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Angle of bevel
Root
Radius
Root Face
Root Gap
Root Gap
Root Face
Land
Single-J Butt
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2.10
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Single Bevel
Single Vee
Single-J
Single-U
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2.11
Double -Bevel
Double - J
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Double -Vee
Double - U
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Weld Preparation
Terminology & Typical Dimensions:
V-Joints
bevel angle
included angle
root face
root gap
Typical Dimensions
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bevel angle
30 to 35
root face
~1.5 to ~2.5mm
root gap
~2 to ~4mm
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80
20
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2.13
Excess
Weld
Metal
Vertical
Leg
Length
Design
Throat
Horizontal leg
Length
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2.13
a
a = Design Throat Thickness
b = Actual Throat Thickness
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a
a = Design Throat Thickness
b = Actual Throat Thickness
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2.14
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2.14
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Features to Consider 2
2.14
(b)
8mm
4mm
4mm
2mm
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2.14
(b)
Excess
Excess
4mm
6mm
(a)
4mm
Area = 4 x 4 =
8mm2
2
(b)
6mm
Area = 6 x 6 =
18mm2
2
The c.s.a. of (b) is over double the area of (a) without the extra
excess weld metal being added
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2.15
Mitre Fillet
Convex Fillet
Concave Fillet
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A concave profile
is preferred for
joints subjected to
fatigue loading
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2.15
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Welding Positions
2.17
PA
1G / 1F
Flat / Downhand
PB
2F
Horizontal-Vertical
PC
2G
Horizontal
PD
4F
Horizontal-Vertical (Overhead)
PE
4G
Overhead
PF
3G / 5G
Vertical-Up
PG
3G / 5G
Vertical-Down
H-L045
6G
J-L045
6G
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Welding Positions
2.17
ISO
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Flat - PA
Overhead - PE
Vertical
up - PF
Vertical
down - PG
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Horizontal - PC
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Flat - PA
axis: horizontal
pipe: rotated
H-L045
J-L045
axis: horizontal
pipe: fixed
Horizontal - PC
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Flat - PA
Horizontal - PB
Vertical up - PF
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Overhead - PD
Vertical down - PG
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Flat - PA
Horizontal - PB
Overhead - PD
axis: inclined at 45
pipe: rotated
axis: vertical
pipe: fixed
axis: vertical
pipe: fixed
axis: horizontal
pipe: fixed
axis: horizontal
pipe: fixed
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PA / 1G
2.17
PA / 1F
PF / 3G
PB / 2F
PD / 4F
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PC / 2G
PE / 4G
PG / 3G
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PC / 2G
Weld: Horizontal
Pipe: Fixed
Axis: Vertical
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PG / 5G
PF / 5G
PA / 1G
Weld: Flat
Pipe: rotated
Axis: Horizontal
2.17
H-LO 45 / 6G
Weld: Upwards
Pipe: Fixed
Axis: Inclined
J-LO 45 / 6G
Weld: Downwards
Pipe: Fixed
Axis: Inclined
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2.18
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Welding Inspector
Welding Imperfections
Section 3
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Welding Imperfections
3.1
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Welding Imperfections
3.1
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Welding Imperfections
3.1
Level B (highest)
Level C (intermediate)
Level D (general)
This Standard is directly applicable to visual testing of welds
...(weld surfaces & macro examination)
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Welding imperfections
classification
3.1
Cracks
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Cracks
3.1
Classified by Position
HAZ
Centerline
Crater
Fusion zone
Parent metal
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Cracks
3.1
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Cracks
Transverse crack
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3.1
Longitudinal crack
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Cracks
3.2
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Solidification Cracks
Hydrogen Induced Cracks
Lamellar Tearing
Reheat cracks
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Cracks
3.2
Solidification Cracking
Occurs during weld solidification process
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Cracks
3.3
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Lamellar Tearing
3.5
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Gas Cavities
Gas pore
Cluster porosity
3.6
Causes:
Loss of gas shield
Damp electrodes
Contamination
Blow hole
Herringbone porosity
Root piping
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Gas Cavities
3.7
Porosity
Root piping
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Gas Cavities
Cluster porosity
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3.8
Herringbone porosity
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Crater Pipe
3.9
Weld crater
Crater pipe
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Crater Pipe
3.9
Crater cracks
(Star cracks)
Causes:
Deoxidization
reactions and
liquid to solid
volume change
Contamination
Crater pipe
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Solid Inclusions
3.10
Lack of sidewall
fusion with
associated slag
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Lack of interun
fusion + slag
Solid Inclusions
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Welding Imperfections
3.13
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Lack of Fusion
3.13
Causes:
Poor welder skill
Incomplete filled groove +
Lack of sidewall fusion
Incorrect electrode
manipulation
Arc blow
1
2
1. Lack of sidewall fusion
2. Lack of inter-run fusion
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Incorrect welding
current/voltage
Incorrect travel speed
Incorrect inter-run cleaning
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Lack of Fusion
3.13
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3.15
Cap Undercut
3.18
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Undercut
Root undercut
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3.18
Cap undercut
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3.19
3.19
3.20
Excessive root
penetration
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Overlap
3.21
Causes:
Contamination
Slow travel speed
Incorrect welding
technique
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Overlap
3.21
Toe Overlap
Toe Overlap
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Set-Up Irregularities
3.22
Linear misalignment is
measured from the lowest
plate to the highest point.
Plate/pipe Linear Misalignment
(Hi-Lo)
Angular misalignment is
measured in degrees
Angular Misalignment
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Set-Up Irregularities
3.22
Linear Misalignment
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Set-Up Irregularities
3.22
Linear Misalignment
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Incomplete Groove
3.23
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3.24
Causes:
Excessive back purge
Concave Root
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3.24
Concave Root
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Concave root
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3.24
3.25
Causes:
Burn through
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High Amps/volts
Slow Travel
Speed
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3.25
Burn Through
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Loss or insufficient
back purging gas (TIG)
occasionally nitrogen
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Miscellaneous Imperfections
3.26
Causes:
Accidental striking of the
arc onto the parent
material
Faulty electrode holder
Arc strike
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Miscellaneous Imperfections
3.27
Causes:
Spatter
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Excessive current
Damp electrodes
Contamination
Arc blow
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Mechanical Damage
3.28
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Mechanical Damage
3.28
Chipping Marks
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Welding Inspector
Destructive Testing
Section 4
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Bend Test
Specimen
Charpy Specimen
Fracture Fillet
Specimen
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Position
Macro + Hardness
Transverse Tensile
2, 4
Bend Tests
2, 4
Additional Tests
5
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Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the amount of
deformation which metals can withstand under different
circumstances of force application.
Malleability
Ductility
Toughness
Ability of a material to
withstand deformation
under static compressive
loading without rupture
Hardness
Tensile Strength
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Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the amount of
deformation which metals can withstand under different
circumstances of force application.
Malleability
Ductility
Toughness
Hardness
Tensile Strength
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Ability of a material
undergo plastic
deformation under static
tensile loading without
rupture. Measurable
elongation and reduction
in cross section area
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Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the amount of
deformation which metals can withstand under different
circumstances of force application.
Malleability
Ductility
Toughness
Hardness
Ability of a material to
withstand bending or the
application of shear
stresses by impact loading
without fracture.
Tensile Strength
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Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the amount of
deformation which metals can withstand under different
circumstances of force application.
Malleability
Ductility
Toughness
Hardness
Measurement of a
materials surface
resistance to indentation
from another material by
static load
Tensile Strength
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Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the amount of
deformation which metals can withstand under different
circumstances of force application.
Malleability
Ductility
Toughness
Hardness
Measurement of the
maximum force required to
fracture a materials bar of
unit cross-sectional area in
tension
Tensile Strength
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4.2
Weld on plate
Weld on pipe
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Tensile Test
4.3
Transverse Tensile
Specimen
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4.4
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Objectives:
measuring impact strength in different weld joint areas
assessing resistance toward brittle fracture
Information to be supplied on the test report:
Material type
Notch type
Specimen size
Test temperature
Notch location
Impact Strength Value
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4.6
Ductile fracture
47 Joules
Transition range
Ductile/Brittle
transition
point
28 Joules
Energy absorbed
Brittle fracture
- 50
- 40
- 30
- 20
- 10
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-20oC Temperature
1.
197 Joules
1.
49 Joules
2.
191 Joules
2.
53 Joules
3.
186 Joules
3.
51 Joules
Average = 51 Joules
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Pendulu
m
(striker)
Anvil (support)
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8 mm
2 mm
10 mm
4.9
100% Brittle
Machined
notch
Fracture surface
100% bright
crystalline brittle
fracture
100% Ductile
Machined
notch
Large reduction
in area, shear
lips
Randomly torn,
dull gray fracture
surface
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Hardness Testing
4.10
Definition
Measurement of resistance of a material against
penetration of an indenter under a constant load
There is a direct correlation between UTS and
hardness
Hardness tests:
Brinell
Vickers
Rockwell
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Hardness Testing
4.10
Objectives:
material type
location of indentation
hardness value
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4.11
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Indentation
Adjustable
shutters
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4.11
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4.11
=10mm
steel ball
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Rockwell C
1KN
1.5KN
=1.6mm
steel ball
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120 Diamond
Cone
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Hardness Testing
4.12
1.5 to 3mm
fusion line
or
fusion
boundary
HAZ
Typical Designations
Vickers
240 HV10
Rockwell
Rc 22
Brinell
200 BHN-W
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Fatigue Fracture
4.13
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Fatigue Fracture
4.13
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Fatigue Fracture
Precautions against Fatigue Cracks
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Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue fracture occurs in structures subject to repeated
application of tensile stress.
Crack growth is slow (in same cases, crack may grow into an
area of low stress and stop without failure).
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Fatigue Fracture
Secondary mode of failure
ductile fracture rough fibrous
appearance
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Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue fracture distinguish features:
Crack growth is slow
Final fracture will usually take the form of gross yielding (as the
maximum stress in the remaining ligament increase!)
Fatigue crack need initiation + propagation periods
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Bend Tests
4.15
Object of test:
Face bend
Root bend
Side bend
Side bend tests are normally carried out on welds over 12mm in thickness
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Bending test
4.16
t up to 12 mm
Root / face
bend
Thickness of material - t
t over 12 mm
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Side bend
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4.17
Object of test:
To break open the joint through the weld to permit
examination of the fracture surfaces
Specimens are cut to the required length
A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is applied along
the fillet welds length
Fracture is usually made by striking the specimen with a
single hammer blow
Visual inspection for defects
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4.17
Hammer
2mm
Notch
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4.17
Lack of Penetration
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Nick-Break Test
4.18
Object of test:
To permit evaluation of any weld defects across the
fracture surface of a butt weld.
Specimens are cut transverse to the weld
A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is applied along the
welds root and cap
Fracture is usually made by striking the specimen with a
single hammer blow
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Nick-Break Test
Notch cut by hacksaw
4.18
2 mm
19 mm
2 mm
Approximately 230 mm
Weld reinforcement
may or may not be
removed
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4.18
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Inclusions on fracture
line
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Macro tests
Bend tests
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Welding Inspector
WPS Welder Qualifications
Section 5
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* properties
mechanical properties are the main interest - always strength but
toughness & hardness may be important for some applications
test also demonstrates that the weld can be made without defects
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Welding Procedures
5.1
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5.3
(according to EN Standards)
Essential variables
Non-essential variables
Additional variables
Note: additional variables = ASME supplementary essential
The range of qualification for production welding is based on
the limits that the EN ISO Standard specifies for essential
variables*
(* and when applicable - the additional variables)
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5.3
(according to EN Standards)
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Welding Position
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Welding Procedures
5.3
Welding process
Type of process (MMA, MAG, TIG, SAW etc)
Equipment parameters
Amps, Volts, Travel speed
Welding Consumables
Type of consumable/diameter of consumable
Brand/classification
Heat treatments/ storage
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Welding Procedures
5.3
Welding Position
Location, shop or site
Welding position e.g. 1G, 2G, 3G etc
Any weather precaution
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Welding Procedures
5.3
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Welding Procedures
Summary of designations:
pWPS: Preliminary Welding Procedure Specification
(Before procedure approval)
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Example:
Welding
Procedure
Specification
(WPS)
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Welder Qualification
5.4
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Welder Qualification
(according to EN Standards)
Question:
What is the main reason for qualifying a welder ?
Answer:
To show that he has the skill to be able to make production
welds that are free from defects
Note: when welding in accordance with a Qualified WPS
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Welder
Qualification
(according to EN 287 )
5.5
The qualification shall remain valid for 2 years provided there is certified
confirmation of welding to the WPS in that time.
A Welders Qualification Certificate automatically expires if the welder has not
used the welding process for 6 months or longer.
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Welder Qualification
5.9
(according to EN 287 )
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Welder Qualification
5.9
(according to EN 287 )
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Welder Qualification
5.10
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Welding Inspector
Materials Inspection
Section 6
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Material Inspection
One of the most important items to consider is Traceability.
The materials are of little use if we can not, by use of an effective QA
system trace them from specification and purchase order to final
documentation package handed over to the Client.
All materials arriving on site should be inspected for:
Size / dimensions
Condition
Type / specification
In addition other elements may need to be considered depending on
the materials form or shape
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Pipe Inspection
We inspect the condition
Specification
Welded
seam
LP5
Size
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Plate Inspection
We inspect the condition
(Corrosion, Mechanical damage, Laps, Bands &
Laminations)
Specification
5L
Size
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Lap
Lamination
Segregation line
Laminations are caused in the parent plate by the steel making
process, originating from ingot casting defects.
Segregation bands occur in the centre of the plate and are low
melting point impurities such as sulphur and phosphorous.
Laps are caused during rolling when overlapping metal does not
fuse to the base material.
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Lapping
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Lamination
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Laminations
Plate Lamination
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Welding Inspector
Codes & Standards
Section 7
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Standard/Codes/Specifications
STANDARDS
SPECIFICATIONS
CODES
Examples
Examples
plate, pipe
pressure vessels
forgings, castings
bridges
valves
pipelines
electrodes
tanks
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Welding Inspector
Welding Symbols
Section 8
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Dimensions
Convention of dimensions
In most standards the cross sectional dimensions are given to
the left side of the symbol, and all linear dimensions are give on
the right side
BS EN ISO 22553
a = Design throat thickness
s = Depth of Penetration, Throat thickness
z = Leg length (min material thickness)
AWS A2.4
In a fillet weld, the size of the weld is the leg length
In a butt weld, the size of the weld is based on the depth of the
joint preparation
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The above information does not tell us much about the wishes
of the designer. We obviously need some sort of code which
would be understood by everyone.
Most countries have their own standards for symbols.
Some of them are AWS A2.4 & BS EN 22553 (ISO 2553)
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by symbolic representation
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Weld type
Sketch
Symbol
Square edge
butt weld
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Single-v
butt weld
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Sketch
Symbol
Single-V butt
weld with broad
root face
Single
bevel butt
weld
Single bevel
butt weld with
broad root
face
Backing run
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Sketch
Symbol
Single-U
butt weld
Single-J
butt weld
Surfacing
Fillet weld
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Plug weld
Steep flanked
Single-V Butt
Surfacing
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Arrow Line
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4):
Convention of the arrow line:
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Reference Line
(AWS A2.4)
Convention of the reference line:
Shall touch the arrow line
Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing
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Reference Line
(BS EN ISO 22553)
Convention of the reference line:
or
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Fillet weld
Double bevel
Double V
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Double J
Double U
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Other side
Arrow side
Arrow side
Other side
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Single-bevel butt
Double-bevel butt
Single-bevel butt
Single-J butt
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10
15
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z6
6mm leg
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a4
a
s
s6
6mm Actual throat
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Arrow side
Arrow side
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Other side
s6
Other side
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n x l (e)
Welds to be
staggered
2 x 40 (50)
3 x 40 (50)
111
Process
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80
80
z5
3 x 80 (90)
z6
3 x 80 (90)
80
90
90
90
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80
80
z8
3 x 80 (90)
z6
3 x 80 (90)
80
6
8
90
90
90
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Supplementary symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Site Weld
Concave or Convex
Weld all round
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Supplementary symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Convention of supplementary symbols
Supplementary information such as welding process, weld profile,
NDT and any special instructions
Ground flush
MR
Removable
backing strip
Permanent
backing strip
111
Welding process
numerical BS EN
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d
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Mitre
Concave
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Convex
Toes
shall be
blended
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z6
6mm leg
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a4
a
s
s6
6mm Actual throat
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NDT
The component requires
NDT inspection
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WPS
Additional information,
the reference document
is included in the box
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121:
131:
135:
136:
141:
TIG welding
311:
Oxy-acetylene welding
72:
Electro-slag welding
15:
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Root Opening
Depth of
Bevel
1(1-1/8)
Effective
Throat
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1/8
60o
Groove Angle
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GSFCAW
1(1-1/8)
1/8
60o
GMAW
GTAW
SAW
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3 10
3 10
SMAW
Process
10
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Sequence of
Operations
2nd Operation
1st Operation
1(1-1/8)
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FCAW
1/8
60o
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Sequence of
Operations
MT
MT
1(1-1/8)
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FCAW
1/8
60o
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6 leg on member A
6/8
Member A
6
8
Member B
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Welding Inspector
Intro To Welding Processes
Section 9
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Welding Processes
Welding is regarded as a joining process in which the work
pieces are in atomic contact
Pressure welding
Fusion welding
Forge welding
Oxy-acetylene
Friction welding
MMA (SMAW)
Resistance Welding
MIG/MAG (GMAW)
TIG (GTAW)
Sub-arc (SAW)
Electro-slag (ESW)
Laser Beam (LBW)
Electron-Beam (EBW)
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90
80
Voltage
70
60
50
40
Normal Operating
Voltage Range
30
20
10
20
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40
60
80
100
120
Amperage
130
140
160
180
200
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Welding Inspector
MMA Welding
Section 10
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MMA welding
Main features:
Shielding provided by decomposition of flux covering
Electrode consumable
Manual process
Welder controls:
Arc length
Angle of electrode
Speed of travel
Amperage settings
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Control panel
(amps, volts)
Electrode
oven
Electrodes
Power source
Holding oven
Inverter power
source
Return lead
Electrode holder
Welding visor
filter glass
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Power cables
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90
80
Voltage
70
60
50
40
Normal Operating
Voltage Range
30
20
10
20
40
60
80
100
120
130
140
160
180
200
Amperage
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Travel
speed
Too high
lack of penetration
incomplete root
penetration
burn-through
undercut
poor bead profile,
difficult slag removal
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position
Too low
Welding
current
Too high
poor starting
spatter
slag inclusions
excess
penetration
undercut
burn-through
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Arc
voltage
Too high
spatter
stubbing
porosity
excess
penetration
undercut
burn-through
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MMA - Troubleshooting
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Disadvantages:
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Welding Inspector
TIG Welding
Section 11
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Current
The current is adjusted proportionally to the tungsten
electrodes diameter being used. The higher the current the
deeper the penetration and fusion
Polarity
The polarity used for steels is always DC ve as most of the
heat is concentrated at the +ve pole, this is required to keep
the tungsten electrode at the cool end of the arc. When
welding aluminium and its alloys AC current is used
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Types of current
DC
AC
Type of
welding
current
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+ +
+
-
DCEN
AC (balanced)
DCEP
70% at work
30% at electrode
50% at work
50% at electrode
35% at work
65% at electrode
Deep, narrow
Medium
Shallow, wide
No
Excellent
(e.g. 3,2 mm/400A)
Yes
Poor
(e.g. 6,4 mm/120A)
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ARC CHARACTERISTICS
Constant Current/Amperage Characteristic
Large change in voltage =
Smaller change in amperage
OCV
Volts
Large arc gap
Welding Voltage
Small arc
gap
Amps
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HF start
need a HF generator (sparkgap oscillator) that generates a
high voltage AC output (radio
frequency) costly
reliable method required on
both DC (for start) and AC (to
re-ignite the arc)
can be used remotely
HF produce interference
requires superior insulation
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Current (A)
Pulsed current
usually peak current is 2-10 times
Pulse Cycle Peak Background
background current
time time current
current
useful on metals sensitive to high heat
input
reduced distortions
in case of dissimilar thicknesses equal
penetration can be achieved
Average current
Time
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Tungsten Electrodes
Old types: (Slightly Radioactive)
Thoriated: DC electrode -ve - steels and most metals
1% thoriated + tungsten for higher current values
2% thoriated for lower current values
Zirconiated: AC - aluminum alloys and magnesium
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Stickout
Electrode
extension
Low electron
emission
Unstable arc
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Too
small
2-3 times
electrode
diameter
Electrode
extension
Too
large
Overheating
Tungsten
inclusions
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Tungsten Electrodes
Old types: (Slightly Radioactive)
Thoriated: DC electrode -ve - steels and most metals
1% thoriated + tungsten for higher current values
2% thoriated for lower current values
Zirconiated: AC - aluminum alloys and magnesium
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Penetration
increase
Increase
Vertex
angle
Decrease
Bead width
increase
Electrode tip prepared for low
current welding
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AC
DC -ve
AC
Vetex angle
Note: too fine an angle will
promote melting of the
electrodes tip
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Unstable
arc
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Too
low
Welding
current
Penetration
Too
high
Excessive
melting or
volatilisation
Tungsten
inclusions
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Preflow
Flow rate
too low
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Postflow
Flow rate
too high
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Stickout
Electrode
extension
Low electron
emission
Unstable arc
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Too
small
2-3 times
electrode
diameter
Electrode
extension
Too
large
Overheating
Tungsten
inclusions
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Tungsten Inclusion
May be caused by Thermal Shock of
heating to fast and small fragments
break off and enter the weld pool, so a
slope up device is normally fitted to
prevent this could be caused by touch
down also.
Most TIG sets these days have slopeup devices that brings the current to
the set level over a short period of
time so the tungsten is heated more
slowly and gently
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Disadvantages
High quality
Good control
All positions
Lowest H2 process
Minimal cleaning
Complex equipment
Autogenous welding
Low productivity
Can be automated
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Welding Inspector
MIG/MAG Welding
Section 12
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Polarity
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Travel speed
Increasing travel speed
Reduced penetration and width, undercut
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Carbon steel
Stainless steel
Aluminium
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Shielding gas
CO2 , Ar+(5-20)%CO2
Ar+2%O2
Ar
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Ar-He
He
CO2
Argon (Ar):
higher density than air; low thermal conductivity the arc
has a high energy inner cone; good wetting at the toes; low
ionisation potential
Helium (He):
lower density than air; high thermal conductivity uniformly
distributed arc energy; parabolic profile; high ionisation
potential
Carbon Dioxide (CO2):
cheap; deep penetration profile; cannot support spray
transfer; poor wetting; high spatter
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100% CO2
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Penetration
Deep
Moderate Shallow
Electrode extension
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Increased extension
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19 mm
25 mm
Voltage (V)
Current (A)
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25 mm
25 mm
Voltage (V)
Current (A)
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Current - 250A
14 mm
Insulatin
g slag
Voltage - 27V
WFS - 7,8 m/min
Wire diam. - 1,2 mm
0.10 sec
0.15 sec
Contact tip
extension
(0-3,2 mm)
Electrode
extension
6-13 mm
Contact tip
recessed
(3-5 mm)
Electrode
extension
19-25 mm
Voltage
Current = 295 A
Voltage = 28V
Globular
transfer
Spray
transfer
Electrode diameter = 1,2 mm
WFS = 3,2 m/min
Current = 145 A
Dip transfer
Voltage = 18-20V
Current
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33
32
31
Voltage
Small Voltage
Change.
Large Current Change
100
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Amperage
200
300
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Contact
tip
Union nut
Gas
nozzle
Trigger
Handle
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WFS remote
control
potentiometer
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WELDING PROCESS
Flux Core Arc Welding
(Not In The Training Manual)
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With gas
shielding Outershield
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Without gas
shielding Innershield
With metal
powder Metal core
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ARC CHARACTERISTICS
Constant Voltage Characteristic
Small change in voltage =
large change in amperage
OCV
Large arc gap
Small arc gap
The self
adjusting arc.
Volts
Amps
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Flux powder
Arc shield composed of
vaporized and slag forming
compounds
Flux core
wires
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Solidified weld
metal and slag
Molten
weld
pool
With gas
shielding Outershield
Without gas
shielding Innershield
(114)
With active
gas shielding
(136)
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With metal
powder Metal core
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Disadvantages
produce a higher weld profile
difficult to follow the weld joint
can lead to burn-through on thin sheet plates
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Disadvantages
produce a low weld profile, with coarser ripples
fast weld progression, shallower depth of penetration
the amount of spatter can increase
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FCAW advantages
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FCAW disadvantages
limited to steels and Ni-base alloys
slag covering must be removed
FCAW wire is more expensive on a weight basis than solid
wires (exception: some high alloy steels)
for gas shielded process, the gaseous shield may be
affected by winds and drafts
more smoke and fumes are generated compared with
MIG/MAG
in case of Innershield wires, it might be necessary to
break the wire for restart (due to the high amount of
insulating slag formed at the tip of the wire)
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FCAW advantages/disadvantages
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
2) High productivity
2) Slag inclusions
3) All positional
3) Cored wire is
Expensive
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Welding Inspector
Submerged Arc Welding
Section 13
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Principles of operation
Factors that determine whether to use SAW chemical
composition and mechanical properties required for the weld
deposit
thickness of base metal to be welded
joint accessibility
position in which the weld is to be made
frequency or volume of welding to be performed
SAW methods
Semiautomatic
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Mechanised
Automatic
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+
Slide rail
Wire electrode
Flux
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travel speed
electrode size
electrode extension
width and depth of the layer of flux
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AC used to avoid
arc blow; can give
unstable arc
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SAW Consumables
(Covered in detail in Section 14)
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SAW Consumables
Agglomerated fluxes advantages:
easy addition of deoxidizers and alloying elements
usable with thicker layer of flux when welding
colour identification
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SAW equipment
Power sources can be:
transformers for AC
transformer-rectifiers for DC
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SAW equipment
Constant Voltage (Flat Characteristic) power sources:
self-regulating arc
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ARC CHARACTERISTICS
Constant Voltage Characteristic
Small change in voltage =
large change in amperage
OCV
Large arc gap
Small arc gap
The self
adjusting arc.
Volts
Amps
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SAW equipment
Constant Current (Drooping Characteristic) power sources:
arc voltage depends upon wire feed speed whilst the power
source controls the current
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SAW equipment
Welding heads can be mounted on a:
Tractor type carriage
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Courtesy of ESAB AB
Courtesy of ESAB AB
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Penetration
Deep
Moderate
Shallow
Maximum
Moderate
Minimum
Tendency to undercut
Severe
Moderate
Minimum
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Direction of
travel
welding towards earth produces backward arc blow
deep penetration
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Direction of
travel
welding away earth produces forward arc blow
normal penetration depth
smooth, even weld profile
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Weld backing
Backing strip
Backing weld
Copper backing
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SAW variants
Twin wire SAW welding
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SAW variants
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SAW variants
Tandem arc SAW process
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SAW variants
SAW tandem arc
with two wires
Courtesy of ESAB AB
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SAW variants
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SAW variants
Tandem arc SAW process - multiple wires
only for welding thick
sections (>30 mm)
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SAW variants
Strip cladding needs a
special welding head
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SAW variants
Narrow gap welding
for welding thick
materials
less filler metal required
requires special groove
preparation and special
welding head
requires special fluxes,
otherwise problems with
slag removal
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SAW variants
Hot wire welding
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SAW variants
SAW with metal powder addition
increased deposition rates up to
70%; increased welding speed
gives smooth fusion, improved
bead appearance, reduced
penetration and dilution from parent
metal & higher impact strength
metal powders can modify
chemical composition of final weld
deposit
does not increase risk of cracking
do not require additional arc energy
metal powder can be added ahead
or directly into the weld pool
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SAW variants
SAW with metal powder addition
magnetic attachment of powder
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SAW variants
Storage tank
SAW of circular
welds
Courtesy of ESAB AB
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Advantages of SAW
high current density, high deposition rates (up to 10 times
those for MMA), high productivity
deep penetration allowing the use of small welding grooves
fast travel speed, less distortion
deslagging is easier
uniform bead appearance with good surface finish and good
fatigue properties
can be easily performed mechanised, giving a higher duty
cycle and low skill level required
provide consistent quality when performed automatic or
mechanised
Virtually assured radiographically sound welds
arc is not visible
little smoke/fumes are developed
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Easily automated
Disadvantages
Restricted welding
positions
Arc blow on DC
current
High productivity
Shrinkage defects
Difficult penetration
control
Minimum cleaning
Limited joints
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Welding Inspector
Welding Consumables
Section 14
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Welding consumables
Welding consumables are any products that are used up in
the production of a weld
Fusible inserts.
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MMA (SMAW)
electrodes
AWS A5.4 Chromium
electrodes
SAW
BS 4165: Wire and fluxes
BS EN 756: Wire electrodes
BS EN 760: Fluxes
AWS A5.17: Wires and fluxes
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Welding Consumables
Each consumable is critical in respect to:
Size, (diameter and length)
Classification / Supplier
Condition
Treatments e.g. baking / drying
Handling and storage is critical for consumable control
Handling and storage of gases is critical for safety
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3: Electrode designation
EN 499-E 51 3 B
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Tin can
cellulosic electrodes
rutile electrodes
general purpose basic electrodes
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Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Deep penetration/fusion
High in hydrogen
Low control
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Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Easy to use
High in hydrogen
Low strength
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Basic Electrodes
Disadvantages
High cost
High control
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Cellulosic
E XX X C
EXX10
EXX11
Rutile
E XX X R
EXX12
EXX13
Basic
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E XX X B
EXX15
EXX16
EXX18
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Electrode efficiency
up to 180% for iron powder electrodes
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Rutile
electrodes
Vacuum
packed basic
electrodes
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If necessary, dry up to
120C- No baking!
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Limited number of
rebakes!
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Weld
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Welding Consumables
TIG Consumables
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Fusible Inserts
Pre-placed filler material
Before Welding
After Welding
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Fusible Inserts
Consumable inserts:
used for root runs on pipes
used in conjunction with TIG welding
Radius
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Fusible Inserts
Application of consumable inserts
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for the same arc current produce less heat than helium reduced penetration, wider HAZ
to obtain the same arc arc power, argon requires a higher
current - increased undercut
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Welding Consumables
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Courtesy of ESAB AB
wires must be kept clean and free from oil and dust
flux cored wires does not require baking or drying
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Welding Consumables
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Seamless
cored wire
Butt joint
cored wire
good resistance to
moisture pick-up
can be copper coated
thick sheath
difficult to seal the
sheath
Overlapping
cored wire
sensitive to
moisture pickup
cannot be
copper coated
thin sheath
easy to
manufacture
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Welding Consumables
SAW Consumables
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SAW Consumables
Welding fluxes:
are granular mineral compounds mixed according to various
formulations
shield the molten weld pool from the atmosphere
clean the molten weld pool
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SAW Consumables
Welding flux:
might be fused or agglomerated
supplied in bags
must be kept warm and dry
handling and stacking requires care
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SAW Consumables
Fused Flux
Flaky appearance
Good re-cycling
Very smooth weld
profile
Fused Flux:
Baked at high temperature, glossy, hard and black in colour,
cannot add ferro-manganese, non moisture absorbent and
tends to be of the acidic type
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SAW Consumables
TYPES OF FLUX
FUSED (ACID TYPE)
name indicates method of manufacture
minerals are fused (melted) and granules produced by
allowing to cool to a solid mass and then crushing or by
spraying the molten flux into water
flux tends to be glass-like (high in Silica)
granules are hard and may appear shiny
granules do not absorb moisture
granules do not tend break down into powder when being
re-circulated
are effectively a low hydrogen flux
welds do not tend to give good toughness at low
temperatures
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SAW Consumables
Fused fluxes advantages:
good chemical homogeneity
easy removal of fines without affecting flux
composition
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SAW Consumables
Agglomerated Flux
Granulated appearance
High weld quality
Addition of alloys
Lower consumption
Easy slag removal
Agglomerated Flux:
Baked at a lower temperature, dull, irregularly shaped, friable,
(easily crushed) can easily add alloying elements, moisture
absorbent and tend to be of the basic type
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SAW Consumables
Agglomerated fluxes advantages:
easy addition of deoxidizers and alloying elements
usable with thicker layer of flux when welding
colour identification
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SAW Consumables
TYPES OF FLUX
AGGLOMERATED (BASIC TYPE)
name indicates method of manufacture
basic minerals are used in powder form and are mixed with a
binder to form individual granules
granules are soft and easily crushed to powder
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SAW Consumables
Mixed fluxes - two or more fused or bonded fluxes are
mixed in any ratio necessary to yield the desired
results
Mixed fluxes advantages:
several commercial fluxes may be mixed for highly
critical or proprietary welding operations
Mixed fluxes disadvantages:
segregation of the combined fluxes during
shipment, storage and handling
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wires must be kept clean and free from oil and dust
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Welding Inspector
Non Destructive Testing
Section 15
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Non-Destructive Testing
A welding inspector should have a working knowledge of NDT
methods and their applications, advantages and
disadvantages.
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Non-Destructive Testing
Surface Crack Detection
Ultrasonics (UT)
Radiography (RT)
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Radiographic Testing
The principles of radiography
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Radiographic Testing
X Rays
Gamma Rays
Electrically generated
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Radiographic Testing
Source
Radiation beam
Test specimen
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Radiographic Testing
Density - relates to the degree of darkness
Densitometer
Contrast - relates to the degree of difference
Definition - relates to the degree of sharpness
Sensitivity - relates to the overall quality of the radiograph
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Radiographic Sensitivity
7FE12
Radiographic Sensitivity
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Radiographic Techniques
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)
film inside, source outside
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Film
Film
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Film
IQIs are placed on the film side
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Film
IQIs are placed on the film side
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IQI placing
Pitch marks indicating
readable film length
B
ID MR11
Radiograph
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Radiograph
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Film
IQIs are placed on the source or film side
Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
A minimum of two exposures
This technique is intended for pipe diameters less than 100mm
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Unique identification
3
EN W10
IQI placing
Pitch marks indicating
readable film length
2
ID MR12
Shot A Radiograph
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Elliptical Radiograph
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Radiography
PENETRATING POWER
Question:
What determines the penetrating power of an X-ray ?
the kilo-voltage applied (between anode & cathode)
Question:
What determines the penetrating power of a gamma ray ?
the type of isotope (the wavelength of the gamma rays)
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Radiography
GAMMA SOURCES
Isotope
Iridium 192
10 to 50 mm (mostly used)
Cobalt 60
> 50 mm
Ytterbium
< 10 mm
Thulium
< 10 mm
Cesium
< 10 mm
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Radiographic Testing
Advantages
Permanent record
Little surface preparation
Defect identification
Disadvantages
Expensive consumables
Bulky equipment
Harmful radiation
Thin materials
Slow results
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Radiographic Testing
Comparison with Ultrasonic Examination
ADVANTAGES
good for non-planar defects
good for thin sections
gives permanent record
easier for 2nd party interpretation
can use on all material types
high productivity
direct image of imperfections
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Radiographic Testing
Comparison with Ultrasonic Examination
DISADVANTAGES
health & safety hazard
not good for thick sections
high capital and relatively high running costs
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Ultrasonic Testing
Main Features:
Surface and sub-surface detection
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Ultrasonic Testing
Pulse echo
signals
A scan
Display
Compression probe
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Digital
UT Set,
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Ultrasonic Testing
Back wall
echo
defect
echo
initial pulse
Material Thk
defect
Compression Probe
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10
20
30
40
50
CRT Display
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Ultrasonic Testing
UT Set
A Scan
Display
Angle Probe
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Ultrasonic Testing
initial pulse
defect echo
defect
0 10 20 30 40 50
Skip
CRT Display
initial pulse
defect echo
defect
Full Skip
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0 10 20 30 40 50
CRT Display
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Ultrasonic Testing
Advantages
Rapid results
Both surface and
sub-surface detection
Safe
Capable of measuring the
depth of defects
Disadvantages
No permanent record
Calibration Required
Ferritic Material (Mostly)
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Ultrasonic Testing
Comparison with Radiography
ADVANTAGES
good for planar defects
good for thick sections
instant results
can use on complex joints
can automate
very portable
no safety problems (parallel working is possible)
low capital & running costs
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Ultrasonic Testing
Comparison with Radiography
DISADVANTAGES
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Electro-magnet (yoke) DC or AC
Prods DC or AC
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A crack like
indication
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Disadvantages
Simple to use
Inexpensive
Rapid results
Little surface preparation
required
Possible to inspect through
thin coatings
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Penetrant Testing
Main features:
Detection of surface breaking defects only.
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Penetrant Testing
Step 1. Pre-Cleaning
Ensure surface is very Clean normally with the use of a solvent
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Penetrant Testing
Step 2. Apply penetrant
After the application, the penetrant is normally left on the
components surface for approximately 15-20 minutes (dwell
time).
The penetrant enters any defects that may be present by
capillary action.
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Penetrant Testing
Step 3. Clean off penetrant
the penetrant is removed after sufficient penetration time (dwell
time).
Care must be taken not to wash any penetrant out off any
defects present
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Penetrant Testing
Step 3. Apply developer
After the penetrant has be cleaned sufficiently, a thin layer of
developer is applied.
The developer acts as a contrast against the penetrant and
allows for reverse capillary action to take place.
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Penetrant Testing
Step 4. Inspection / development time
Inspection should take place immediately after the developer
has been applied.
any defects present will show as a bleed out during
development time.
After full inspection has been carried out post cleaning is
generally required.
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Penetrant Testing
Fluorescent Penetrant
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Penetrant Testing
Advantages
Disadvantages
Simple to use
Inexpensive
Quick results
Can be used on any nonporous material
Portability
Low operator skill required
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Penetrant Testing
Comparison with Magnetic Particle Inspection
ADVANTAGES
easy to interpret results
no power requirements
relatively little training required
can use on all materials
DISADVANTAGES
good surface finish needed
relatively slow
chemicals - health & safety issue
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Welding Inspector
Weld Repairs
Section 16
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Weld Repairs
Weld repairs can be divided into 2 specific areas:
Production repairs
In service repairs
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Weld Repairs
A weld repair can be a relatively straight forward activity, but
in many instances it is quite complex, and various
engineering disciplines may need to be involved to ensure a
successful outcome.
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Weld Repairs
A weld repair may be used to improve weld profiles or
extensive metal removal:
Repairs to fabrication defects are generally easier than
repairs to service failures because the repair procedure
may be followed
The main problem with repairing a weld is the
maintenance of mechanical properties
During the inspection of the removed area prior to
welding the inspector must ensure that the defects have
been totally removed and the original joint profile has
been maintained as close as possible
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Weld Repairs
In the event of repair, it is required:
Authorization and procedure for repair
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Weld Repairs
There are a number of key factors that need to be considered
before undertaking any repair:
The most important - is it financially worthwhile?
Can structural integrity be achieved if the item is repaired?
Are there any alternatives to welding?
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Weld Repairs
Cleaning the repair area, (removal of paint, grease, etc)
A detailed assessment to find out the extremity of the defect.
This may involve the use of a surface or sub surface NDE method.
Once established the excavation site must be clearly identified
and marked out.
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Weld Repairs
Use of approved welders.
Dressing the weld and final visual.
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Weld Repairs
What will be the effect of welding distortion and residual
stress?
Will heat treatment be required?
What NDE is required and how can acceptability of the
repair be demonstrated?
Will approval of the repair be required if yes, how and by
whom?
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Weld Repairs
The specification or procedure will govern how the defective
areas are to be removed. The method of removal may be:
Grinding
Chipping
Machining
Filing
Oxy-Gas gouging
Arc air gouging
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Defect Excavation
Arc-air gouging
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Weld Repairs
Is welding the best method of repair?
Is the repair really like earlier repairs?
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Welding Inspector
Residual Stress & Distortion
Section 17
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Residual stress
Residual stresses are undesirable because:
they lead to distortion
they affect dimensional stability of the
welded assembly
they enhance the risk of brittle fracture
they can facilitate certain types of
corrosion
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Residual Stresses
The heating and subsequent cooling from welding produces
expansion and contractions which affect the weld metal and
adjacent material.
If this contraction is prevented or inhibited residual stress will
develop.
The tendency to develop residual stresses increases when the
heating and cooling is localised.
Residual stresses are very difficult to measure with any real
accuracy.
Residual stresses are self balancing internal forces and not
stresses induced whilst applying external load
Stresses are more concentrated at the surface of the
component.
The removal of residual stresses is termed stress relieving.
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Stresses
Normal Stress
Stress arising from a force perpendicular to the
cross sectional area
Compression
Tension
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Stresses
Shear Stress
Stress arising from forces which are parallel to, and
lie in the plane of the cross sectional area.
Shear Stress
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Stresses
Hoop Stress
Hoop Stress
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Residual Stresses
Residual stresses occur in welds in the following directions
Along the weld longitudinal residual stresses
Across the weld transverse residual stresses
Through the weld short transverse residual stresses
Longitudinal
Transverse
Short Transverse
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Residual stress
Heating and
cooling causes
expansion and
contraction
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Residual stress
In case of a heated
bar, the resistance
of the surrounding
material to the
expansion and
contraction leads
to formation of
residual stress
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Summary
1. Residual stresses are locked in elastic strain, which is
caused by local expansion and contraction in the weld
area.
2. Residual stresses should be removed from structures
after welding.
3. The amount of contraction is controlled by, the volume of
weld metal in the joint, the thickness, heat input, joint
design and the materials properties
4. Offsetting may be used to finalise the position of the joint.
5. If plates or pipes are prevented from moving by tacking,
clamping or jigging etc (restraint), then the amount of
residual stresses that remain will be higher.
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Summary
6. The movement caused by welding related stresses is
called distortion.
7. The directions of contractional stresses and distortion is
very complex, as is the amount and type of final distortion,
however we can say that there are three directions:
a. Longitudinal b. Transverse c. Short transverse
8. A high percentage of residual stresses can be removed by
heat treatments.
9. The peening of weld faces will only redistribute the
residual stress, and place the weld face in compression.
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Types of distortion
Angular distortion
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Distortion
Angular Distortion
Bowing Distortion
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Transverse Distortion
Longitudinal Distortion
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Distortion
Factors which affect distortion
Material properties and condition
Heat input
The amount of restrain
The amount of weld metal deposited
Control of distortion my be achieved in the following way:
The used of a different joint design
Presetting the joints to be welded so that the metal distorts
into the required position.
The use of a balanced welding technique
The use of clamps, jigs and fixtures.
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Distortion
Distortion will occur in all welded joints if the material are
free to move i.e. not restrained
Restrained materials result in low distortion but high
residual stress
More than one type of distortion may occur at one time
Highly restrained joints also have a higher crack tendency
than joints of a low restraint
The action of residual stress in welded joints is to cause
distortion
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Distortion
Factors affecting distortion:
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Amount of restrain:
thickness - as thickness increase, so do the stresses
high level of restrain lead to high stresses
preheat may increase the level of stresses (pipe
welding!)
Fit-up:
misalignment may reduce stresses in some cases
root gap - increase in root gap increases shrinkage
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by pre-setting
a) pre-setting of fillet joint to
prevent angular distortion
b) pre-setting of butt joint to
prevent angular distortion
c) tapered gap to prevent
closure
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Distortion
Pre-set or Offsetting:
The amount of offsetting required is generally a function of
trial and error.
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by pre-bending using
strongbacks and wedges
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Distortion
Clamping and jigging:
The materials to be welded are prevented from moving by the
clamp or jig the main advantage of using a jig is that the
elements in a fabrication can be precisely located in the
position to be welded. Main disadvantage of jigging is high
restraint and high levels of residual stresses.
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by restraint techniques
a) use of welding jigs
b) use of flexible
clamps
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by restraint techniques
c) use of strongbacks
with wedges
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by design
Consider eliminating the welding!!
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by design
consider weld placement
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Distortion prevention
The volume of weld metal in a joint will affect the amount of
local expansion and contraction, hence the more weld
deposited the higher amount of distortion
Preparation angle 60o
Preparation angle 0o
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by design
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Distortion prevention
Distortions prevention by design
- Longitudinal Shrinkage
Fillet Welds 0.8mm per 3m of weld
Butt Welds 3mm per 3m of weld
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques
tack welding
a) tack weld straight through
to end of joint
b) tack weld one end, then use
back-step technique for
tacking the rest of the joint
c) tack weld the centre, then
complete the tack welding
by the back-step technique
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques
back to back assembly
a) assemblies tacked together
before welding
b) use of wedges for
components that distort on
separation after welding
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques
use of stiffeners
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by welding procedure
reduce the number of
runs required to make a
weld (e.g. angular
distortion as a function
of number of runs for a
10 mm leg length weld)
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by welding procedure
control welding techniques by use
balanced welding about the neutral axis
control welding techniques by keeping
the time between runs to a minimum
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by welding procedure
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Distortion prevention
Back-step welding technique
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
3.
6.
1.
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4.
2.
5.
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Distortion prevention
Distortion - Best practice for fabrication corrective techniques
using tack welds to set up and maintain the joint gap
identical components welded back to back so welding can be
balanced about the neutral axis
attachment of longitudinal stiffeners to prevent longitudinal
bowing in butt welds of thin plate structures
where there is choice of welding procedure, process and
technique should aim to deposit the weld metal as quickly as
possible; MIG in preference to MMA or gas welding and
mechanised rather than manual welding
in long runs, the whole weld should not be completed in one
direction; back-step or skip welding techniques should be used
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clear personnel from the hazard area
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Localised heating to
correct distortion
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a) standard rolled
steel section
b) buckled edge of
plate
c) box fabrication
General guidelines:
Length of wedge = two-thirds of the plate width
Width of wedge (base) = one sixth of its length (base to apex)
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Welding Inspector
Heat Treatment
Section 18
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Heat Treatment
Why?
Improve mechanical properties
Change microstructure
Reduce residual stress level
Change chemical composition
How?
Flame oven
Electric oven/electric heating blankets
induction/HF heating elements
Global
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Where?
Local
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Heat Treatments
Many metals must be given heat treatment before and after
welding.
The inspectors function is to ensure that the treatment is
given correctly in accordance with the specification or as per
the details supplied.
Quench Hardening
Temper
Stress Relief
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Heat Treatments
Pre-heat treatments
are used to increase weldability, by reducing sudden
reduction of temperature, and control expansion and
contraction forces during welding
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B
(A) Normalised
(B) Fully Annealed
(C) Water-quenched
(D) Water-quenched & tempered
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Cooling rate
Time
Heating
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Soaking
Cooling
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500
400
300
200
100
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
Temperature (C)
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Heat Treatment
Recommendations
Provide adequate support (low YS at high temperature!)
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Disadvantages:
Gas furnace heat treatment
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Disadvantages:
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High equipment
cost
Large equipment,
less portable
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Disadvantages:
Elements may
burn out or arcing
during heating
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Welding Inspector
Cutting Processes
Section 19
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Welding
Heating
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Brazing
Straightening
Cutting
Blasting
Gouging
Spraying
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Regulators
Oxygen regulator
Single stage
Two stage
Regulator
type
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Flashback arrestors
Flashback - recession of the flame into or back of the mixing chamber
SAFETY SAFETY SAFETY
Normal
flow
Reverse
flow
Builtin
check
Flame
valve
barrie
r
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Built-in
check
valve
stops
reverse
flow
Flashback
Flashback
flame
quenched
at the
flashback
barrier
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OFW/C advantages/disadvantages
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
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Rivet cutting
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Rivet washing
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Cutting Processes
Plasma arc cutting
Uses high velocity jet of ionised gas through a
constricted nozzle to remove the molten
metal
Uses a tungsten electrode and water cooled
nozzle
High quality cutting
High intensity and UV radiation EYES !
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Cutting Processes
Air-arc for cutting or gouging
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Welding Inspector
Arc Welding Safety
Please discuss
Section 20
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Safety
Electrical safety
Heat & Light
Visible light
UV radiation - effects on skin
and eyes
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Welding Inspector
Weldability Of Steels
Section 21
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Weldability of Steels
Definition
It relates to the ability of the metal (or alloy) to be welded with
mechanical soundness by most of the common welding processes,
and the resulting welded joint retain the properties for which it
has been designed.
is a function of many inter-related factors but these may be
summarised as:
Composition of parent material
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Weldability of Steels
The weldability of steel is mainly dependant on carbon & other alloying
elements content.
If a material has limited weldability, we need to take special measures to
ensure the maintenance of the properties required
Poor weldability normally results in the occurrence of cracking
A steel is considered to have poor weldability when:
an acceptable joint can only be made by using very narrow range of
welding conditions
great precautions to avoid cracking are essential (e.g., high pre-heat etc)
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Chromium (Cr): For creep resistance & oxidation (scaling) resistance for elevated
temperature service. Widely used in stainless steels for corrosion resistance,
increases hardness and strength but reduces ductility.
typically ~ 1 to 9% in low alloy steels
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Classification of Steels
Mild steel (CE < 0.4)
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Process Cracks
Hydrogen Induced HAZ Cracking (C/Mn steels)
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Cracking
When considering any type of cracking mechanism, three
elements must always be present:
Stress
Residual stress is always present in a weldment, through
unbalanced local expansion and contraction
Restraint
Restraint may be a local restriction, or through plates
being welded to each other
Susceptible microstructure
The microstructure may be made susceptible to
cracking by the process of welding
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Cracks
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At weld toes
Under weld beads
At stress raisers.
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H2
Moisture on
the electrode
or grease on
the wire
H2
H2 H2
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Hydrogen absorbed
in a long, or
unstable arc
Hydrogen introduced in
weld from consumable,
oils, or paint on plate
Hydrogen
crack
H2
H2
H2 diffuses to in HAZ
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Inadequate Pre-Heating
Cold Material
Thick Material
Low Heat Input.
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Hydrogen Scales
List of hydrogen scales from BS EN 1011:part 2.
Hydrogen content related to 100 grams of weld metal
deposited.
Scale A
High: >15 ml
Scale B
Medium: 10 ml - 15 ml
Scale C
Low: 5 ml - 10 ml
Scale D
Very low: 3 ml - 5 ml
Scale E
Ultra-low: < 3 ml
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TIG
< 3 ml
MIG
< 5 ml
ESW
< 5 ml
SAW
FCAW
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< 10ml
< 15 ml
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Weldability
Solidification Cracking
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Solidification Cracking
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Solidification Cracking
Also referred as
Hot Cracking: Occurring at high temperatures while the weld is hot
Centerline cracking: cracks appear down the centre line of the bead.
Crater cracking: Small cracks in weld centers are solidification cracks
Crack type:
Solidification cracking
Location:
Steel types:
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Solidification Cracking
Factors for solidification cracking
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Solidification Cracking
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Solidification Cracking
Avoidance
Intergranular liquid film
Columnar
grains
HAZ
Columnar
grains
HAZ
On solidification the
bonding between the
grains may be adequate to
maintain cohesion and a
crack is unlikely to occur
On solidification the
bonding between the grains
may now be very poor to
maintain cohesion and a
crack may result
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Solidification Cracking
Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
The first steps in eliminating this problem would be to choose a low
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Solidification Cracking
Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
The use of high manganese and low carbon content fillers
Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the joint
during welding
The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of
impurities (Phosphor & sulphur)
Clean joint preparations contaminants (oil, grease, paints and
any other sulphur containing product)
Joint design selection depth to width ratios
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Solidification Cracking
Solidification cracking in Austenitic Stainless Steel
particularly prone to solidification cracking
large grain size gives rise to a reduction in grain boundary area with
high concentration of impurities
Austenitic structure very intolerant to contaminants (sulphur,
phosphorous and other impurities).
High coefficient of thermal expansion /Low coefficient of thermal
conductivity, with high resultant residual stress
same precautions against cracking as for plain carbon steels with extra
emphasis on thorough cleaning and high dilution controls.
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Cracks
Lamellar Tearing
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Lamellar Tearing
Factors for lamellar tearing to occur
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Lamellar Tearing
Susceptible joint types combined with susceptible rolled plate
used to make a joint.
High stresses act in the through thickness direction of the plate
(know as the short transverse direction).
T, K & Y joints normally end up with a tensile residual stress
component in the through thickness direction.
Lamellar Tearing
Critical area
Critical area
Critical
area
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Lamellar Tearing
Modifying a corner joint to avoid lamellar tearing
Susceptible
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Non-Susceptible
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Lamellar Tearing
Precautions for controlling lamellar tearing
Hydrogen precautions
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Lamellar Tearing
Crack type:
Lamellar tearing
Location:
Steel types:
Microstructure:
Occurs when:
High contractional strains are through the short
transverse direction. There is a high sulfur content in
the base metal.
There is low through thickness ductility in the base
metal.
There is high restraint on the work
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Through
Thickness
Ductility
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Lamellar Tearing
Restraint
High contractional
strains
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Lamellar tear
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Welding Inspector
Practical Visual Inspection
Section 22
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G.A.L.
S.T.D.
16mm
10mm
G.A.L.
S.T.D.
16mm
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Root gap
dimension
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Internal
alignment
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Pipe Inspection
Remember in the CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspectors
examination your are required to conduct a
practical examination of a pipe test weld, complete
a thumb print sketch and a final report on your
findings
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Welding Inspector
Application & Control of Pre heat
Section 23
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Welding Temperatures
Definitions
Preheat temperature
is the temperature of the workpiece in the weld zone immediately before
any welding operation (including tack welding!)
normally expressed as a minimum Interpass temperature
is the temperature in a multi-run weld and adjacent parent metal
immediately prior to the application of the next run
normally expressed as a maximum
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Pre-heat Application
Furnace - Heating entire component - best
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Welding
process
control
Parameters to be measured:
welding current
preheat/interpass
arc voltage
temperature
travel speed
force/pressure
shielding gas flow rate
humidity
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Pre-heat Application
Application Of Preheat
Heat either side of joint
Measure temp 2 mins after heat removal
Always best to heat complete component rather than local if
possible to avoid distortion
Preheat always higher for fillet than butt welds due to
different combined thicknesses and chill effect factors.
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Pre-Heat Application
Electrical Heated
Elements
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Welding Temperatures
Point of Measurement
BS EN ISO 13916
t < 50 mm
A = 4 x t but max. 50 mm
the temperature shall be
measured on the surface
of the workpiece facing the
welder
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Welding Temperatures
Point of Measurement
BS EN ISO 13916
t > 50mm
A = 75mm minimum
the temperature shall be
measured on the face
opposite to that being
heated
allow 2 min per every 25
mm of parent metal
thickness for temperature
equalisation
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Combined Thickness
The Chilling Effect of the Joint
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Combined Thickness
The Chilling Effect of the Joint
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Combined Thickness
Combined chilling effect of joint type and
thickness.
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Welding Inspector
Calibration
Section 24
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Welding
current (Hall
effect
device)
Arc voltage
(connection
leads)
Temperature
(thermocouple)
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Wire feed
speed
(tachometer)
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For calibrating
and validating
the welding
equipment
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Use of PAMS
Wire feed speed
monitoring
Incorporated pair of
rolls connected to a
tachogenerator
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Use of PAMS
Shielding gas flow
rate monitoring
Heating element
sensor
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Summary
a welding power source can only be calibrated if it has
meters fitted
the inspector should check for calibration stickers, dates
etc.
a welding power source without meters can only be
validated that the control knobs provide repeatability
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Welding Inspector
Macro/Micro Examination
Section 25
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Macro Preparation
Purpose
To examine the weld cross-section to give assurance that:
Specimen Preparation
Full thickness slice taken from the weld (typically ~10mm thick)
Width of slice sufficient to show all the weld and HAZ on both sides
plus some unaffected base material
One face ground to a progressively fine finish (grit sizes 120 to ~ 400)
Prepared face heavily etched to show all weld runs & all HAZ
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Micro Preparation
Purpose
To examine a particular region of the weld or HAZ in order to: To examine the microstructure
Identify the nature of a crack or other imperfection
Specimen Preparation
A small piece is cut from the region of interest
(typically up to ~ 20mm x 20mm)
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Distribution of inclusions
Number of weld passes
Metallurgical structure of weld, fusion zone and HAZ
Location and depth of penetration of weld
Fillet weld leg and throat dimensions
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Micro
Macro
Report on results
Report on results
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Metallographic Examination
Macro examination
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Micro examination
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