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Chapter 2 - Laplace Transforms
Chapter 2 - Laplace Transforms
The solution to this equation is x(t), the time history of the motion of the system under the influence of
the applied force. This is a typical example found often in a motion control system, and this is an
important sub-branch of controls. In automated manufacturing systems and in aircraft control systems,
for example, the aim of a control system is to move a mass from one position to another. The topic of
the next chapter is to cover mechanical systems such as this as well as systems in in other domains
(electrical, fluid, flow). The analysis of all these systems using physical laws results in corresponding
ODEs. Thus the solution of these ODEs is pertinent to getting the time behavior of these systems.
Prior to the advent of such simulation systems as Matlab/Simulink, the main solution procedure for
getting these time histories from the ODE was Laplace transforms. Much of the mathematical drudgery
of this approach can be avoided nowadays, with the use of Matlab/Simulink. So the necessity of an in2-1
But as you shall see, for all common functions F(s) has already been worked out, so there is hardly ever
any need to resort to this definition. Thus one uses tables of Laplace transforms to solve ODEs. A table
of Laplace transforms is given in Table 2.1. The unit impulse, step, and ramp functions are common
input functions for control systems, as we shall see.
f(t)
F(s)
sin(t) u(t)
cos(t) u(t)
Table 2.1 Laplace transforms
Thus we see that functions are transformed from the t-domain into the s-domain by the Laplace
transform. This offers advantages and a means to solve differential equations. Also useful is to see how
operations such as integration and differentiation transform into the s-domain. Table 2.2 gives Laplace
transform theorems for important operations.
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s-domain
aF(s)
F1(s) + F2(s)
Note how the ODE is arranged. x and its derivatives are on the left-hand side of the ODE. All non-x
terms are on the right. As given, there is a generic forcing function on the right. To find the time history
of x, one must know what F(t) actually is. A common loading function in practice is the step function.
This function represents a sudden, constant load applied to the previously unloaded system. One uses
2-3
F0
Lets see how one would go about solving such an ODE using Laplace transforms. First take the less
complicated case of the system at rest (0 initial conditions) when the load is applied. One uses the
linearity properties of the sum and multiplication by a constant. In the s-domain this equation becomes
We solve this equation for X(s). This is not what we want for a result. We are seeking x(t), the solution
of the ODE, the systems time history of motion. But solving for X(s) is a step in the right direction. So
To get x(t), one looks in the Laplace transform table for an entry in the right hand column that
corresponds to the right side of the equation above. There is none. The problem is that the solution for
X(s) above is a combination of entries. To separate the components above, one uses a process called
partial fraction expansion. The procedure is as is illustrated below.
This separation of components in the denominator introduces the unknown constants A and B. To find
them, one first multiplies the equation by s.
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Now let s-a. This eliminates the first term on the right-hand side of the equation. Thus
So,
and
can be
This case occurs so frequently, it is called the step response of the system.
Also very common is subjecting a second order system to a step input. This would appear
and
X(s) seems to be made of two components because of the two factors in the denominators and
s2+as+b. Actually the inverse transform back into the t-domain depends upon the nature of s2+as+b,
specifically whether its roots are real or complex. From the quadratic equation
and
Thus
so
and one proceeds just as illustrated with the first-order system above. This is an overdamped secondorder system and can be regarded as simply a 2x(1st-order system).
Case 2 Real, non-distinct roots
If a2 = 4b, the system has 2 repeated real roots. In this case, the previously illustrated partial fraction
expansion must be modified as follows. s = -a/2. So
To deal with the double root, one uses the following partial fraction expansion.
One finds A as previously done with the first-order system. Then the procedure differs to find B and C.
Multiply the equation by
and let s-a/2.
To find the unknown coefficients A, B and C, one multiplies through by the denominator
.
Thus
Recall that a and b are known parameters. So matching coefficients on either side of this equation,
,
,
,
(Eq. 2.1)
(Eq. 2.2)
If we compare the two terms of this equation with the last two entries of Table 2.1 and use the next-tothe-last entry in Table 2.2, we see that the former term represents a decaying cosine and the latter
represents a decaying sine. The results of Eq. 2.2 need then to be combined with Eq. 2.1 to get an
expression, which can be inverted back into the t-domain. The decaying sine and cosine can be
combined using trigonometric identities to yield
[
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(Eq. 2.3)
Note that in the examples in this section, the denominators of the fractions that give X(s) all have 1 for
the coefficient of the highest order derivative. Often it is the case that this coefficient is not 1. For
example, for the mck-system discussed at the first of this chapter, with a step force input and zero initial
conditions
The coefficient of s2 is m. To make the above analysis apply, one can simply multiply the numerator and
denominator of the above fraction by 1/m. Thus
Now the results of the analysis of the second-order system above can be directly applied to this mcksystem, with care being taken to use F0/m for F0 in the analysis and c/m for a and k/m for b. This type of
manipulation of fractions is very common in controls, so you should review the algebra of fractions and
be very adept at their manipulation, as illustrated in the foregoing analysis.
The case of complex roots is called an underdamped second order.
Transfer function
Control systems make use of what is called the transfer function of a system. As you have seen in
Chapter 1, an important graphical tool in controls is the block diagram. Each block, with the exception
of a summing block, takes one input, operates on it, and produces an output. Thus the block transfers
the input to the output. So the contents of a block are called the transfer function of that component.
As an example, with the mck-system, the applied, external force produces a displacement. So the
causethe inputis the force and the effectthe displacementis the output. The transfer function is
simply the quotient of effect/cause, output/input. The transfer function is usually given the symbol G.
Thus we might write
Problems
2.1
The ODE is written in the variable h, so the motion of the system is the time history
. Since the right-hand side of this equation is 0, F(t) = 0, i.e. there is no force being applied
to the system. Work out the system response to an initial non-zero
. Plot the time
history using Matlab. About how long does it take the system to get to equilibrium?
(We will encounter this system later. It represents a tank-level system, and h is the level of a
liquid in the tank. There is a reason that the system is written in the deviation of the tank level,
h, rather than in the tank level itself, h, as we shall see in the following Chapter.)
2.2
Repeat Problem 2.1, but start with 0 initial conditions. Apply a force of 4u(t) to the system.
Plot the system response. About how long does it take the system to get to equilibrium?
2.3
Use Laplace transforms to calculate the unit step response of the system whose ODE is
The initial conditions for the system are all 0. Plot the response using Matlab.
2.4
Use Laplace transforms to calculate the unit step response of the system whose ODE is
The initial conditions for the system are all 0. Plot the response using Matlab.
2.5
Use Laplace transforms to calculate the unit step response of the system whose ODE is
The initial conditions for the system are all 0. Plot the response using Matlab.
2-9
Use Laplace transforms to calculate the unit step response of the system whose ODE is
The initial conditions for the system are all 0. Plot the response using Matlab.
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