ELECTRON DEVICES

INVENTIONS OF ELECTRON DEVICES

S.NO. YEAR

SCIENTIST

DISCOVERY/INVENTION

1.

1791

Luigi Galvani

Presence of electricity in animals

2.

1799

Charles-Augustin de
Coulomb

Existence of attractive/repulsive force

between any two charges.
Force is influenced by the distance of
separation
between the two charges

3.

1799

Allessandro Volta

Invention of battery

4.

1820

Hans
Oersted

5.

1827

George simon Ohm

Christian Presence of magnetic field in a current flowing

conductor.
Invented Ohms law.
It provides relation among the applied voltage
(V), the current (I), and the resistance (R) of a
circuit. V=IR

6.

1831

Michael Faraday

Electromagnetic induction - current can be

generated by using time varying magnetic field

7.

1864

8.

1888

James Clerk Maxwell Developed Maxwells Equation

Formulated Electromagnetic theory of light
Heinrich Hertz
Demonstrated Maxwells Electromagnetic theory

9.

1895

Guglielmo Marconi

10.

1904

John
Fleming

11.

1906

Lee De Forest

12.

1918

Edwin
Armstrong

13.

1927

John Logie Baird

14.

1947

William Schockley, Invented Transistor

John Bardeen and
Watter Brattain

15.

1958

Jack Kilby

16.

1960

Physicist Jean Hoerni Developed

First transatlantic
system.

wireless

communication

Ambrase Invented a diode vacuum tube (transmitting

electrons through vacuum)
Invented vacuum triode (three-element vacuum
tube)
Howard Invented Superheterodyne receiver used in radio
communication.
Invented Television

Invented Integrated Chips

Planar

Transistor-Type

2N1613
1

developed

(Sealed Package),
Introduced a popular Diode Transistor Logic
(DTL) family of ICs

17.

1962

Signetics
corporation,south
Korea

18

1964

Robert Normans 20- MOS shift register

bit

19

1965

Robert Widlar

A709 operational amplifier

20

1965

Gordon Moore

Predicted Moore Law

21

1971

Hans Camenzind

NE555 Timer and Multivibrator

22

1978

Andrew
Grove, Intel's Microprocessor
Robert Noyce and
Gordon Moore

23

1980

U.C. Berkeleys

24

1985

Steve Furber and ARM 1 microprocessor

Sophie Wilson of
Acorn Computers Ltd

25

1998

Sun Microsystems

Implementation of a RISC processor

SPARC RISC CPU, TI, circa

EVOLUTION OF ELECTRONIC DEVICES

1st Generation
Valves
2nd Generation
Semiconductor Devices - Diodes and Transistors.
The Evolution of integrated circuits depends on Moores Law.
MOORES LAW
The number of transistors on an integrated circuit will be doubled approximately
every two years.
2

3rd Generation
Small Scale Integrated Circuits (SSI): Less than 100 Transistors per Integrated
Circuit or chip.
Medium Scale Integrated Circuits (MSI): 100 to 1000 Transistors per Integrated
Circuit or chip.
4th Generation
Large Scale Integrated Circuits (LSI): 1000 to 10000 Transistors per Integrated
Circuit or chip.
Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits (VLSI): 10000 to 1 million Transistors per
Integrated Circuit or chip.
5thGeneration
Ultra Large Scale Integrated Circuits (ULSI): over 1 million Transistors per
Integrated Circuit or Chip
6th Generation
Giant Scale Integration (GSI): Above 10 million transistors per Integrated
Circuit or Chip

BASIC ELEMENTS OF AN ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT

An electronic circuit consists of active elements and passive elements
connected in a closed path.
Active element
The element which supplies/requires energy to the electronic circuit for its
working is called an active element.
Active elements may be a Voltage source or a Current source.
Ex: Batteries, generators, operational amplifiers etc.

Passive element
3

The element which does not need any energy for its specified operation is
called Passive element.
Eg: Resistor, capacitor, inductor.

Two types of source

1. Independent source
2. Dependent source
Independent source
An independent source is a source which supplies voltage or current
independent of other circuit elements.

Dependent source
A dependent source is a source which supplies voltage depending on the voltage
across any element in the circuit.

Resistor
A resistor is a passive two terminal component that provides electrical
resistance. The unit is ohm ().

Resistor symbol

Colour Code of Resistor

The resistor consists of three colour codes to identify the resistance value in ohms
and one colour code to identify the tolerance limit (%) of resistance value.

Ex.: Colour code of 1.5K resistor is:

BROWN

GREEN

RED
X100

GOLD
5%

The resistance value is (15 X 100) = 1.5K

Tolerance =

5% =

Therefore R = (1.5K

(1500 x .05) =

75

75)
5

i.e It can vary from 1425 to 1575

Fixed Resistor
A resistor in which the resistance values cannot be changed is called fixed
resistor .It is specified by its value and power rating.

Variable Resistor
A resistor in which the resistance values can be varied is called variable resistor.
Ex: Rheostat, Potentiometer
Rheostat
Rheostats are used to limit current flow in the branches of an electric circuit.

Rheostat symbol

Real component appearance of Rheostat

Potentiometer (POT)
Potentiometer is a variable resistor.
It is used to vary the voltage across a circuit.

Potentiometer symbol

Appearance of Potentiometer

Front & Back view of Potentiometer

Thermistor or Thermal resistor

Thermistor is a variable resistor whose resistance value changes with the change
in its ambient temperature.
Capacitor
Capacitor is a storage device which stores energy in the electric field.
Basic unit of capacitance is Farad (F).
microfarad (F) and picofarad ( pF) are the units used in practice.
Types of Capacitor
1. Electrolytic Capacitor
2. Ceramic Capacitor / Disc Capacitor
3. Mica capacitor
Capacitor is specified by its value and working voltage

Various types of Capacitor images

Capacitor symbol
7

Inductor
Inductor is a storage device which stores energy in magnetic field.
An Inductor is specified by its inductance value and current carrying capacity.
Basic unit of Inductance is Henry (H).

Inductor Symbol

Inductor

Electron Devices
Devices in which the conduction takes place by movement of electrons through
a gas, a vacuum or a semiconductor.
Molecule
Molecule is a combination of same or different atoms.
Atomic Structure
An atom is made up of subatomic particles.
They are:
Proton Positively charged particle.
Electron Negatively charged particle.
Neutron Electrically neutral particle.
Atomic Weight
Atomic Weight is approximately equal to the total number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus of the atom.
Orbit
Orbit is the path of an electron in its motion around the nucleus of an atom.

Mobility ()
Mobility of the charge carrier is the average drift velocity per unit electric
field.
The unit is m2/V-s.
8

m2/V-s
Where,
vd Drift velocity ,
E applied electric field.
Current Density (J)
Current Density is the current per unit area of the conducting medium.
The unit is A/m2.
A/m2
Where,
A- cross section area (m2)
I - flow of current (A)
Electron Volt (eV)
An electron volt is the energy that an electron gains when it travels through a
potential of one volt.
1 eV = 1.6 x 10 -19 Joule
Valence Electrons
Valence electrons are present in the outermost orbit in an atom.
It determines the electrical characteristics of each particular type of atom.

Valence Band
The energy band occupied by the valence electrons is called as valence band.
Trivalent atoms
Atoms with three valence electrons are referred to as Trivalent atoms.
Pentavalent atoms
Atoms with five valence electrons are referred to as Pentavalent atoms.

Conduction Band
The energy band occupied by the free electrons is called as conduction band.
Forbidden Energy Gap (Eg)
The energy gap between the valence band and conduction band is called
forbidden energy gap (Eg).
Electron
The electron is a subatomic particle with a negative electric charge.
Hole
A hole is the absence of an electron in a shell where one could exist.
Covalent Bond
A covalent bond is the sharing of electrons among atoms in a molecule.
Drift
Movement of electrons and holes in a semiconductor is called drift.
Diffusion
Movement of majority carrier from a region of high concentration to region of
low concentration in a semiconductor.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MOBILITY ( ) AND CONDUCTIVITY ()
S/m
Where,
q- Charge of electron (1.6 x 10 -19 C)
n- Concentration of electron
Mobility (m2/V-s)
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
1. Metals
2. Insulators
3. Semiconductors

10

Doping
Process of adding impurity atoms to the intrinsic semiconductor.
Impurities are called as dopants.
Types of Doping
Donor Doping
Acceptor Doping
Donor Doping
In donor doping, an electron is donated by the impurity atom to the
conduction band.
Example for donor impurities : Antimony (Sb), Phosphorous(P)
Acceptor Doping
In acceptor doping, holes can accept a free electron from the impurity
atoms.
Example for acceptor impurities: Boron(B), Aluminium(Al).
Types of Semiconductor
Intrinsic semiconductor.
Extrinsic semiconductor.

Intrinsic Semiconductor
A Pure form of semiconductor is Intrinsic.
Ex: Germanium (Ge), Silicon(Si)
Impurity atoms
Impurity atoms act as either donors or acceptors to the intrinsic
semiconductor, changing the electron and hole concentrations of the
semiconductor.
Extrinsic Semiconductor
Doped form of semiconductor is Extrinsic.
11

Ex: Silicon(Si) doped with Boron(B)

TYPES OF EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
1. p-Type Semiconductor
2. n- Type Semiconductor
p-Type Semiconductor
Semiconductor formed by introducing trivalent impurity atoms, where the
Majority carrier is Electron and minority carrier is Hole.
Ex: Boron, Gallium, Indium

n-Type Semiconductor
Semiconductor obtained by introducing pentavalent impurity atoms, where

the Majority carrier is Hole and minority carrier is Electron.

Ex: Phosphorous, Antimony, Arsenic

Donor atoms
Impurity atoms added to a semiconductor to create n-type material.
Donor energy level
The energy level which carry the donor atoms.
Acceptor atoms
Impurity atoms added to a semiconductor to create p-type material.
Acceptor energy level
The energy level which carry the acceptor atoms.

TYPES OF CURRENT IN A SEMICONDUCTOR

Electron Current
Movement of free electrons in a semiconductor produces Electron current.
Hole current
Generation of Holes due to migration of electrons in a semiconductor produces a
Hole current
12

Drift current
The flow of electric current in a semiconductor due to the motion of charge
carriers when an external electric field is applied.
Diffusion current
The flow of electric current in a semiconductor even in the absence of applied
voltage is called diffusion current.
It is due to variation in doping concentration in the material.
FERMI LEVEL ENERGY (Ef)
Maximum energy level which is occupied by the free electron is called Fermi
level.
This energy level lies between valance band and conduction band
In N Type Semiconductor
Fermi level energy, EF = EC kT ln ( NC/ ND ) ,
Where,
EC Conduction band energy in joule
k Boltzmann constant (1.38 x 10-23J/K)
T Temperature in Kelvin
NC No. of energy states in the conduction band
ND - No. of donor energy levels / cm3
In P Type Semiconductor
Fermi level energy, EF = EV kT ln ( NV/ NA) ,
Where,
EV valence band energy in joule
k Boltzmann constant (1.38 x 10-23J/K)
T Temperature in Kelvin
NV - No. of energy states in the valence band
NA - No. of acceptor energy levels / cm3

joule

joule

DRIFT CURRENT DENSITY DUE TO ELECTRONS

Drift current density due to electrons, Jn = q n nE,
A/cm2 (or x104 A/m2)
Where,
q- charge of electron in Coloumb
n - mobility of electron in m2/(V-s)
E - applied electric field in V/s
n- number of free electron/Cm3
DRIFT CURRENT DENSITY DUE TO HOLES
Drift current density due to holes Jp = q p p E,
A/cm2 (or x104 A/m2)
Where,
p- number of holes/cm3
p - Mobility of holes in m2/(V-s)
13

q - Charge of holes in Coloumb

E - applied Electric field in V/s
DIFFUSION CURRENT DENSITY DUE TO ELECTRONS
Diffusion current density due to electrons Jn = q Dn dn / dx,

A/cm 2 (or x104

A/m2)
Where
q - Charge of an electron in coloumb
Dn diffusion constant for electron
dn / dx electron concentration gradient
DIFFUSION CURRENT DENSITY DUE TO HOLES
Diffusion current density due to holes, Jp = - q Dp dp/dx, A/cm2 (or x104 A/m2)
Where
q - Charge of a hole in coloumb
Dp diffusion constant for hole
dp / dx hole concentration gradient
PN junction Diode
A PN junction is a boundary or interface between p- type and n-type
semiconductor material.
Anode
Anode refers to the positive, p- side of diode.
Cathode
Cathode refers to the negative, n-side of diode.
PN-Diode
Two-terminal semiconductor devices that permits current flow only in forward
direction and blocks in reverse direction
Symbol of P-N Junction

Zener Diode/Breakdown diode

A diode which allows current to flow in reverse direction, when a specific reverse
voltage is applied.

Schematic Symbol of Zener diode

Depletion Region
Depletion region is the region where negligible amount of electrons and holes are
present.
14

Forward Bias
In Forward Bias operation positive terminal of battery is connected to an anode
and negative terminal of battery is connected to a cathode of the semiconductor.
Current flows in the forward bias condition

Reverse Bias
In Reverse bias operation, negative terminal of the battery is connected to anode
and positive terminal of the battery is connected to a cathode .
Negligible amount of current flows in reverse bias condition.

Tunneling
The process of passing / moving charges through the depletion layer is called
tunneling.
Reverse Breakdown voltage
When the reverse voltage is increased in a semiconductor, at a particular point
the junction leads to breakdown due to the excess current.
The voltage at which the junction breaks down is known as reverse breakdown
voltage.
15

Types of Breakdown
1. Zener Breakdown
2. Avalanche Breakdown
Zener Breakdown
When the reverse voltage is increased in a semiconductor, a large amount of
electric field is generated across the depletion region.
This breaks the covalent bond causing the release of a large number of free
electrons.
It allows more current in a semiconductor which causes Zener breakdown.
Avalanche Breakdown
Due to the collision of electrons more number of electrons-hole pairs are
generated to produce futher collision which causes Avalanche Break down in a
semiconductor
Tunnel Diode
PN junction diode having tunneling effect to produce current is known as
Tunnel diode.
Photodiode
PN junction diode that converts incident light into either current or voltage is
known as Photodiode.

Photo diode symbol

LED
A forward biased PN junction diode that emits light is known as Light Emitting
Diode.

LED Symbol
Transistors
A transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device, used to amplify the input
signal.
The three terminals are:
1. Emitter emits majority carriers into base and has highest doping concentration.
2. Base Thin region used to control flow of majority carriers from emitter to
collector and has lightest doping concentration.
3. Collector collects the majority carriers from the emitter through the base and
has lighter doping concentration than emitter.
16

In a transistor,
Emitter current (IE) = Base current (IB) + Collector current (IC)
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
Normally a transistor is called a BJT
In a Bipolar Junction Transistor, current conduction occurs due to both
electrons and holes.
Base current controls the collector current. Hence it is called a current
controlled device.
Operating regions of a transistor
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) has three operating regions:
1. Cut off region - The region when the transistor stays OFF. ( IC = 0 )
2. Active region - The region when the transistor has sufficient base current to
turn ON
3. Saturation region - The region when the transistor is fully ON. ( Maximum
IC = Vcc/RL )

17

Configurations of Transistor
A transistor may be connected in any one of three basic configurations .
1. Common Emitter (CE)
2. Common Base (CB) and
3. Common Collector (CC).
The term common is used to denote the terminal that is common to both input and
output circuits. Because the common terminal is often grounded, these
configurations are frequently referred to as grounded emitter, grounded base and
grounded collector.

COMPARISION OF CE,CB &CC CONFIGURATION

Sl no. Characteristics Common Base
1.

Input Dynamic
Resistance

Common
Emitter

Common
Collector

Very Low(less Low(less than

Very High(750K)
than 100 ohm) 1K)
18

2.

Output dynamic Very High(less High(less than

Low(50 ohm)
resistance
than 1M)
45K)

3.

Current Gain

Less than 1

High(100)

Very High(greater
than 100)

4.

Leakage Current Very Small

Very Large

Very Large

5.

Voltage Gain

About 150

About 500

Less than 1

6.

Power Gain

Medium

Highest

Medium

7.

Phase relation
b/w i/p and o/p

In Phase

Out of
Phase(180)

In Phase

8.

Applications

For High Freq. For Audio

apps
Freq. Apps

For impedence
Matching Apps

Amplification Factor
The current gain in the common-emitter circuit is called BETA (). Beta is the
relationship of collector current (output current) to base current (input current).

The term hfe is used in place of . The terms hfe and are equivalent and may be
used interchangeably.
In "hfe":
h = hybrid
f = forward current transfer ratio
e = common emitter configuration
The current gain in the common-base circuit is called ALPHA().Alpha is the
relationship of collector current (output current) to emitter current (input current).

The term hfb is used in place of . The terms hfb and are equivalent and may be
used interchangeably.
In "hfb":
h = hybrid
19

f = forward current transfer ratio

e = common emitter configuration
Field Effect Transistor (FET)
FET is a Unipolar device where Current conduction occurs due to either holes or
electrons.
Three terminals of the FET are:
Source (S) :Through the source carriers enter the channel. the, current entering the
channel at S is designated by IS.
Drain (D) :Through the drain carriers leave the channel. the current leaving the
channel at D is designated by ID. Drain-to-source voltage is VDS.
Gate (G) :The terminal that modulates the channel conductivity is gate. By applying
voltage to G, one can control ID.
It is known as Voltage controlled Device because the gate voltage controls drain
current.

FET Basic structure

Schematic symbol of n-channel and p-channel FET

Junction Field Effect Transistor(JFET)
Normally a FET is called a JFET
In n-channel FET, current conduction is due to electrons.
In p-channel FET, current conduction is due to holes.
Characteristics of JFET
There are two types of static characteristics viz
20

Output or drain characteristics

The curve drawn between drain current ID and drain-source voltage VDS with gateto source voltage VGS as the parameter is called the drain or output characteristic.

Drain Characteristics of JFET

(1) Transfer characteristics

The transfer characteristic for a JFET can be determined experimentally, keeping
drain-source voltage, VDS as constant and determining drain current, ID for various
values of gate-source voltage, VGS

Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor FET (MOSFET)

21

MOSFET is another type of FET. It is different from JFET as it does not contain a
pn junction, instead the gate is insulated from the channel by a Silicon dioxide
layer.
The Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor has three terminals
gate, source, and drain like the FET.

The two types of MOSFET are:

Enhancement MOSFET: The transistor requires a Gate-Source voltage, (
VGS ) to switch the device "ON".
2. The enhancement mode MOSFET is equivalent to a "Normally Open"
switch.
1.

3.

Depletion MOSFET: The transistor requires the Gate-Source voltage,

( VGS ) to switch the device "OFF".

4.

The depletion mode MOSFET is equivalent to a "Normally Closed"

switch

5.

22

Thyristors
Semiconductor devices consisting of four layers ( PNPN structure).
These devices switch between conducting and non-conducting states in response
to control signal.
Ex:Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR), DIAC, TRIAC.

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

It is a three junction four layer device.
It conducts current in only one direction.
It has three terminals: Anode(A), Cathode (K) and Gate(G).

V-I Characteristics of SCR

Forward blocking region/ Forward mode
23

When the anode is made positive and cathode is made negative, junctions J 1 and
J3 are forward biased and junction J2 is reverse-biased. The leakage current alone
will flow through the device. The SCR is then said to be in the forward blocking
region.
In this mode, the SCR does not conduct unless the forward voltage exceeds
certain value, called the forward break over voltage, VB0
Reverse blocking region/Reverse mode
When the cathode is made positive and anode is made negative, junctions J1 and
J3 are reverse biased and junction J2 is forward-biased. A small reverse
leakage current will flow through the device. The SCR is then said to be in the
reverse blocking region.
If the reverse voltage is increased beyond a certain value, called the reverse
break-over voltage, VRB ,avalanche break down takes place

Holding Current (IH)

The holding current is the minimum current at which the device stops
conduction and returns to OFF state.
Latching current (IL)
The latching current of a device is the minimum current required to keep the
device in the ON state after the triggering pulse has been removed.
DIAC
A DIAC is a p-n-p-n structured four -layer, two-terminal semiconductor device.
MT1 and MT2 are the two main terminals of the device.
There is no control terminal in this device.
It conducts in both forward and reverse directions.

24

V-I Characteristics of DIAC

TRIAC
A three terminal semiconductor switch that conduct in both forward and reverse
directions, which can control alternating current in a load.
Two SCRs are connected back to back forms a TRIAC

MT1,

MT2 and Gate are the three

terminals of the device.

Modes of operation
1.
2.
3.
4.

Quadrant I operation
Quadrant II operation
Quadrant III operation
Quadrant IV operation

:
:
:
:

VMT21 positive; VG1 positive

VMT21 positive; VG1 negative
VMT21 negative; VG1 negative
VMT21 negative; VG1 positive

Where
VMT21 and VGl are the voltages of terminal MT2
Gate with respect to terminal MT1.

25

Uni-junction Transistor (UJT)

A uni-junction transistor (UJT) is an electronic semiconductor device that has only one
junction.
It is also called double base transistor.
UJT has three terminals: an emitter (E) and two bases (B1 and B2)
The resistance between B1 and B2, when the emitter is open-circuit is called inter-base
resistance.

STRUCTURE OF UJT

SYMBOL OF UJT

26

Peak-Point Emitter Current (Ip)

It is the emitter current at the peak point.
It represents the minimum current that is required to trigger the device (UJT).
It is inversely proportional to the interbase voltage VBB.
Valley Point Voltage (VV )
The valley point voltage is the emitter voltage at the valley point.
The valley voltage increases with the increase in interbase voltage VBB.
Valley Point Current (IV)
The valley point current is the emitter current at the valley point.
It increases with the increase in inter-base voltage VBB.
Negative Resistance Region
There is a decrease in resistance R B for increasing current Ie.hence UJT has a negative
resistance region.

2. ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
Transistor Configuration
A transistor may be connected in any one of three basic configurations.
4. Common Emitter (CE )- (grounded emitter,)
5. Common Base (CB) (grounded base)
6. Common Collector (CC) (grounded collector)
27

The term common is used to denote the terminal common to both input and output.
Input Characteristics
Graphical representation of input current with respect to input voltage for
different values of output voltage
Output Characteristics
Graphical representation of output current with respect to output voltage for
different values of input current.
Common Emitter Configuration

Circuit Diagram-Common Emitter Configuration

Input Terminal

: Base

Common Terminal

: Emitter

Output Terminal

: Collector

Emitter- Base

: Forward

BiasCollector- Base

: Reverse Bias

Amplification Factor (or) Forward Current transfer ratio (or) Current again
Current gain
Ratio of change in output current to change in input current.
The current gain in the common-emitter circuit is called BETA ().
Beta is the ratio of collector current (output current) to base current (input
current).
The term hfe is used in place
of .
is always greater than 1 in common emitter configuration.
The terms hfe and are equivalent and may be used interchangeably.
"hfe" means: h = hybrid
28

f = forward current transfer ratio

e = common emitter configuration
Voltage gain
Ratio of change in output voltage to change in input voltage.
Common emitter voltage gain (Av) defined as the ratio of the change in (input)
base voltage (VBE) to the change in (output) collector voltage (VCE) with the
(input) base current constant.
Av = VCE / VBE
hybrid Parameters or h-parameters
(i) Input Impedance (hie)
It is defined as the ratio of the change in (input) base voltage (VBE) to
the change in (input) base current (IB) with the (output) collector
voltage (Vce) constant.
hie = VBE / IB, VCE Constant
(ii) Output Admittance (hoe)
It is defined as the ratio of the change in (output) collector current (IC)
to the change in (output) collector voltage (VCE) with the (input) base
current constant.
hoe = IC / VCE, IB Constant
(iii) Forward Current Gain (hfe)
It is defined as the ratio of the change in (output) collector current
(IC)to the change in (input) base current (IB) with the (output)
collector voltage constant.
hfe = IC / IB, VCE Constant
(iv) Reverse Transfer Voltage Gain (hre)
It is defined as the ratio of the change in (input) base voltage (VBE) to
the change in (output) collector voltage (VCE) with the (input) base
current constant.
hre = VBE / VCE, IB Constant
Input Characteristics

29

Input Characteristics are the characteristics between input voltage (VBE) and
input current (IB) obtained for different values of output voltage (VCE).

Common Emitter Input Characteristics VBE Vs IB

Output Characteristics
Output Characteristics are the characteristics between output voltage (VCE) and
output current (IC) obtained for different values of input current (IB).

Common Emitter output Characteristics VCE Vs IC

Common Base Configuration

Circuit Diagram-Common Base Configuration

Input Terminal

: Emitter

Common Terminal

: Base

Output Terminal

: Collector
30

Emitter- Base

: Forward Bias

Collector- Base

: Reverse Bias

Current gain
Ratio of change in output current to change in input current.
The current gain in the common-base circuit is called alpha().
Alpha is the ratio of collector current (output current) to emitter current (input
current).

1 in common base configuration.

The term hfb is used in place of . The terms hfb and are equivalent and may
be used interchangeably.
"hfb" means: h = hybrid
f = forward current transfer ratio
b = common base configuration
Voltage gain
Ratio of change in output voltage to change in input voltage.
Common emitter voltage gain (Av) defined as the ratio of the change in (input)
base voltage (VCB) to the change in (output) collector voltage (VEB) with the
(input) base current constant.
Av = VCB / VEB
hybrid Parameters or h-parameters
(i) Input Impedance (hib)
It is defined as the ratio of the change in (input) emitter voltage (VEB )to
the change in (input) emitter current (IE) with the (output) collector
voltage (VCB) constant.
hib = VEB / IE, VCB Constant
(ii) Output Admittance (hob)
It is defined as the ratio of the change in (output) collector current (IC)
to the change in (output) collector voltage (VCB)with the (input) emitter
current (IE) constant.
hob = IC / VCB, IE Constant

31

(iii) Forward Current Gain (hfb)

It is defined as the ratio of the change in (output) collector current (IC) to
the change in (input) emitter current (IE) with the (output) collector
voltage (VCB) constant.
hfb = IC / IE, VCB Constant
(iv) Reverse Voltage Gain (hrb)
It is defined as the ratio of the change in (input) emitter voltage (VEB) to
the change in (output) collector voltage (VCB) with the (input) emitter
current (IE) constant.
hrb = VEB / VCB, IE Constant
Input Characteristics
Input Characteristics are the characteristics between input voltage (VBE) and
input current (IE) obtained for different values of output voltage (VCB).

Fig: Common Base input Characteristics VBE Vs IE

Output Characteristics
Output Characteristics are the characteristics between output voltage (VCB) and
output current (IC) obtained for different values of input current (IE).

32

Common Base output Characteristics VCB Vs IC

Common Collector Configuration

Circuit Diagram-Common Collector Configuration

Input Terminal

Base

Common Terminal

Collector

Output Terminal

Emitter

Collector- Base

Forward Bias

Collector- Base

Reverse Bias

The current gain in the common-base circuit is called (). Alpha is the ratio of
emitter current (output current) to base current (input current).
= IE / IB
The term hfc is used in place of . The terms hfc and are equivalent and may be
used interchangeably.
"hfb" means: h = hybrid
33

f = forward current transfer ratio

c = common collector configuration
Voltage gain
Ratio of change in output voltage to change in input voltage.
Common collector voltage gain (Av) defined as the ratio of the change in (input)
base voltage (VCB) to the change in (output) emitter voltage (VCE).
Av = VCE / VCB

Hybrid Parameters or h-parameters

(i) Input Impedance (hic)
It is defined as the ratio of the change in (input) base voltage (VCB) to the
change in (input) base current (IB) with the (output) emitter voltage
constant (VCE).
hib = VCB / IB, VCE Constant
(ii) Output Admittance (hoc)
It is defined as the ratio of the change in (output) emitter current (IE)to
the change in (output) emitter voltage (VCE)with the (input) base current
(IE) constant.
hob = IE / VCE, IE Constant
(iii) Forward Current Gain (hfc)
It is defined as the ratio of the change in (output) emitter current (IE) to
the change in (input) base current (IB) with the (output) emitter voltage
(VCE) constant.
hfc = IE / IB, VCE Constant

(iv) Reverse Voltage Gain (hrc)

It is defined as the ratio of the change in (input) base voltage (VCB) to
the change in (output) emitter voltage (VEB) with the (input) base
current (IB) constant.
hrc = VCB / VEB, IB Constant
Common Collector input Characteristics
34

Input Characteristics are the characteristics between input voltage (VCB) and
input current (IE) obtained for different values of output voltage (VCB).

Common Collector input Characteristics VCB Vs IB

Common Collector output Characteristics
Output Characteristics are the characteristics between output voltage (VCE) and
output current (IE) obtained for different values of input current (IB).

Common Collector output Characteristics VCE Vs IC

Sl no. Characteristics Common Base
1.

Input Dynamic
Resistance

Common
Emitter

Common
Collector

Very Low(less Low(less than

Very High(750K)
than 100 ohm)
1K)

2.

Output dynamic Very High(less High(less than

Low(50 ohm)
resistance
than 1M)
45K)

3.

Current Gain

Less than 1

High(100)

Very High(greater
than 100)

4.

Leakage Current Very Small

Very Large

Very Large
35

5.

Voltage Gain

About 150

About 500

Less than 1

6.

Power Gain

Medium

Highest

Medium

7.

Phase relation
b/w i/p and o/p

In Phase

Out of
Phase(180)

In Phase

8.

Applications

For High Freq. For Audio

apps
Freq. Apps

For impedence
Matching Apps

Comparison of CB, CE and CC Configuration

Biasing
A voltage applied to the base of a transistor, which causes the device to operate in its
conductive state is called biasing.
DC Load Line
DC landline is the line on the output characteristics of the transistor which
gives the value of IC & VCE corresponding to zero input (Vs=0).
IC

: Collector Current (mA)

VCE

: Collector to Emitter Voltage

(V)
Vs

: Input Signal Voltage (sine, triangular, etc)

IB

: Base Current (A)

IC(sat) : Collector Saturation Current

(mA)

Output Characteristics of Common Emitter Transistor

36

AC Load Line
AC loadline is the line on the output characteristics of the transistor which gives
the value of IC & VCE corresponding to input signal (Vs)
Operating Point (or) Q point (or) Quiescent Point
The Q-point is the intersection of AC and DC loadline.
Selecting Operating Point Near to cut off Region
If the operating point is selected near the cutoff region, the output is clipped in
negative half cycle.

Locating operating Point - Near to cut off Region

Selecting Operating Point Near to saturation Region
If the operating point is selected near saturation region, then the output is
clipped in positive cycle

Locating operating Point - Near to Saturation Region

Selecting Operating Point In the middle of active region

37

If the operating point is selected in the middle of active region, then there is no
clipping and the output follows input faithfully. If input is large then clipping at
both sides will take place.

Locating operating Point middle of Active Region

Stability Factor
Stability factor is defined as the rate of change of collector current with respect
to the rate of change of reverse saturation current

Where,
Ic

:Change in Collector Current,

Ico

:Change in reverse saturation current

VBE

:Voltage across Base- Emitter junction

:Amplification factor

Two Techniques to Make Q Point Stable

The operating point can be made stable by keeping IC and VCE constant.
There are two techniques to make Q point stable
1. Stabilization technique
2. Compensation technique

38

Stabilisation techniques
The process of making operating point independent of temperature changes by
using resistive biasing circuit is known as stabilisation.
Resistive Biasing Circuits
1.
2.
3.
4.

Base Bias
Collector feedback bias
Emitter bias
Voltage divider bias

Compensation techniques
This refers to the use of temperature sensitive devices such as thermistors and
diodes. They provide compensating voltages & currents to maintain operating
point constant.
Base bias
Resistor between the base and a base battery VBB or Vcc.

Circuit for base bias

Drawbacks:
Variations in bias due to temperature and beta.
Collector feedback bias
Resistor is connected to the base and other end is connected to collector.

Circuit for collector feedback bias

Drawbacks:
39

The circuits provide negative feedback which reduces the gain of amplifier.
Voltage divider bias
The name voltage divider comes from voltage divider formed by R1 and R2
resistor.

Circuit for voltage divider bias

Amplifier
An amplifier is an electronic device which raises strength of input signal
without any changes in general shape of signal.

Classifications of Amplifiers
Based On Transistor Configuration
1. Common emitter amplifier.
2. Common collector amplifier.
3. Common base amplifier.
Characteristics Of CE Amplifier
1. Large current gain (AI).
2. Large voltage gain (AV).
3. Large power gain (AP = AI.AV).
4. Voltage phase shift of 180 degree.
Characteristics Of CC Amplifier
1. High current gain
2. Voltage gain of approximately unity.
3. Power gain approximately equal to current gain.
40

4. No current or no voltage phase shift.

5. Large input impedance.
6. Small output impedance.
Characteristics Of CB Amplifier
1. Current gain of less than unity.
2. High voltage gain.
3. Power gain approximately equal to voltage gain.
4. No phase shift for current or voltage.
5. Small input impedance.
6. Large output impedance.

H-Parameters
h11 =

h12 =

= Input resistance with output short circuited, in ohms.

= Fraction of the output voltage at input with input open circuited

This parameter is ratio of similar quantities, hence unit less.

h21 =

= Forward current transfer ratio or current gain with output short

circuited

this parameter is ratio of similar quantities, hence unit

less.
h22 =

= Output admittance with input open circuited, in ohms.

Hybrid model of CE Amplifier

41

Hybrid model of CE Amplifier

hie : input impedance

hre : reverse voltage gain

hfe : forward current gain hoe : output admittance

Hybrid model of CB Amplifier

Hybrid model of CB Amplifier

Comparison of CB, CC, CE Amplifier

Millers Theorem
Millers theorem states that if an impedance Z is connected between the input and
output terminals of a network which provides a voltage gain A, an equivalent
circuit that gives the same effect can be drawn by removing Z and connecting an
impedance Zi = Z/(1 - A) across the input and
Zo = ZA/(A - 1) across the output.
42

Differential Amplifier
A differential amplifier is a type of electronic amplifier that amplifies the
difference between two voltages.
Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
CMRR is defined as ratio of differential gain (Ad) to Common mode gain (Ac)
CMRR, =|Ad/Ac|
Ad : Differential gain
Ac : Common mode gain
CMRR of a good differential amplifier is very large (e.g., > 40 dB).
Darlington Amplifier
Darlington transistor (often called a Darlington pair) is a compound structure
consisting of two bipolar transistors connected as shown.

Darlington Pair
The cascaded connection of two emitter followers is called Darlington
connection.
Advantages of Darlington connection
1. Increases Current gain and
2. Improves Input resistance of the circuit.
3. Reduces the output resistance.
Input impedance improving techniques
The two methods that are used to improve input impedances are
1. Direct coupling (Darlington connection) and
2. Boot strapping.
Multistage Amplifier
The amplifiers couple by more than one stage for increasing output power is
known as multistage amplifiers.
The coupling schemes that are used in the multistage amplifiers are:
1. Resistance- capacitance (RC) coupling.
43

2. Transformer coupling.
3. Direct coupling
Bandwidth
Bandwidth of an amplifier is defined as the difference between upper cut off
frequency and the lower cut- off frequency (f2 f1).
f1 - lower cut- off frequency
f2 - upper cut off frequency
Rise Time
Rise time is the time taken by a signal to change from a specified low value to a
specified high value.
Relationship between Bandwidth and Rise Time
The relationship between bandwidth and rise time is given by
Bandwidth, BW = 0.35/tr
Where,
tr : Rise time BW : bandwidth
Octaves and Decades
The octaves and decades are the measures of change in frequency.
A ten time change in frequency is called a decade.
An eight time change in frequency is called an octave.
Mid band gain
Mid band gain is defined as the band of frequencies between 10 f1 and 0.1 f2.
Classification of amplifiers based on Q point (operating point)
1. Class A amplifier.
2. Class B amplifier.
3. Class AB amplifier.
4. Class C amplifier

44

Operating Point on Load Line for Various Output Stages

Class B Amplifier
Collector current flows during the half cycle of the signal
Q point must be located at cut-off. At cut-off point ICQ = 0 and VCEQ = VCE-off.
Class B Push-Pull amplifier
Complementary transistors means one of the transistors is a npn and the other is
pnp.
Class AB power amplifier
To eliminate crossover distortion, both transistors in the push-pull arrangement
must be biased slightly above cut-off when there is no signal.
Class C Amplifier
The power dissipation of the transistor in a class-C amplifier is low because it is
on for only a small percentage of the input cycle.
Class D power amplifier
Class D power amplifier produces pulsed output signal. It is used in digital
circuits.

Class
Conduction
Angle
Overall

AB

360o

180o

Less than 90o

180 to 360o

Poor, 25 to

Better, 70 to

Higher than

Better than A
45

Efficiency

80%

but less than

B
50 to 70%

Large
Amounts

Small
Amounts

Bad
Below cut-off

Average
Below

region

optimum and

30%

80%

Fidelity
Bias E

None if
Correctly
Biased
Excellent
At or near

At the X-axis
Crossover
Point
Poor
At Cut-off

(Location of

optimum

region

Operating

(center point

above cut-off

Point)

of loadline)

region

Signal
Distortion

Comparision of CLASS A, CLASS B, CLASS C, CLASS AB

Rectifier
A rectifier is an electronic circuit which converts AC signal into pulsating DC
signal
Types of rectifiers
1. Half wave rectifier
2. Full wave rectifier
Ripple
Ripple is an unwanted AC signal which is present at the output of a rectifier.

Ripple Factor
The ratio of rms value of the a.c. component to the d.c. component in the output is
known as ripple factor ().
Half wave Rectifier
It converts an a.c. voltage into pulsating d.c. voltage using one half of the applied
a.c. voltage.
The rectifying diode conducts during one half of the a.c. cycle.
Ripple Factor = 1.21
Full Wave Rectifier
It converts an a.c. voltage into pulsating d.c. voltage using both half cycles of the
applied a.c. voltage.

46

It uses two diodes of which one conducts during one half cycle while the other
diodes conducts during the other half- cycle of the applied a.c. voltage.
Ripple Factor = 0.48
Bridge Rectifier
It is the most widely used rectifier. It also provides currents in both the half cycle
of input supply.
It uses four diodes of which two diodes conducts during one half cycle while the
other diodes conducts during the other half- cycle of the applied a.c. voltage.
Filter
Filter circuit is used to remove/reduce ripple voltage.
The types of filters are
1.
2.
3.
4.

Inductor filter (L)

Capacitor filter (C)
LC or L- section filter
CLC or - type filter.

Capacitor Filter
A capacitor is connected at the rectifier output and a dc voltage is obtained across
the capacitor.
Voltage Doubler
A voltage doubler provides an output that is twice its peak input voltage.
Voltage Regulator
A voltage regulator produces stable d.c. voltage independent of the load current,
temperature and a.c. line voltage variations.
47

Line Regulation
Line regulation is defined as the change in output voltage for a change in line
supply voltage keeping the load current and temperature constant.
(Vno load Vfull load)
Load regulation =
Vno load
(Vno load Vfull load)
Load regulation =
Vfull load

Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS)

The SMPS is used where perfect d.c. voltage is required for the proper
functioning of the circuit. It is used in computers, printers, invertors, stabilizers
etc.,
Types of SMPS
1. Forward Converters : 2. Flyback Converters : 3. Self Oscillating
Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS)
A device that provides battery backup when the electrical power fails or drops to
an unacceptable voltage level.

48

3. DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
Digital Signals:
Digital signals are represented in binary form (0s and 1s).
Bit
A binary digit is called bit.
Number Systems
Number system is a language of digital system consisting of an ordered set of
symbols
Called digits.

Types of number systems

1.
2.
3.
4.

Decimal Number system

Binary Number system
Octal Number system
Hexadecimal Number system

Logic gates

used to perform

A logic gate is an elementary building block of a digital circuit. Logic gates are

logical operations like AN, OR, NOT and etc..,

AND gate

Symbol

Truth table

OR gate
49

Symbol

Truth table

NOT gate

Symbol

Truth table

NAND gate

Symbol

Truth table

EXOR gate

50

Symbol

Truth table

EX-NOR gate

Symbol

Truth table

Universal gates
NAND and NOR gates are called universal gates because both gates can be used
to implement any gate like AND, OR, NOT gates.

Fan-out
`
Fan out is the maximum number of similar logic gates that a gate can be drive
without any degradation in voltage level.

Fan In
Fan in is the number of inputs connected to the gate.
Flip Flop
Flip-flop is a single bit storage element. Flip flop is used to store one bit of
information.
Types of flip-flops
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

RS flip-flop
SR flip-flop
D flip-flop
JK flip-flop
T flip-flop
51

S-R Flip Flop using NOR Gate

D Flip Flop

J-K Flip Flop

52

T Flip Flop

Registers
A register is a group of flip-flops connected together.

Shift registers.
Shift registers are used to move binary information from one stage to another

Types of shift register:

1. Serial In Serial Out Shift Register
2. Serial In Parallel Out Shift Register
3. Parallel In Serial Out Shift Register
4. Parallel In Parallel Out Shift Register
5. Bidirectional Shift Register
6.
Sequential circuit
In sequential circuits the output depends on the present input and past output.
Example: Flip flops, counters and etc..

Combinational circuit
In Combinational circuit the output depends only on the present state of input
53

Example: Half adder, full adder and etc.,

Counter
Counter is used to count the number clock pulses.

Types of counter
1. Synchronous counter
2. Asynchronous Counter

Synchronous counter
In Synchronous, counter Common clock pulse is given to all flip-flops.

Asynchronous counter
In Asynchronous counter external clock pulse is applied to one flip flop and the
output
of preceding flip- flop is connected to the clock of next flip- flop

54

HDL
HDL (Hardware Description Language) is a language which describes the
hardware of a Digital System in its textual form

4. LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

Integrated Circuit(IC)
Integrated Circuit(IC) is a single silicon chip enclosing millions of transistors and other
circuit components.
Amplifier
An electronic circuit amplifying the input signal without changing the shape is called
as amplifier.
Differential Amplifier
A differential amplifier amplifies the difference between the two input signals.
Operational Amplifier (Op-amp)
An operational amplifier is a direct coupled high gain amplifier having one or more
differential
amplifiers.
Op-amp symbol

55

Instrumentation Amplifier
An instrumentation amplifier amplifies the output from the transducer.
Comparator
A comparator is a circuit which compares an input signal with the reference signal.

Output offset voltage

It is a voltage between the output and ground terminal when both the input terminals of
an op-amp are grounded.
Input offset voltage
It is a voltage applied between the input terminals of an op-amp to get the zero output
voltage.
Inverting amplifier
The input signal is applied to the inverting terminal of an Op-amp.is amplified with a
phase shift of 1800
Wave form

Non inverting amplifier

The input signal is applied to the Non-inverting terminal of an Op-amp.is amplified
without any phase shift.
Wave form
56

Linear op-amp circuit

An op-amp circuit which follows the input signal is called linear op-amp circuit.
Wave from

Virtual ground
The two input terminals of the op-amp are always at the same potential. Thus if one is
grounded then other can be assumed to be at ground potential, which is called virtual
ground.
Window detector
The window detector is circuit which is used to detect the unknown voltage falls within
a specified voltage band or window.
Sample and Hold circuit(S/H)
The function of the S/H circuit is to sample an analog input signal and hold this value
over a certain length of time for subsequent process.
Circuit

57

PSRR
Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) is defined as the change in op-amps input offset
voltage due to variations in supply voltage.

It is expressed in microvolt per volt or in db.

Slew rate
Slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage caused by a step
input
voltage and is usually specified in V/s.

Multivibrator
Multivibrators are used to generate a square waveform without any input signal.

Types of Multivibrators
Astable Multivibrators
Monostable Multivibrators
Bistable Multivibrators

58

Voltage regulator
A voltage regulator is an electronic circuit that provides a stable dc voltage independent
of the temperature and ac line voltage variations.

Vnl -voltage at no load

Vfl- is voltage at full load.
Load regulation
It is defined as the change in output voltage for a change in input current. It is usually
expressed in a percentage .

Line regulation
It is defined as the change in output voltage for a change in input voltage. It is usually
expressed in millivolts
Line regulation = Vout/Vin
Ripple rejection
Ripple rejection is a measure of a regulators ability to reject ripple voltage. It is
expressed in db.
Optocoupler
A combination of LED and photodiode is called as an optocoupler.

5.Microprocessor and Microcontroller

Microprocessor
59

Microprocessor is a single chip programmable integrated device.

It is used in general purpose digital computer.

Figure: microprocessor
Microcontroller
Microcontroller consists of a processor and peripheral devices (ADC, Memory,
Input/Output device).

Block diagram of microcontroller

MICROPROCESSOR VS MICROCONTROLLER
Microprocessor

Microprocessor contains ALU,general

purpose registers, stack pointer, program
counter, clock timing circuit and interrupt
circuit

Micro Controller

Microcontroller contains the circuitry of

microprocessor and in addition it has builtin ROM, RAM, I/O devices, timers and
counters.
60

It has one or two bit handling instructions.

It has many bit handling instructions.

Since memory and I/O has to be connected

externally, the circuit becomes large.

Since memory and I/O are present

internally, the circuit is small.

Power consumption is high.

Power consumption is less

Microprocessor is used in personal

computers.

Microcontroller is used in home appliance,

automotive application, etc...

Types of architecture

Von Neumann architecture

Harvard architecture

Super Harvard architecture

Von Neumann architecture

It has same program memory and data memory.

Block diagram Von Neumann architecture

Harvard architecture
61

It has separate program memory and data memory.

Block diagram Harvard architecture

Super Harvard architecture
It allows simultaneous fetching of two operands and executes one instruction in
one cycle.

Block diagram Super Harvard architecture

Arithmetic and logic unit
The ALU unit performs arithmetic and logical operations.
Arithmetic operations addition, subtraction, multiplication, division.
Logical operations AND, OR and exclusive OR.
Registers
Registers are used to store data temporarily during the fetching and execution of
instruction.
Control unit
The control unit provides the necessary timing and control signals for all the
operations.
It controls the flow of data between the processor, memory and other peripherals.
Program memory
The program memory stores program in memory permanently.
62

Data memory
It is a temporary memory.
Its contents are erased when the power is switched off.
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY
Read and write operation can be performed many times.
It can be referred as a data memory.
RAM is of two types namely
Static RAM
Dynamic RAM
Static RAM
SRAM loses its contents the moment power is switched off to the chip.
Dynamic RAM
DRAM retains its contents for a fraction of second even the power is supplied
continuously to the chip. To keep its contents intact, DRAM has to be refreshed
periodically.

READ ONLY MEMORY

ROM is used to store program memory because it retains its data even the power is
switched off.
ROM is classified into two types namely

PROM
EPROM

Program Read Only Memory

PROM can be programmed once. When it is programmed it can be erased again even
there is a bug on the program.
Electrically Programmable Read Only Memory
63

EPROM can be programmed many times .To write data into an EPROM, you need
an EPROM programmer. Also you need a tool called EPROM Eraser to erase the
contents.
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory EEPROM
EEPROM is similar to EPROM but its contents can be erased by applying electrical
signal to one of the pins of device.
Non-Volatile RAM
Non-volatile RAM is similar to SRAM but it has battery backup. So, even if power is
switched off, the battery will ensure that the contents are not erased.
Flash Memory
Flash memory is a type of EEPROM. The low-cost chips are characterized by their
fast read quality but not write.
The memory is divided into blocks or sectors each sectors are erasable units.
Oscillators
Oscillator is used to generate a clock signal.
The purpose of the clock is to synchronize the operation of processor and peripheral
devices.

Figure: oscillator
Clock circuitry
Processor events are related to the clock. The higher frequency clock is for high
speed processor.
In processor one of the pin is connected to the clock circuitry.
64

BUS
A collection of wires through which data is transmitted from one part of the
processor to peripheral devices.
All buses consist of three parts: An address bus , data bus and control bus.
The data bus transfers actual data whereas the address bus transfers information
about where the data should go control bus controls the flow of data.

Figure: Bus
Inter-integrated circuits (I2C) Bus
I2C bus uses two wires for connecting devices. The bus is bi-directional and
synchronous to common clock.
The bus consists of two lines Serial Clock (SCL) and Serial Data (SDA).Both lines
remain high when not in use. A device using the bus drivers line low.
A device can act as master or slave.
Transmitting device is the master and the receiving device is the slave.

65

I/O PORTS
One of the most important features of the microprocessor and microcontroller is a
number of input/output pins used for connection with peripherals.
For practical reasons, many I/O pins have two or three functions. If a pin is used as
any other function, it may not be used as a general purpose input/output pin.
DMA (Dynamic Memory Access)
Data transfer between the I/O device and the memory is coordinated by the CPU.
In cases where handling of the I/O device by the processor is not efficient, data
transfer between the I/O device and the memory can take place directly, which is
known as DMA.
DMA controller takes the control of the buses and transfers data between the I/O
device and memory.
INTERRUPTS
An external event to stop the currently executing process that causes a change in the
normal flow of execution.
It is usually generated by hardware devices or software
INTEL 8255 PPI
PPI Programmable Peripheral Interface
It is an I/O port chip used for interfacing I/O devices with microprocessor
Very commonly used peripheral chip
66

Figure: Block diagram of 8255

8251 SERIAL COMMUNICATION INTERFACE
Universal asynchronous receiver transmitter (UART): provides serial communication.
8251 functions are integrated into standard PC interface chip.
Allows many communication parameters to be programmed.

Figure: serial communication interface

8259 PROGRAMMABLE INTERRUPT CONTROLLER:

8259 is Programmable Interrupt Controller (PIC)

It is a tool for managing the interrupt requests.

8259 is a very flexible peripheral controller chip

PIC can deal with up to 64 interrupt inputs

Interrupts can be masked

Various priority schemes can also program.

67

6. VLSI DESIGN
Integrated Circuit(IC)
An integrated circuit (IC) is a set of electronic circuits embedded on a
semiconductor (silicon) plate.
It is also called:
Monolithic integrated circuit
A chip
A Microchip

Integrated Circuit (IC)

Generations of IC
Small Scale Integration (SSI)
In SSI, the total number of Transistors in a chip is less than 100.
Medium Scale Integration (MSI)
In MSI, the total number of Transistors in a chip is from 101 to 1000.
Large Scale Integration (LSI)
68

In LSI, the total number of Transistors in a chip is from 1001 to 10000.

Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI)
In VLSI, the total number of Transistors in a chip is more than 10000.

VLSI DESIGN FLOW

69

System Specifications
The specifications of an Integrated Circuit is :
1. Operating Speed
2. Power Consumption
3. Clock frequency
Architectural Design
Architectural Design of an IC is done by using Hardware Description language
without knowing its internal parts structure.
70

Functional Design
Functional Design of an Integrated Circuit is designed by writing Boolean
expression in Hardware Description language (HDL)
Logic Design
The code written in HDL is represented in terms of logic gates
(AND,OR,NOR,NAND etc.,)
Hardware Description Language (HDL)
The language is used to design the digital circuits on coding (program) based
instead of designing the circuit using hardware components.
Advantages of HDL
The advantages of HDL are Reduced non-repeating engineering costs, Design
can be reused, increase flexibility to change the design.
*Engineering Costs
The cost include personnel cost, support costs.
The personnel costs are labor cost and the support costs are computer or
software costs.
Types of HDL
There are two types of HDL:
1. Verilog HDL
2. VHDL or VHSIC (Very High Speed Integrated Circuit) HDL

Functional Verification
Designed part can be verified by writing Test Benches.
*Test Bench- A testbench is used to verify that the logic is correct.
Circuit Design
Circuit design is concerned with arranging transistors (FET) to perform a
particular logic function. Software used for designing is Cadence and Synopsys
Physical Design
This is back end flow design. It is to be realized as the final circuit using
(typically) a million components in the foundrys library.
Physical Verification
Physical verification checks the correctness of the generated layout design.
71

Layout
It is the representation of an integrated circuit in terms of planar geometric
shapes

Fabrication
Once a chip design is complete, it is taped out for manufacturing. Tapeout means
Specification of masks. Masks are made by etching a pattern of chrome on
glass with an electron beam.
Packaging and Testing
The tapeout part is packed into different types of packages. They are dual-in-line
package, Pin Grid Array and Flat pack.
The packaged chip is now undergone into test whether performing the function
correct or not.
Advantages of CMOS
CMOS has high noise immunity
Occupies lesser area
Power consumption is very less.
Field Effect Transistor (FET)
FET is a Unipolar Transistors and uses Electric field to control the shape and
conductivity of the channel and it has three terminals-Source, Drain and Gate
Types of FET
1. JFET-Junction Field Effect Transistors
2. MOSFET-Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
72

Biasing
Biasing is the method of applying predetermined voltages or currents at various
points.
Ex. 5volts
Modes of Operation:
i) Enhancement Mode Transistor
The devices that does not conduct at zero gate bias is called enhancement
mode transistor.
ii) Depletion Mode Transistor
The devices that conduct with zero gate bias is called depletion mode.

Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)

A MOS transistor is a majority carrier device, in which the current in a
conducting channel between the source and the drain is changed by a voltage
applied to the gate.
NMOS (Negative Metal Oxide Semiconductor)
In NMOS, Majority carrier is electrons. A positive voltage applied on the gate
with respect to the substrate enhances the number of electron in the channel and
hence increases the conductivity of the channel.

NMOS

PMOS
In PMOS, Majority carrier is holes. A negative voltage applied on the gate with
respect to the substrate enhances the number of holes in the channel and hence
increases the conductivity of the channel.

73

PMOS

CMOS-Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor

CMOS semiconductors use both NMOS (negative polarity) and PMOS (positive
polarity) circuits. Since only one of the circuit types is on at any given time,
CMOS chips require less power than chips using just one type of transistor.

CMOS Inverter
CMOS Technologies
CMOS transistors can be fabricated by following methods
1.
2.
3.
4.

n-well process.
p-well process.
twin-well process.
Silicon on insulator.

Operating Conditions of MOSFET

a) Accumulation Mode
A negative voltage applied to the gate, so there is a negative charge on the gate.
The mobile positively charged holes are attracted to the gate. This is called the
accumulation mode.

74

ACCUMULATION MODE

b) Depletion Region
The holes in the body are repelled from the region directly under the gate,
resulting in depletion region forming below the gate.

DEPLETION MODE
c) Inversion Region
If the applied voltage is greater than the threshold voltage Vt, more number of
electrons are attracted to the gate. This region is called the inversion layer.

Threshold Voltage
The voltage applied between the gate and source of an MOS device below which
the drain to source current Ids drops to zero.
Vt=Vto+ [

Where,
= constant,
= substrate bias
75

Vto = threshold voltage for

Body Effect
The change in the threshold voltage of the MOS Transistor because of the non
zero bias to the body is called Body Effect.
= Body effect coefficient or Substrate bias effect
=

Drain Current Equations

MOS Transitor has three regions of operations
1. Cut-off Region
i. IDS = 0
2. Linear Region

for

i. IDS = {(Vgs-Vt)Vds -

for

Vgs= Vt 0

0 < Vds< (Vgs -Vt)

3. Saturation Region
IDS = [(Vgs-Vt)2]

for

0< (Vgs -Vt)< Vds

Where,
IDS= Drain to source current
Vgs= Gate to source voltage
Vt= Device threshold voltage
= MOS Transitor Gain
Vds= Drain to source voltage
Drift Velocity
When an Electric field E is applied across a piece of material, the electrons
respond by moving with an average velocity called the drift velocity Vd.
Vd=E
Where is mobility

Mobility
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The mobility describes with which carriers drift in the substrate material. It is
defined by
=

Current Density
The current density is the density of current. It is defines how much current is
flowing across the given area.
J=
Where,

J = current density
I = current
A = Area

Channel Length Modulation

Channel length modulation is a shortening of the length of the inverted channel
region with increase in drain bias for large drain biases.
ID=Kn (Vgs-Vt)2(1+(Vds-Vds,sat))
Where,
ID =Drain current
Kn= transconductance co-efficient
W= width of MOSFET
L= Length of MOSFET
Vds=(Vgs- Vt)
= channel length modulation parameter
Noise Margin
It is used to determine the allowable noise voltage on the input of a gate so that
output will not be affected.

Low Noise Margin

It is defined as the difference in magnitude between the maximum LOW output
voltage of the driving gate and the maximum input LOW voltage recognized by
the driven gate.
77

NML=|ViLmax-VoLmax|
High Noise Margin
It is defined as the difference in magnitude between the minimum HIGH output
voltage of the driving gate and the minimum input HIGH voltage recognized by
the receiving gate.
NML=|VOHmin-ViHmin|

NOISE MARGIN DEFINITIONS

7. SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

SIGNAL:
A Signal is a physical quantity which carries information.
Ex: Temperature of a city, Rainfall in a month
SIGNAL CLASSIFICATION:
1. Continuous time and discrete time signal
2. Energy and Power Signal
3. Periodic and Non-Periodic Signal
4. Analog and Digital Signal
5. Even and Odd Signal or Symmetric and Anti-symmetric Signal
78

6. Deterministic and Random Signal

7. Causal and Anti-Causal Signal
1. CONTINUOUS-TIME AND DISCRETE-TIME SIGNAL:
A continuous-time signal x(t) is a signal that is varying continuously with respect to
time t

o
Figure 1: An example for continuous signal
A discrete- time signal x[ n] is a signal that is not varying continuously with respect to
time t.

Figure 2 : An example for Discrete signal

2. ENERGY AND POWER SIGNAL :
A signal with finite energy (0<E<) and zero power (P =0)is Energy Signal.
Energy (Ex ) of a continuous-time signal is the area under the square of the magnitude of
the signal.

Ex

x t

dt

The energy of a discrete -time signal x[n] is given by Ex

x n

A signal with finite power (0<P<) and infinite energy (E = )is Power Signal.
Average power of the continuous-time signal is given by
79

The average power of a discrete- time signal x[n] is given by

1
N 2 N

Px lim

N 1

x n

n N

3. PERIODIC AND NON-PERIODIC SIGNAL:

A signal which repeats itself after a specific interval of time is periodic signal.
Ex: sine wave, square wave etc.
A signal which do not repeats itself after a specific interval of time is non-periodic signal
Ex. sound signals from radio and all types of noise signal

4. ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNAL:

Signals defined over a continuous independent variable are analog signals.
Ex. Radio signal
Signal whose values belong to a defined set of real numbers are digital signals.
Ex. Binary signals
5. EVEN AND ODD SIGNAL:
A continuous-time signal x(t )

or discrete-time signal x n

is an even signal, if it is

equal to its time conversion or reverse.

Mathematically, it is given by
x(t ) x (t ); t or

x[n] x[n]; n

Even signals are symmetric about the vertical axis

The continuous-time signal x(t ) or discrete-time signal x n is an odd signal, if it is not
equal to its time folded time reverse.
Mathematically, it is given by
x(t ) x(t ); t

x[n] x[ n]; n

Odd signals are anti-symmetric (asymmetric) about the time origin.

Any signal (continuous and discrete) can be expressed as sum of an even and an odd
signal.
6. DETERMINISTIC AND RANDOM:
A signal is deterministic when its future values can be predicted accurately
80

Ex: x(t ) A sin t

Figure 3 : Example for deterministic signal

A signal is random when its future values can NOT be predicted with complete
accuracy.
Ex : Noise signal

Figure 3 : Example for noise signal

TEST SIGNALS OR INPUT SIGNALS
1. Sinusoidal Signals
Sinusoidal Signals can be expressed in either of two ways:
1. cyclic frequency form : A sin (2fot+ ) = A sin((2/To)t + )
2. radian frequency form : A sin (ot + )
where, radian frequency o = 2fo = 2/To
To = Time Period of the Sinusoidal Wave
= Phase of sinusoidal wave
A = amplitude of a sinusoidal
fo = fundamental cyclic frequency of sinusoidal signal
2. Unit Step Function:
It is defined as
1 , t 0

u t 1/ 2 , t 0
0 , t0

81

Figure5 : Unit step function

3. Signum Function:
It is defined as
1 , t 0

sgn t 0 , t 0
1 , t 0

Figure 6: Signum function

4. Unit Ramp Function:
It is defined as

t , t 0
ramp t

0 , t 0

u d

t u t

Figure 7 : Ramp function

5. Rectangular Pulse or Gate Function:
It is defined as

1/ a , t a / 2

a t

, t a/2

Figure 8: Rectangular Pulse

6. Unit Impulse Function:
Unit Impulse function is the derivative of the Unit Step Function
82

( t)
0

Figure 9 : Rectangular Pulse

7. Sinc Function:
It is defined as

sinc t

sin t

Figure 10 : Sinc function

ELEMENTARY DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS
1. Discrete Time Exponential And Sinusoidal Signals:
Discrete-time sinusoidal signal is expressed as
x[n] = A sin (2n/No+)
= A sin (2Fon+ )
Discrete time Exponential Signal is expressed as
x[n] = an
where, n = the discrete time
A = amplitude
= phase shifting radians,
No = Discrete Period of the wave
1/N0 = Fo = Discrete Frequency
2. Discrete Time Unit Step Function Or Unit Sequence Function:

It is defined as
83

 1 , n0
0 , n0

u n

Figure 11 : Unit sequence function

3. Discrete Time Unit Ramp Function:
It is defined as
n , n0

0 , n0

ramp n

Figure 12: Unit ramp function

4. Discrete Time Unit Impulse Function Or Unit Pulse Sequence:
It is defined as

1 , n0
0 , n0

Figure 13: Unit impulse function

OPERATIONS ON SIGNALS:
1. Time shifting
2. Time scaling
3. Time inversion
4. Amplitude Scaling, Shifting and Inversion.
1. Time Shifting :
The original signal x(t) is shifted by an amount t
84

X(t)X(t-to) Signal Delayed Shift to the right

Figure 14: Signal Delayed

X(t)X(t+to) Signal Advanced Shift to the left

Figure 15: Signal Advanced

2. Time Scaling:
In time scaling the signal expands or shrinks due to scalar multiple (a) with time
For a > 1, period of function y(t) reduces and function speeds up. Graph of the function
shrinks

Figure 16: Time scaling if a>1

For a < 1, the period of the y(t) increases and the function slows down. Graph of the
function expands

85

Figure 17: Time scaling if a<1

3. Time Inversion or Time Folding:
In Time reversal, signal is reversed with respect to time i.e.
Mathematically y(t) = x(-t) is obtained for the given function

Figure 18 : Example for time inversion

4. Amplitude Scaling:

86

Figure 19 : Example for amplitude scaling

5. Amplitude Inversion and Shifting :

Figure 20 : Example for amplitude inversion and shifting

SYSTEM
A system is a combination of elements that receives one or more signals and produces
some output.
Mathematically, output y(n)= T[x(n)], where T[] represents the transformation of input
x(n).
Ex: Communication system, Biomedical system
TYPES OF SYSTEMS:
1. Causal & Anticausal
2. Linear & Non Linear
3. Time Variant &Time-invariant
4. Stable & Unstable
5.

Static & Dynamic

6.

Invertible Systems

Causal system:
A causal system has the present values of the output dependent on the present
and/or past values of the input signal
87

Ex:

y[n]=x[n]+1/2x[n-1]

Anticausal system:
An anticausal system has the present values of output dependent only on the
future values of the input signal.
Example: y[n]=x[n+1]+1/2x[n-1]
Linear & Non Linear Systems:
A system that satisfies the principle of superposition is linear system.
Principle of superposition states that the combined response due to two inputs
x1 ( n) and x2 (n) is equal to the sum of the individual responses.
Mathematically it is given by

T a1 x1 (n) a2 x2 (n) a1T x1 (n) a2 T x2 (n)

where a1 , a2 are arbitrary const .
A system that does not satisfy principle of superposition is non-linear system
Time Invariant and Time Variant Systems
If a time delay or time advance of the input signal leads to the same time delay or
advance in output signal then it is called time invariant system.
Ex: y (n, K ) T x (n K )
If a time delay or time advance of the input signal does not leads to the same time
delay or advance in output signal then it is called time variant system
Ex:
Stable & Unstable Systems:
A system is said to be stable if and only if every bounded input results in a
bounded output.
Example for stable system: y(n) = x(3n)
Example for unstable system : y(n) = n x(n)
Static & Dynamic Systems:
A static system is memory less system. That is, its output signal depends on
present values of the input signal.
Ex : y(t)= (t+3) x(t)

88

A dynamic system possesses memory. That is, its output signal depends on past
values and future values of the input signal.
Ex: y(t) = x(3t)

Invertible Systems:

Figure 20 : Example for invertible system

LINEAR TIME-INVARIANT (LTI) SYSTEM:
A system that satisfies the linearity is called linear system. A linear system in
which an input-output pair is does not vary with respect to time is called a linear
time-invariant system [LTI].
Mathematically, the output y(n) of a linear system to an arbitrary input x(n)
is called a linear convolution sum
y ( n)

x(k )h(n, k )

where h(n,k) is called impulse response and is given by h(n, k ) L[ (n k )] h(n k )

INTRODUCTION TO TRANSFORMS:
Transforms are used to analyse the signals or system characteristics in frequency
domain, which is difficult in the case of time domain.
Laplace transform is the basic continuous transform.
89

Fourier transform is used to represent the both periodic and aperiodic continuous
signals in frequency domain.
Discrete Time Fourier Transform (DTFT) is used for analysing discrete time signals.
Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) is used to represent the discrete signal in frequency
domain
Z Transform is used to convert a time domain signal into a complex frequency
domain signal.
FOURIER SERIES
Fourier series says that any periodic signal can be expresses as the sum of
sinusoidal and cosine waveforms.
Mathematically it is given as follows:
For any signal f(x) with period 2 ie,(f(x) = f(2+x)), we can describe the f(x) in
terms of an infinite sum of sines and cosines

To find the coefficients am , bm and a0 , we multiply above equation by cos mx

or sin mx and integrate it over interval -<x<.

FOURIER TRANSFORM
Fourier Transform is the extension of Fourier series to non-periodic signals.
90

It gives frequency domain representation of time domain signals.

Mathematically, Fourier Transform of f(t) is given by

Equation of f(t) is called the inverse Fourier Transform.

LAPLACE TRANSFORM
Laplace transform expresses signal as a linear combination of complex exponentials.
The primary role of Laplace transform is the stability analysis of causal LTI system.
Laplace transform of a general signal x (t ) is X ( s )

x(t )e

st

dt

where s j , a complex number .

DISCRETE TIME FOURIER TRANSFORM (DTFT)
DTFT gives frequency domain representation of discrete signals.
Mathematically,
j
DTFT of a discrete signal x( n) is X (e )

x(n)e

j n

X (e j ) is the decomposition of x( n) into its frequency components.

Z TRANSFORM (Z.T)
Discrete time counterpart (opposite) of Laplace transform is Z-transform
Z transform of a general discrete time signal x ( n) is X ( Z )

x(n)Z

where Z re j is complex variable

91

Z-transform calculated on the unit circle ( r =1) is DTFT

DISCRETE FOURIER TRANSFORM (DFT):

Discrete Fourier Transform can be understood as a numerical approximation to the
Fourier transform.
This is used in the case where both the time and the frequency variables are discrete.
Mathematically, DFT may be defined as the transformation:

x n O, N 1

X k O , N 1

with
X k

N 1

x n e

j k n

where k 2k / N for k = 0, 1, 2, ....., N - 1

n0

FAST FOURIER TRANSFORM (FFT):

Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is a effective and fast algorithm of Discrete Fourier
Transform (DFT)
This algorithm reduces the computation time of DFT for N points from N 2 to
N log 2 N (The algorithm is called Butterfly algorithm).

The only requirement of this algorithm is that, number of point in the series have to be
a power of 2 ( 2n points) such as 32, 1024, 4096.

FILTERS:
A filter is used to remove (or attenuate) unwanted frequencies in a signal.
Stop Band the part of the frequency spectrum that is attenuated by a filter.
Pass Band part of the frequency spectrum that is unaffected by a filter.
Filters are usually described in terms of their frequency responses, e.g. low pass,
high pass, band pass, band reject (or notch).
Frequency Response Curves:

92

High pass
filter

Low pass
filter

Band pass
filter

Band stop
filter

Cutoff Frequency point in the stop band where frequencies have been attenuated by
3 dB (-power).
Center Frequency mid-point of the pass band in a Band Pass filter or the stop band
of a Band Reject filter.
Band Width distance (in Hertz) between the -power points of a Band Pass or Band
Reject filter.

8. COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
Communication:
Communication is the process of conveying information from one place (source)
to another place (Destination).
Elements of Electronic communication system:

Source

Transmitt
er

Channel

Receiver

Destinati
on

Noise
93

Elements of an electronic communication system

Source
Source is an entity from which various kinds of information are originated.
Transmitter
Transmitter is an electronic device that converts the information into a suitable
format and transmits through a communication channel.
In wired communication, the transmitter converts the information to an
electrical signal.
In wireless communication, the transmitter converts the information to an
electromagnetic signal.
Channel
Channel is the transmission path of information between transmitter and
receiver. It may be wired or wireless.

Noise
Noise is an unwanted signal that interferes or affects the information.
Receiver
Receiver is an electronic device that receives the signal from communication
channel and converts into the original format.
Destination
Destination is an entity where the final information is received.
Modes of communication:
There are three modes of communication, they are
1. Simplex
2. Half-Duplex
3. Full-Duplex
Simplex mode:
94

In simplex communication mode, data transmission is unidirectional.

Information can be sent in only one direction.
Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.
Eg: TV broadcast, AM/FM radio broadcast.

Half-Duplex mode:
In Half-duplex communication mode, data transmission is possible in both
directions but not at same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive at a time.
Eg: Walkie-talkie radio.

Half-Duplex
Full-Duplex mode:
In this mode, data transmission is possible in both directions at same time.
Eg: Telephone, Satellite.

Full-Duplex
Analog Communication
Analog communication is a method of conveying information using analog
signals.
Digital communication

95

Digital communication is a method of conveying information using digital

signals.
Frequency
Frequency is defined as number of occurrences of a repeating event per
unit time. In communication perspective, it is number of cycles (waves) per
second.

Bandwidth
Bandwidth is defined as the difference between the upper and lower
frequencies.
Signal Bandwidth:
Signal Bandwidth is defined as the difference between highest and lowest
frequencies contained in the information.

Channel Bandwidth:
Bandwidth of a channel is the difference between the highest and lowest
frequencies that the channel will allow to pass through it.
Carrier signal
Carrier is a high frequency signal used to carry the information over the
channel. During modulation, one or more properties of this signal is modulated
(changed).
Message signal/Modulating signal
Message signal contains the information. This signal modulates the carrier
signal properties, so it is called as modulating signal.

96

Modulation
Modulation is the process of changing one or more properties (amplitude,
frequency, and phase) of a carrier signal in proportion with the message
signal.
Need for modulation:
1. To transmit over long distance
2. To overcome equipment limitation
3. The avoid interference
Modulation index
The modulation index of a modulation scheme describes how much the
modulated variable of the carrier signal varies from its original level after
modulation.
Amplitude modulation (AM)
Amplitude modulation is a process of changing the amplitude of a carrier
signal in proportion with the message signal. During this process frequency and
phase of the carrier is not changed.

Amplitude modulation index (Ma)

The modulation index of amplitude modulation scheme describes how much the
amplitude of the carrier signal varies from its original level after modulation.
97

Where, Vm= Amplitude of message signal

Vc= Amplitude of Carrier signal
Under modulation
If the modulation index is less than one, the modulated signal is said to be under
modulated.
Over modulation
If the modulation index is greater than one, the modulated signal is said to be
over modulated.

Critical Modulation
If the amplitude modulation index is equal to one, the modulated signal is said
to be critically modulated.
Frequency modulation
Frequency modulation is a process of changing the frequency of a carrier
signal in proportion to the amplitude of message signal. During this process, the
amplitude of the carrier is not changed.

Phase modulation
98

Phase modulation is a process of varying the phase of a carrier signal in

proportion to the amplitude of message signal. During this process, amplitude
of the carrier is not changed.

Modulator
Modulator is a device that performs modulation.
Demodulation
Demodulation is the process of extracting the original information signal from
a modulated wave.
Demodulator/Detector
An electronic device used to recover the information content from the
modulated wave.
Sideband
During modulation, message and carrier frequencies mix up together and
produce sum and differences of these two frequencies. These frequency bands
are called as sidebands.

99

Where, fc= Carrier frequency

fm= Message signal frequency
Lower side band (LSB)
Lower side band is a band of frequencies lower than carrier frequency.
Upper side band (USB)
Upper side band is a band of frequencies higher than carrier frequency.
Double side band suppressed carrier (DSBSC)
DSBSC is an AM modulation technique in which carrier level is suppressed to
the lowest practical level. Only the side bands are present after modulation.
Single side band suppressed carrier (SSBSC)
SSBSC an AM modulation technique in which carrier and one sideband are
suppressed and only one sideband is present after modulation.
Vestigial sideband (VSB)
VSB is a form of AM modulation in which the carrier and one complete
sideband are transmitted, but only important part of second sideband is
transmitted.

Oscillator

100

Oscillator is an electronic device that produces a repetitive, oscillating

electronic signal, often a sine wave or a square wave. Oscillators convert direct
current (DC) to an alternating current signal.
Antenna
Antenna is a transceiver that converts electrical signals into radio waves and
vice versa.
When transmitting, antenna converts the electrical signals into radio waves.
When receiving, antenna converts the radio waves into electrical signals.

Filter
Filter is a device that allows only desired range of frequencies.

Frequency deviation
Frequency deviation is change in frequency of the carrier signal after
modulation.
Deviation Ratio
Deviation ratio is the ratio of maximum peak frequency deviation to
maximum modulating-signal frequency.

Deviation Sensitivity
Deviation Sensitivities are output Vs input transfer functions for the
modulators, which give the relationship between output parameter changes in
respect to specified changes in the input signal.
Pre-emphasis
In FM, the effect of noise is more on higher frequencies when compared to low
frequencies.
Therefore, in order to have high signal-to-noise ratio high frequency signals
are amplified at transmitter, this process is called as Pre-emphasis.
De-emphasis

101

De-emphasis is the process of bringing back the amplified high frequency

signals to their original amplitude levels after reception.
Narrowband FM (NBFM)
Narrowband FM is an FM signal with frequency-modulation index less than or
equal to one.
Wideband FM
An FM signal with frequency-modulation index greater than 10.

Phase modulation index

Phase modulation index is defined as Peak phase deviation after modulation,
measured in radians.
Heterodyne
Heterodyne is a process of mixing two frequencies to translate one frequency to
another.

Signal to noise Ratio (SNR)

Signal to noise ratio is the ratio of signal power to the noise power. Unit of
SNR is decibels (dB)
Selectivity
Selectivity is the measure of ability of the receiver to accept a given band of
frequencies and reject all other unwanted signal frequencies.
Fidelity
Fidelity is ability of a receiver to produce accurate output over a range of
frequencies.

Carrier recovery
Carrier recovery is a process of regenerating carrier frequency at receiver.

102

Capture effect
Capture effect refers to the tendency of an FM receiver to receive the strongest
signal and reject others.

Digital Modulation
In digital modulation, an analog carrier signal is modulated by a digital bit
stream.
The aim of digital modulation is to transfer a digital bit stream over an
analog channel.
Eg: Transmission of data bits through public switched telephone network.
Types of Digital modulation techniques:
1.
2.
3.
4.

ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying)

FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)
PSK (Phase Shift Keying)
QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation)

Amplitude shift keying

ASK is a digital modulation technique in which, the carrier is turned on and off
to represent the ones and zeroes.
For logic 1 analog carrier will be present. For logic 0, analog carrier will
be absent.
This is known as on-off keying (OOK).

Frequency Shift Keying

In FSK, one frequency is used to represent the logical "1" and another
frequency the logical "0".
A carrier frequency that represents Logic 1 is called as mark frequency.
A carrier frequency that represents Logic 0 is called as space frequency.

103

Phase shift keying

In PSK, the phase of the carrier is varied according to the data.

Quadrature Amplitude modulation:

In QAM both the amplitude and phase of the carrier signal is varied according
to the data.
Bit rate
Bit rate is the number of bits that are transmitted per unit time. Unit of bit
rate is bits/second (bps).
Inter symbol Interference:
Intersymbol interference (ISI) is a form of distortion of a signal in which
one symbol interferes with subsequent symbols.
9. TRANSMISSION LINES AND WAVEGUIDES
Transmission line

104

Transmission line is a cable or medium designed for the transmission of

electrical signals.
These lines are used as a link between transmitter and receiver.
INPUT END or GENERATOR END
In a transmission system, the two ends of a transmitter are called INPUT
END or GENERATOR END.
OUTPUT END or RECEIVING END
In a transmission system, the two ends of a receiving antenna are called
OUTPUT END or RECEIVING END.

Representation of a transmission system

Waveguides
Waveguides are hollow tubes of uniform cross-section used for transmission.
The transmission is carried out by continuous reflection of energy from the inner
walls of the hollow tubes.
Waveguides are cylindrical, elliptical or rectangular in shape.
The rectangular waveguide is used more frequently than the cylindrical
waveguide.

105

Representation of waveguides
Impedance (Z)
Impedance is the opposition offered to current flow in an alternating current
circuit.

Impedance (Z) =

It is also represented as the combined opposition offered by resistance(R) and

reactance

(X).
Impedance , Z = R + jX

The unit of impedance is Ohms ().

Input impedance (Zin)
Input impedance is the ratio of voltage to current at the input end of transmitter.
This is the impedance presented to the transmitter by the transmission line and the
antenna.

Input impedance ,Zin =

where Ein is input voltage and Iin is the input current.

Output impedance (Zout)
Output impedance is the ratio of voltage to current at the output end .
This is the impedance presented to the load by the transmission line and its
source.

Output impedance ,Zout =

where Eout is output voltage and Iout is the output current.

106

Uniform Transmission Line

Uniform transmission lines have a uniform cross-sectional geometry in the
direction of

wave propagation.

Ex: Conductors and dielectrics maintain same cross sectional geometry along the
line.

Representation of uniform transmission line

Wavelength ()
Wavelength is the distance between identical points in the adjacent cycles of a
waveform signal propagated along a line.

Representation of wavelength
Wavelength is also defined as the distance travelled by a wave along the line with
the phase shift of 2 radians along the line.
The unit of wavelength is meters.

Wavelength , =

where is phase constant.

Transmission line mode
Transmission line mode is the distinct pattern of electric and magnetic field
induced on a transmission line.
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Classification of the Modes

The mode classification can be made according to which field component is
present or not present in the wave.
The field component in the direction of wave propagation are said to longitudinal
component .
The field component perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation are said
to transverse component .The modes are of three types:
1. Transverse Electromagnetic mode
2. Transverse Electric mode
3. Transverse Magnetic mode
Transverse Electromagnetic mode
An electromagnetic wave whose magnetic field vectors and electric field
vectors are

perpendicular to the direction of propagation is called transverse

electromagnetic mode.
Transverse Electric mode
An electromagnetic wave whose electric field vector is at all points
perpendicular to the

direction of propagation is called transverse electric mode.

Transverse Magnetic mode

An electromagnetic wave whose magnetic field vector is at all points
perpendicular to

the direction of propagation is called transverse electric

mode.
Network
network is an electrical network which has three impedances (R1, R2 and R3)
connected in the shape of a .

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Representation of Network
T Network
T network is an electrical network which has three impedances (R1, R2 and R3)
connected in the shape of a T.

Representation of T Network
Symmetrical Network
When two series arms of a T network are equal or the parallel arms of a network
are equal, the network is said to be symmetrical network.

Representation of Symmetrical Network

Cutoff frequency
The frequency at which the network changes from stop band to pass band and
vice versa

is called cut-off frequency.

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Representation of cutoff frequency

fc1 is lower cut-off frequency and fc2 is upper cutoff frequency.

Distortion
Distortion is the alteration in the original shape of a waveform.
Distortion is also defined as the change in relative magnitudes of the different
frequency components of a wave during transmission or amplification.
Waveform distortion
Waveform distortion is of two types:
1. Frequency or attenuation distortion
2. Delay or Phase distortion
Frequency or Attenuation distortion
Distortion that occurs when some frequencies are amplified more than others. All
frequencies will not be attenuated equally .So the received waveform and the
input waveform will not be identical.
Phase or Delay distortion
All the components of the input signal are not amplified with the same phase
shift, hence making some parts of the output signal out of phase with the rest of
the output.
Reflection coefficient (K)
The ratio of amplitude of reflected and incident voltage waves at the receiving
end of the lines is called reflection coefficient. It is denoted by K.

Reflection coefficient , K=
110

Types of transmission line

1.
2.
3.

Open wire line

Coaxial line
Cable

Open wire line

Open wire lines are considered to be parallel and are separated by dielectric medium air.
Representation of Open wire line

Coaxial line
Coaxial line consists of two conductors.
One conductor is hollow and the other conductor is located coaxially inside the
first

conductor.
The dielectric medium is solid or gaseous.
Representation of Coaxial line

Cable

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Cable consists of hundreds of conductors which are individually insulated using

papers.
The conductors are considered to be parallel and are separated by solid dielectric.
Standing waves
Standing wave is a wave that remains constant in a position oscillating in
magnitude

having fixed positions of maxima and minima.

Nodes
Nodes are points of zero voltages or current in the standing wave system.
Anti-nodes
Antinodes or loops are points of maximum voltage or current.

Representation of nodes and antinodes

Standing wave ratio (S)
The ratio of maximum to minimum magnitudes of current or voltage on a line
having standing wave is called standing wave ratio.

Standing wave ratio , S=

Infinite line
A line of finite length terminated in a load equivalent to its characteristic
impedance

appears to the sending end generator as an infinite line.

112

Representation of Coaxial line

Incident wave
A wave which travels from sending end to receiving end with decreasing
amplitude is

the incident wave.

Reflected wave
A wave which travels from receiving end to sending end with increasing
amplitude is

called reflected wave.

Smooth line
When load impedance is equal to characteristic impedance , the waves travel
smoothly

down the line and the energy is absorbed in the load without a

reflected wave.
Such a line is called a smooth line.

Quarter wave line

Quarter wave length of transmission line equal to 1/4 of the wavelength of the
signal in the transmission line.
Applications of quarter wave line
Quarter wave line is used
1.

As an impedance inverter
113

2.

To connect a transmission line to a resistive load such as

an antenna
As an insulator to support a open wire line or coaxial cable

3.
Ladder network

A series combination of several T or network leads to so called ladder network .

Representation of Ladder Network

Iterative impedance
Iterative impedance is the value of impedance measured at one pair of terminals
of the network when the other pair of terminals is terminated with the same
impedance value.
Wave Impedance
Wave impedance is defined as the ratio of electric field strength along one
direction to

magnetic field strength along the direction of propagation in a line.

Wave impedance is denoted by .

Wave impedance, =

Parameters of a Transmission Line

114

Parameters of a transmission line are Resistance(R), Inductance (L) and

Capacitance(C). They are distributed along whole length of the transmission line.

Their values are normally expressed as per kilometer length of line.

Schematic representation on distributed circuit

Resistance of a Transmission Line
This resistance is usually expressed in ohms per unit length and is existing
continuously from one end of the line to the other.

Inductance of a Transmission Line

When current flows through a wire, magnetic lines of force are set up around the
wire.
As the amplitude of current varies, the field around the wire expands and
collapses. The energy produced by the magnetic lines of force tends to keep the
current flowing in the same direction.
This represents a certain amount of inductance, which is expressed in micro
henrys per unit length.

115

Illustration of inductance and magnetic fields of a transmission line

Capacitance of a Transmission Line
The two parallel wires act as plates of a capacitor and the air between them acts
as a dielectric.
This electric field between the wires is similar to the field that exists between the
two plates of a capacitor.
The capacitance between the wires is usually expressed in picofarads per unit
length.

Schematic Representation of Distributed capacitance.

Secondary Parameters of a Transmission Line
1. Characteristic impedance
2. Propagation Constant

Characteristic impedance (Zo)

The characteristic impedance of a uniform transmission line is the ratio of the
amplitudes of voltage and current of a single wave propagating along the
line.
The unit of characteristic impedance is ohm.
The general expression for the characteristic impedance of a transmission line is:

116

Characteristic impedance Zo =

Z = R + jL is the series impedance (ohms /unit length)

Y = G + jC is the shunt admittance (mhos/unit length)

Propagation Constant
The propagation constant of an electromagnetic wave is a measure of the change
in amplitude of the wave as it propagates in a given direction.
The propagation constant itself measures change per meter but is otherwise
dimensionless.
The propagation constant is denoted by
= + j .

Attenuation constant ()
The attenuation constant of transmission line is a measure of the loss of power
per unit length on the line. It is denoted by the symbol . Unit is nepers per
meter.

Phase constant ()
The phase constant, also called phase change constant, represents the change in
phase per meter along the path travelled by the wave at any instant.
It is represented by the symbol and is measured in radians per meter.
The general equations for and in terms of the per unit length is

117

where R-resistance
L-inductance
C-capacitance
G-conductance
-angular frequency

Distortion less line

If a line has neither frequency nor delay distortion, then attenuation and velocity
of propagation cannot be a function of frequency.
The condition for a distortion less line is

General equation of a transmission line

The useful forms of equations of voltage and current at any point of a
transmission line is written as
E= ER cosh s + IRZO sinh s

I = IR cosh s +

sinh s

where ER is the received voltage

IR is the received current
s is the distance travelled by the wave along the line
sinh and cosh are the hyperbolic functions
118

Bel
The bel is defined as logarithm of power ratio.

Number of bels = log

Insertion Loss
Insertion loss of a line or network is defined as the number of nepers or decibels
by which the current in the load is changed by the insertion of a device in a
transmission line.
Reflection factor
Reflection factor is defined as the ratio current actually flowing in load to the
current under mismatched condition..

10. ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

Antenna
Antenna is a conductor that can transmit and receive electromagnetic signals
from microwave, radio and satellite devices.

Pictorial representation of an antenna

Transmission
Transmission means radiating electromagnetic energy into space.
Reception
Reception means collecting electromagnetic energy from space
Transducer

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Transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another form of
energy.
E.g: Antenna- converts electrical signal into electromagnetic signal.
Antenna parameters
To describe the performance of an antenna, various parameters are to be defined.
They are

Antenna Aperture
Antenna Field Zones
Radiation Pattern
Directivity
Antenna Radiation intensity

Antenna Aperture
Antenna aperture or effective area is a measure of how effectively an antenna
can receive the power of radio waves. Power P (watt) collected by aperture A of
an antenna is given by
Power, P= A.S watts , Where S- Surface area
Antenna Field Region
Antenna field region refer to regions of the electromagnetic field around an
antenna.
The field around an antenna can be divided into 2 regions1. Fresnel region or Near field region.
2. Fraunhofer region or Far field region.
The two regions can be arbitrarily separated by a boundary whose radius is given
by

Where

L= Largest Dimension of the antenna,

= Operating wave length

120

Representation of Fresnel region and Fraunhofer region

In Fraunhofer region, the power flow is directed radially outward. The power
pattern is independent of distance and energy drops at a rate of 1/r2 where r is the
distance from the antenna.
In Fresnel region, the power flow is not directed radially outward. The power
pattern is dependent on the distance and energy drops at a rate of 1/r3.
Radiation Pattern
Graphical representation of the radiation properties of an antenna is known as
radiation pattern.

Representation of radiation pattern

Omni directional antennas radiate equally in all directions.
Directional antennas focus energy in a particular direction.
Directivity
Directivity is defined as the ratio of maximum radiation intensity to average
radiation intensity. It is denoted by D and is given by

dB

121

Where,

- beam solid angle

Antenna Radiation intensity

The power radiated by an antenna per unit angle is referred as antenna radiation
intensity.

Beam Solid Angle

It is defined as the angle at which maximum power will flow through the
antenna, if the antenna radiation intensity is constant and maximum value.
Gain of an antenna
It is defined as the ratio of maximum power received from a given antenna to
maximum power received from a reference antenna. It can be classified into
two- directive gain and power gain.
Directive Gain
It is defined as the ratio of radiation intensity in a particular direction to the
average power radiated.
Power Gain
It is defined as the ratio of radiation intensity in a given direction to the average
total input power.

Relation between Gain G and Aperture A of an antenna

The gain G and aperture A of an antenna are related by the equation
dB

Where, - Wavelength
Power Density
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Power density is defined as the amount of power radiated per unit volume.
Power density S at the receiver of an antenna which is placed at a distance d
from transmitter of power source Pt is given by

If the transmitter has a gain Gt in the direction of the receiver, then power
density increases to
Watts/

Electromagnetic field
An electromagnetic field (also EMF or EM field) is a physical field produced by
electrically charged objects. It can be viewed as the combination of electric field
and magnetic field. The electric field is produced by stationary charges and the
magnetic field by moving charges.

Representation of electromagnetic field

Field strength
Field strength is defined as that magnitude of received electromagnetic field
which will excite a receiving antenna.
Relation between field strength and power density
The field strength E is related to power density S by the equation

Where,Z0 - free space impedance whose value is 120

123

Free space impedance

A region that has no gravitational force or electromagnetic fields is called free
space. Also called vacuum. Free space impedance gives the relationship between
electric-field and magnetic-field intensities of an electromagnetic field ( EM
field ) propagating through vacuum.
Relation between magnetic component and electro-magnetic wave in free space
Relation between magnetic component and electro-magnetic wave in free space is
given by

watts/metre2
Where,
120 - intrinsic impedance of free space which is approximately equal to
377ohms.
E - Energy.
Intrinsic Impedance
Intrinsic impedance is defined as impedance of the medium that the wave travels
in. Impedance, commonly denoted as Z, is the opposition that an electronic
component, circuit, or system offers to alternate and/or direct electric current.
Electric Dipole
A pair of equal and opposite charges (positive and negative charge) separated by
a small distance is defined as an electric dipole.

Representation of electric dipole

Attenuation
Attenuation refers to any reduction in the signal strength and it can occur with
digital or analog signal. Sometimes called loss, attenuation occurs due to signal
transmission over long distances.
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Free space path attenuation

It is the loss in signal strength of an electromagnetic wave when it travels through
free space (usually air), with no obstacles nearby to cause reflection or
diffraction. The free space path attenuation between isotropic antennas is given by
the formula
LdB = 32 + 20 log f MHz + 20logdkm
Isotropic Antennas
Ideal antennas that radiate power uniformly in all directions are called isotropic
antennas

An isotropic antenna
Types of Antennas
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Yagi-Uda antenna
Log periodic antenna
Rhombic antenna
Horn antenna
Microstrip antenna
Helical antenna

Yagi-Uda Antenna
They are also called parasitic antennas. They are high gain antennas having a
driven element, reflector and directors. They have an active element (directly fed
from transmission line) and parasitic element (electrically coupled to
transmission line).

Representation of Yagi-Uda antenna

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Voltage and current relations in Yagi-Uda antenna

Currents I1 and I2 passing through antennas 1 and 2 respectively are given by

Ampere

Ampere
Where V1, V2= voltage applied to antenna 1 and2
Z11, Z22= self impedance of antenna 1 and 2
Z12= mutual impedance between antenna 1 and 2
Log Periodic Antenna
They are frequency independent antennas whose impedance and radiation
pattern remains constant as a function of frequency. They are mainly used in High
Frequency communication for television reception.

Representation of log periodic antenna

Rhombic Antenna
Also called diamond shape antenna. It consists of four straight wires arranged in
the shape of a diamond suspended horizontally above earths surface

126

Representation of rhombic antenna

For a rhombic antenna
Height above ground, h is given by

meters
Leg length, L is given by

metres
Horn Antenna
Horn antenna consists of a flaring metal waveguide shaped like a horn to direct
radio waves in a beam.

Representation of horn antenna

For a horn antenna, flare angle H is given by

Where RH= axial length

Microstrip Antenna
127

Representation of microstrip antenna

It consists of a very thin metallic strip placed above a ground plane. The strip and
ground plane are separated by a dielectric substrate. For a microstrip antenna,
directivity is given as
D= 6.021 dB
Helical Antenna
It consists of a thick copper wire in the form of helix along with a flat metal plate
called as ground plane.

Representation of helical antenna

The electric fields for a helical antenna is given by

Where, [I]= current

l=distance from the ground plane
A= area of the loop
128

S=length of dipole
Antenna Array
Antenna arrays are several antennas arranged in space and interconnected to
produce a directional radiation pattern.
They are of 4 types: Linear array, planar array, conformal array and adaptive
array.

Representation of antenna array

Linear array
If the array element centers lie along a straight line, it is called linear array

Planar array
If the array element centers lie along a plane, it is called planar array
Conformal array
If the array element centers lie on a non planar surface, it is called conformal
array
Adaptive array
Arrays that can react intelligently to its environment by steering its beam
towards desired signal are called adaptive arrays.
Reciprocity Principle
E12=E21, provided I1=I2.
Where, I1, I2- Current at antennas 1 & 2.
E12, E21- EMF induced at antennas 1 & 2.
129

Modes of propagation
Waves from the transmitter can reach the receiver using any three modes of
propagation as discussed below
1.
2.
3.

Ground wave propagation

Sky wave propagation
Space wave propagation

Representation of modes of propagation

Ground wave propagation
In ground wave propagation, waves are guided along the surface of the earth.
Transmitting and receiving antennas must be close to the surface of the earth.
Desirable frequency is up to 2MHz. Field strength for ground wave propagation
is

Volt/metre
Where,
Is= antenna currents
d= distance between transmitting and receiving points
ht, hr= heights of transmitting and receiving antennas
Space wave propagation
The radio waves having high frequencies are basically called as space waves.
These waves have the ability to propagate through atmosphere, from transmitter
antenna to receiver antenna. Desired frequency is above 30MHz.
Sky wave propagation
In sky wave propagation, electromagnetic waves from the transmitter reach the
130

receiver after reflection from ionosphere region. Desirable frequency is between

2 to 30MHz.
Ionosphere
Upper part of the atmosphere where ionization takes place is called ionosphere. It
is situated at 50Km to 400Km above earths surface.

Representation of ionosphere
Critical frequency (fc)
Highest frequency that can be reflected by a particular layer of atmosphere is
known as critical frequency.
Critical frequency, fc= 9 (Nm ) Hz
where, Nm= maximum electron density (electrons per m3)
Skip distance
The minimum distance from the transmitter at which a sky wave of given
frequency is returned to earth by ionosphere is known as skip distance. For a
given frequency of propagation, skip distance is given by

metres

131

Representation of skip distance

Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF)
Highest frequency that can be used for sky wave propagation between two
given points on earth is known as maximum usable frequency.
Maximum usable frequency, fmuf = (fc seci ) Hz

11. OPTICAL COMMUNICATION

Optical communication:
Communication of information from one point to another using light waves

132

Angle of reflection.
The angle between the reflected wave and the normal is called the angle of
reflection.

Numerical aperture:
Numerical aperture of the fiber is the light collecting efficiency of the fiber and is
the
Measure of the amount of light rays that can be accepted by the Fiber.

133

Modes:
Number of paths to travel a light ray in the fiber optic cable is called modes.

Angle of incidence
The angle at which light strikes a surface with respect to the normal is called
angle of incidence

Diagram of rays at a surface, where i is the angle of incidence, r is the angle of

reflection, and R is the angle of refraction.

Structure of fiber optic cable

134

Core
Core is a single solid dielectric medium
Cladding
The cladding layer is made of a dielectric material to provide proper additional
Mechanical Strength to the cable.

Skew rays
Skew rays are the rays following the helical path around the fiber axis when
They travel through the fiber and they would not cross the fiber axis at any time.

Pulse Broadening
Light pulse spreading inside the fiber is called pulse broadening

Necessity of cladding for an optical fiber

a) To provide proper light guidance inside the core

b) To avoid leakage of light from the fiber
c) To avoid mechanical strength for the fiber
d) To protect the core from scratches and other mechanical damages

Bound Rays
135

Bound ray propagate to the fiber core.

Unbound ray
Unbound ray that are refracted out of the fiber core

Multi mode fiber

In multi mode fiber the light ray takes many paths through the core

Single mode fiber

In single mode fiber the light ray travels only in one path.

Advantages Of Optical Communication

1. Low transmission loss.

2. Small size and weight.
3. No electromagnetic interference.
4. Electrical isolation
Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)
ISI results from pulse spreading in the optical fibre. The presence of this
Energy in adjacent time slots results in an interfering signal. Hence it is called ISI
Radiance
Radiance (or brightness) is a measure, in Watts, of the optical power radiated into
a Unit solid angle per unit area of the emitting surface.

136