9.2.

Fossil fuels provide both energy and raw materials such as ethylene for the
production of other substances

Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of some of the fractions from the refining of
petroleum
Industrial source: crude oil/ petroleum; either as by-product of petrol refining or cracking of higher
boiling point fractions. Cracking is the chemical process of breaking large hydrocarbons into smaller
ones. Catalytic cracking is the process in which high molecular weight fractions from crude oil are
catalytically broken into lower molecular weight substances (an alkane and alkene), like petrol, to
increase output of these high demand products.
Identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its double bond, is readily transformed into
many useful products
Ethylene has a double bond since its an alkene, which makes it reactive. Ethylene
undergoes an addition reaction in which the double bond opens out to form two
single bonds thus linking molecules together, i.e. (CH2=CH2)n (-CH2 CH2-)n. It forms
useful products such as ethanol as a result.
Double bond

Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are made
Ethylene monomers polymerise to form low or high density polyethylene.
Low density polyethylene is made from the gas phase process high pressure, high temperatures and
an organic peroxide initiator.
High density polyethylene is made using Zeigler-Natta process just above atmospheric pressure,
temperatures around 60C and zeolite catalyst.
Identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning of this term
Polyethylene is called an addition polymer. This means that it forms by molecules adding together
without the loss of any atoms. Each double C=C bond opens out to form single bonds with adjacent
molecules thus linking molecules together.
Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a commercially and industrially
important polymer
1. Catalyst (for HDPE) or initiator (for LDPE) attaches to ethylene molecule creates activated
species.
Z + CH2=CH2 Z CH2 CH2
Catalyst/ Initiator

Ethylene
molecule

Activated species

2. Ethylene molecules attach to the species, expanding the chain.

1

Z CH2 CH2 + CH2=CH2 Z CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2

3. Polymerisation stops when two activated species collide, forming a stable polymer.
Z (CH2 CH2)x + Z (CH2 CH2)y Z (CH2 CH2)x+y Z
Note: Since activated chains of various lengths can collide, polymer molecules formed have different
chain lengths and different masses, therefore, in a polymer sample there is a distribution of molecular
weights, but the average is 46000.
Identify the following as commercially significant monomers:
- vinyl chloride
- styrene, both by their systematic and common names
Vinyl Chloride
Styrene
Systematic Name: chloroethene
Systematic Name: phenylethene/ ethenylbenzene
Common Name: vinyl chloride
Common Name: Styrene
Chlorine
replaces
hydrogen of
regular ethene
molecule

C6H5

Benzene ring
replaces
hydrogen of
regular ethene
molecule

Describe the uses of the polymers made from the above monomers in terms of their properties
Polymer
Structure
Properties
Uses
Low density Extensive chain branching; no Soft; flexible; low melting point; Cling wrap, carry
Polyethylene stiffening side groups; no
transparent; not strong
bags; squeeze
cross linking
bottles
High density No chain branching; no chain Hard; brittle; high melting point; Kitchen utensils;
Polyethylene stiffening side groups; no
translucent
food containers;
cross linking
milk bottles;
rubbish bins
Poly (vinyl
Considerable chain stiffening Hard; inflexible; vulnerable to
Electrical wiring
chloride)
Cl side groups; polar C-Cl
UV attack (inhibitor added to
insulation; garden
bonds produce strong
absorb UV light, preventing
hoses; drainage
intermolecular forces
degradation)
and sewerage
pipes
Polystyrene Large phenyl stiffening side
Crystalline PVC Disposable drink
groups; minimal chain
transparent; resistant to UV glasses; foam
branching; C-C and C-H bonds
attack; hard; rigid
packing material
Expanded PVC light
weight; spongy; moulded
easily; good insulator; soft
Identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to compare the reactivities of appropriate
alkenes with their corresponding alkanes in bromine water
Background Information: Alkanes and alkenes are both non-polar molecules with weak dispersion
(intermolecular) forces. Alkanes undergo substitution reactions (reactions in which an atom in a
molecule is replaced by another atom or group of atoms). Alkenes undergo addition reactions.
Aim: To compare the reactions of cyclohexene and cyclohexane in bromine water
2

Safety Precaution: Cyclohexane, cyclohexene and bromine water are toxic by all routes of exposure;
protect yourself by using small quantities, wearing safety glasses and avoiding inhalation by using a
fume cupboard.
Method: In two test tubes, place ten drops of cyclohexene and cyclohexane. To each sample add 10
drops of bromine water. Shake vigorously. Observe for a colour change.
Results: cyclohexene decolourises bromine water; cyclohexane shows no reaction
Conclusion:
Cyclohexene undergoes an addition reaction: C6H10 + Br2 C6H10Br2 (cyclohexane + bromine water
1, 2 dibromocyclohexane)
Cyclohexane does not undergo a chemical reaction (however, in the presence of UV light, a
substitution reaction occurs)

9.2.2

Some scientists research the extraction of materials from biomass to reduce our
dependence on fossil fuels

Discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds presently obtained from the petrochemical
industry
There is only a finite supply of crude oil; all reserves will be used up within the next few
decades
There is pressure to reduce energy use and greenhouse gas emissions
As oil supplies diminish, oil prices rise, one day to such an extent that oil will be too expensive a
fuel source
When oil reserves run empty, if there were no alternatives, there would be no fuel or plastic
For these reasons and more, ethanol and cellulose are being researched as alternative fuel sources.
Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer
Condensation polymers are chains of linked monomers that form when a functional group of one
monomer reacts with the functional group of another monomer, joining and eliminating a small
molecule (often water).
Describe the reactions involved when a condensation polymer is formed
Using glucose as an example,
HO C6H1004 OH HO C6H1004 OH HO C6H1004 OH
O C6H10O4 O - C6H10O4 O - C6H10O4 + xH2O
When two glucose monomer molecules react through two -OH hydroxyl groups, a H-OH (water)
molecule is condensed out, leaving an -O- linking the two monomer molecules. The first two glucose
molecules to join condense out an H-OH, and every glucose molecule added to the growing chain then
condenses out another H-OH.
Describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example of a condensation polymer found as a
major component of biomass
Cellulose is a long, linear molecule because of the alternating CH2OH groups on either side of the chain
and COC bond angles. Hydrogen bonds make cellulose difficult to break down, rigid and strong. The
OH groups can not interact with water, making cellulose insoluble. Cellulose has potential as a
biopolymer because it is a major component of biomass (organic material derived from living
organisms, e.g. crops, animal waste).
Identify that cellulose contains the basic carbon chain structures needed to build petrochemicals and
discuss its potential as a raw material
Cellulose contains the basic carbon structures required by the plastics industry to be a source of
chemicals or a biopolymer. Plastics made from cellulose biodegrade into fungi and bacteria.
Cellulose thermochemical pretreatment + hydrolysis breaks down into constituent sugars
fermented ethanol polymerised to form useful products
However, the breaking down of cellulose requires much energy (as it is hydrogen bonded) and is more
expensive than cracking crude oil form ethylene hydrated to form ethanol. Nevertheless, research
on cellulose needs to continue to see through its potential as a raw material.

Use available evidence to gather and present data from secondary sources and analyse progress in the
recent development of a named biopolymer. This analysis should name the specific enzyme used or
organism used to synthesise the material and an evaluation of the use or potential use of the polymer
produced related to its properties
Polylactic acid (PLA) is a biodegradable thermoplastic derived from renewable plant material such as
corn starch.
Corn kernels are milled extract starch enzymes break down starch in dextrose lactic acid
bacteria converts dextrose to lactic acid polymerised PLA
Uses:
Plant pots, mulch film and disposable nappies because of its biodegradability and
compostability.
Its transparency, rigidity and crack-resistance makes PLA suited for use as food containers and
drink cups, since the food would be visible and containers would not break.
Advantages of PLA:
Biodegradable; compostable
Sustainable since it is made from renewable resources corn
Less greenhouse gas emissions, no toxic gases
Requires less energy for production than conventional plastics
Disadvantages of PLA:
Only biodegradable under controlled composting environmental conditions which is not
readily accessible by consumers
PLA breaks down into lactic acid, which demands a lot of oxygen. However, research is being
conducted into anaerobic digesters so that PLA can break down without oxygen.

9.2.3

Other resources such as ethanol are readily available from renewable resources
such as plants

Describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need for a catalyst in this process
and the catalyst used
C2H5OH C2H4(g) + H2O(l) in the presence of heat and concentrated sulfuric acid which acts as a
dehydrating agent and catalyst
Describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the production of ethanol and identify the need
for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used
C2H4(g) + H2O(l) C2H5OH in the presence of heat and dilute sulfuric acid which acts as a hydrating
agent and catalyst
Describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent for polar and non-polar substances
The ethanol molecule consists of two parts the non-polar alkyl (-CH2CH3) end and the polar
hydroxyl (-OH) end.
Non-polar alkyl end forms
dispersion forces with nonpolar substances, thus
dissolving them

Polar hydroxyl end forms dipoledipole or hydrogen bonds with

polar substances, thus dissolving
them

Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be called a renewable resource
Ethanol has been proposed as an alternative fuel source because:
It undergoes complete combustion and unlike petrol, burns efficiently does not release
soot or carbon monoxide.
It is a renewable resource since it is made through fermentation of plant material, and so
would reduce our dependency on non-renewable crude oil.
Ethanol is made from carbon dioxide, water and sunlight and plant material and when it is burnt it
returns back to carbon dioxide and water, which can be reconverted into ethanol.
Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the advantages and disadvantages
of its use
Advantages of ethanol as a fuel:
At 10-20% concentration in petrol, it is a petrol extender and vehicle engines do not need to
be modified to utilise it.
It undergoes complete combustion [see previous dot point]
It is greenhouse neutral since the carbon dioxide released during fermentation and
combustion is used up in photosynthesis.
i.e. Fermentation: C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 (g)
+ Combustion: 2C2H5OH + 3O2 (g) 4CO2 (g) + 6H2O(l)
= Photosynthesis: 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l) C6H12O6 + 6O2
Disadvantages of ethanol as a fuel:
Large areas of agricultural land need to be devoted to growing crops for fuel instead of for
food
6

It does not release as much energy as petrol vehicles receive fewer kilometres (-1367kJ in
ethanol vs. -5464kJ in petrol)
Smelly wastes present environmental problems

Process information from secondary sources to summarise the processes involved in the industrial
production of ethanol from sugar cane

Sugarcane

Harvested and
transported to mill

Clarified to remove
impurities

Heated to turn starch

into liquid

Mixed with enzymes

and water to convert
sugarcane into pure
sugars

Shredded and
crushed to extract
sugar-rich juice

Cooled; yeast is
added to convert
sugars to ethanol and
carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide is
removed then
remaining mixtureis
fractionally distilled

Pure ethanol

Process information from secondary sources to summarise the use of ethanol as an alternative car
fuel, evaluating the success of current usage
In Australia, ethanol is currently added to petrol to form E10 Unleaded which is 10% ethanol/90%
petrol blend. At this concentration, vehicle engines need not be modified; car manufacturers claim
that higher concentrations corrode vehicle engines. Ethanol is more expensive and less efficient than
petrol as a car fuel because and vehicles receive fewer kilometres because ethanol contains less
energy. Furthermore, there are no reliable studies to show that ethanol produces less greenhouse
gas emissions than petrol (although it does combust cleanly and produces less soot and carbon
monoxide).

Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted

Fermentation is a process in which glucose is broken down into ethanol and carbon dioxide by the
action of enzymes in yeast. For fermentation:
Suitable grain or fruit is mashed up with water
Yeast is added
Air is excluded
The mixture is kept at 37C (body temperature)

Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process

Present information from secondary sources by writing a balanced equation for the fermentation of
glucose to ethanol
1. Starch/ sucrose are mixed with enzymes (a biological catalyst) to convert it into glucose.
2. Glucose mixture is clarified to remove impurities and waste, cellulose.
3. Yeast is added to convert mixture into carbon dioxide and ethanol (fermentation).
i.e. C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 (g)
4. Fermented further to produce ethanol at 15% concentration (any higher would kill yeast,
ceasing further fermentation)
5. 15% ethanol mixture is fractionally distilled 95% ethanol
Solve problems, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to carry out the fermentation of glucose
and monitor mass changes
Method:
1. Measure and record the mass of the conical flask.
2. Add an aqueous mixture of glucose and measure and record the mass of the flask plus the
glucose mixture. Calculate the mass of the glucose mixture.
3. Add 1 gram of yeast and secure flask opening with lid containing a pipe which leads to a test
tube containing limewater.
4. Incubate overnight.
5. Measure mass of conical flask with fermented ethanol mixture. Calculate mass changes.
6. Record observations of limewater.
Results: 5 grams loss, limewater turns milky as carbon dioxide is produced during fermentation.
Note: Additionally, you can test for ethanol by adding potassium permanganate (KMnO 4) to a sample
of the final mixture, it should turn colourless.
Define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and calculate the value for ethanol from firsthand data
The molar heat of combustion of a substance is the heat liberated when one mole of the substance
undergoes complete combustion with oxygen at standard atmospheric pressure with products being
carbon dioxide and water. Value for ethanol: -1367 kJ mol-1
Identify the IUPAC nomenclature for straight-chained alkanols from C1 to C8
1 meth
3 prop
5 pent
2 eth
4 but
6 hex
Formula for alkanols: CnH2n+1OH
Formula for alkanes: CnH2n+2
Formula for alkenes: CnH2n

7 hept
8 oct

Identify data sources, choose resources and perform a first-hand investigation to determine and
compare heats of combustion of at least three liquid alkanols per gram and per mole
Calculating Heat Capacity: H= -mCT
i.e. Heat Capacity (in joules) = mass in grams of water X 4.18 X temperature change
Heat of Combustion per gram: H (in kilojoules) mass of alkanol used
Heat of Combustion per mole: Heat of combustion per gram X molar mass of alkanol
8

9.2.4 Oxidation-reduction reactions are increasingly important as a source of energy

Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of electrons
Reactions between a metal and a solution containing the ions of a different metal are displacement or
redox reactions. The metal is oxidised and dissolves and the ions of the metal in solution are reduced
to form a solid metal deposit.
Oxidation: loss of electrons (LEO)
Reduction: gain of electrons (GER)
Identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in solution by other metals to the relative
activity of metals
Displacement reactions are electron transfer reactions. In such reactions, a more active solid metal
oxidises and will displace the ions of a less active metal in solution (which is reduced).
Note: On the standard electrode potentials table, the metal higher up is oxidised.
Account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their loss or gain of electrons
Oxidation increase in oxidation state
Reduction decrease in oxidation state
Elements in their naturally occurring state have an OS of 0.
For ions, the OS is the charge/ valency of the ion (e.g. SO42- has OS -2)
Examples:
1. Find the OS of the underlined species in Cr2O72Sum of oxidation states of constituent elements=overall charge of entire species
Therefore, 2x + 7-2 = -2 x=6: the OS of Cr2 is 6.
2. If MnCl3 is converted to MnO2, determine whether oxidation or reduction has occurred.
OS of Mn in MnCl3 is +3; OS of Mn in MnO2 is +4 increase in OS oxidation has occurred
Describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction reactions
A galvanic cell is an electron pump that produces electricity by pumping electrons out of the anode,
where oxidation occurs, into an external circuit (a metallic conductor) and draws them back into the
cathode, where reduction occurs.
Outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the direction of electron flow
A galvanic cell consists of:
Two different half cells, consisting of an electrode in electrolyte solution
An external circuit, which allows the flow of electrons from the anode to cathode
A salt bridge, which allows the migration of ions and maintains electrical neutrality
Define anode, cathode, electrode and electrolyte to describe galvanic cells
Anode: electrolyte at which oxidation occurs
Cathode: electrolyte at which reduction occurs
Electrode: conductor of a cell (metal or carbon) which gets connected to the external circuit
Electrolyte: a substance which in solution conducts electricity

Perform a first-hand investigation to identify the conditions under which a galvanic cell is produced
Method: Set up a simple galvanic cell and observe the voltage. Observe what happens to the voltage
when: the salt bridge is removed; and electrode is removed; two identical half cells are used.
Results: 0.7 V with 2 different half cells; 0 V without salt bridge; 0 V without electrode; 0 V with two
identical half cells.
Conclusion: The essential features of a galvanic cell are: two different half cells; two different
electrodes; a salt bridge.
Perform a first-hand investigation and gather first-hand information to measure the difference in
potential of different combinations of metals in an electrolyte solution
Method:
Set up a beaker of sulfuric acid. Attach a piece of copper to a
voltmeter and place this in the beaker. Attach different metals (Zn, Fe,
Pb and Mg) to the other end of the voltmeter and place this end in the
beaker as well. Measure the potential difference of various
combinations of metals against copper.

OR an alternate method:
Set up a standard galvanic cell
with a voltmeter and one half cell of copper in copper sulfate
solution; let the other half cell be metal x in its corresponding
solution. Measure and record the potential difference. Repeat
process with different combinations of metal electrodes (Zn, Fe,
Pb and Mg). The reliability of the investigation can be increased by
the use of repeat trials for the various combinations you have
chosen.
Results: Greatest Potential Difference Least Potential
Difference: Mg Zn Fe Pb
Solve problems and analyse information to calculate the potential E requirement of named
electrochemical processes using tables of standard potentials and half equations
Process with worked example:
Calculate the standard cell potential of Co I Co2+ II Ag+ I Ag
1. Determine which metal is oxidised and which is reduced by referring to the standard electrode
potentials table; the metal higher up is oxidised.
Co is oxidised; Ag is reduced
2. Write the reduction half equation and record E.
2Ag+(aq) + 2e- 2Ag(s) E: +0.80
3. Write the oxidation half equation by reversing the appropriate reduction equation and record
E and also reversing its sign.
Co(s) Co2+(aq) + 2e- E: +0.28
4. Add the two half equations to form a redox equation (the electrons should cancel out). Add the
E potentials (a positive E indicates a spontaneous reaction)
2Ag+(aq) + 2e- + Co(s) 2Ag(s) + Co2+(aq) + 2e10

2Ag+(aq) + Co(s) 2Ag(s) + Co2+(aq) E: 0.80 + 0.28 = 1.08

Gather and present information on the structure and chemistry of a dry cell and evaluate it in
comparison to the button cell in terms of: chemistry, cost and practicality, impact on society, impact on
environment
Dry Cell
Button Cell
Structure

Consists of a zinc anode, an aqueous

paste of ammonium chloride and a
mixture of powdered carbon,
manganese, and a carbon graphite
rod as the cathode.
Chemistry
O: Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2eR: 2NH4+(aq) + 2MnO2(s) Mn2O3(s) +
2NH3(aq) + H2O(l)
Cost and
Cheap; mass produced; useful in
Practicality
devices requiring a small current,
e.g. torches, portable radios, clocks;
leaking problems common because
zinc casing erodes during operation
Impact on Society Made the use of portable appliances
such as radios possible and feasible.

Impact on
Environment

Small quantities of zinc, ammonium

and carbon are harmless; but not
rechargeable and large in size
increase in landfills.

Consists of a zinc anode, silver oxide

cathode with a conductive substance C or
Ag mixed with Ag2O, and an alkaline
electrolyte solution of potassium
hydroxide.
O: Zn(s) + 2OH-(aq) Zn(OH)2(s) + 2eR: Ag2O(s) + H2O(l) + 2e- 2Ag(s) + 2OHExpensive due to silver content; but
practical because of its small size and
constant voltage (1.5 V)

Has allowed for use of miniature

appliances such as hearing aids and
watches; its long life means it does not
need frequent replacement practical.
Little environmental impact as it takes up
little space in landfill; contents are less
likely to leak and less toxic.

11

9.2.5 Nuclear chemistry provides a range of materials

Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the conditions under which a nucleus
is unstable
Isotopes are atoms of one element that differ by having different numbers of neutrons but the same
number of protons, hence have a different mass number. An isotope is unstable if:
Its atomic number is greater than 83
Its ratio of neutrons to protons places it outside the zone of stability
The nucleus of a large radioactive atom has high energy, and therefore is unstable; energy is reduced
by expelling alpha, beta or gamma particles, and as a result the atom is more stable.
Describe how transuranic elements are produced
Transuranic elements are artificial, man made elements with atomic numbers greater than 92. Early
transuranic elements were made in nuclear reactors where existing elements were bombarded with
slow thermal neutrons which were absorbed to produce new elements. Later transuranic elements
were made in particle accelerators where heavy nuclei would be bombarded with positive particles at
high speed; since both the target and particles are positively charged, fast speed is needed to
overcome electrostatic repulsion.
Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced
Radioisotopes are made in the same way as transuranic elements, i.e. in nuclear reactors or particle
accelerators; the only difference is that the target nuclei need not be heavy.
Process information from secondary sources to describe recent discoveries of elements
Elements 104-112 (not 108) have been produced using particle accelerators. For example, Element
106, Seaborgium, is made in a particle accelerator involving fusion of an isotope of Californium 249Cf
with an oxygen isotope:
18
249
267
1
8O +
98Cf
106Sg + 4 0n
Identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect radiation
Photographic film: radiation is monitored by measuring the extent of the darkening of
photographic film.
Cloud chamber: as radiation passes through a supersaturated vapour, it ionises the air, forming
water droplets; the path of these droplets indicates the type of radiation: alpha straight,
dense tracks, beta less dense, wavy tracks, gamma faint, random droplets.
Geiger- Muller counter: as radiation passes the Geiger tube, it hits gas molecules and ionises
them. Audible electrical pulses are produced as gas molecules are ionised, the rate of these
pulses indicates the amount of radiation.
Scintillation counter: a flash of light is emitted as substances are irradiated with radiation.
Identify one use of a named radioisotope: in industry; in medicine
Technetium-99m is used in medicine for diagnosis of blood, heart, brain and thyroid abnormalities.
Cobalt-60 is used in medicine for cancer therapy and in industry as a thickness gauge.
Describe the way in which the above named industrial and medical radioisotopes are used and explain
their use in terms of their chemical properties
12

Radioisotope
Technetium-99m

Cobalt-60

Radiation Half-life
Emitted
Gamma
6 hours

Beta;
Gamma

5.3
years

Uses in terms of Chemical Properties

Medical diagnosis gamma rays are highly penetrable so
can be detected at the bodys surface without invasion;
short half life ensures it leaves the body quickly, leaving
minimal damage; easily bonds with other chemicals, so it
combines with tin to form a serum which is injected into
the body and inside the body it binds with red blood cells to
detect circulation disorders.
Thickness gauge beta and gamma rays penetrate through
metal sheets (but only to a certain degree); relatively long
half life makes it suited in machinery since the radioactive
source does not need frequent replacement.
Cancer therapy gamma rays kill cancer cells because they
contain high energy; half life is short enough to expel
reasonable bouts of radiation at moderate intensity to kill
cancer cells.

Use available evidence to analyse the benefits and problems associated with the use of radioisotopes in
identified industries and medicine
Field
Benefits
Problems
Medicine
Opens a wide range of non-invasive Harmful to people and life forms
diagnostic procedures
Causes tissue damage: skin burns,
Radiation therapy is, in most cases,
nausea, radiation sickness
the most effective treatment for
Can cause cancer: leukaemia and lung
cancer
cancer
Genetic damage: deformities in
offspring
Industry
Monitoring equipment are more
Radiation from equipment can stray
sensitive and accurate
and leak if not carefully monitored or
Enables examination of weld and
stored in well shielded containers
structural faults in buildings and
machinery which otherwise can not
be detected
Writing Nuclear Equations:
x+y
x
y
a+bM aP + bR
Symbols:
Neutron: 10n
Proton: 11p
Electron/ beta particle: 0-1e
Alpha particle: 42He

13

9.3.1

Indicators were identified with the observation that the colour of some flowers
depends on soil composition

Classify common substances as acidic, basic or neutral

Common acids: vinegar, lime/ lemon juice, aspirin, vitamin C
Laboratory acids: hydrochloric, sulfuric and nitric
Neutrals: water
Common bases: ammonia, washing soda, antacid tablets, oven/drain cleaners
Laboratory bases: all hydroxides and oxides, e.g. NaOH, Mg(OH)2, Fe2O3
Identify that indicators such as litmus, phenolphthalein, methyl orange and bromothymol blue can be
used to determine the acidic or basic nature of a material over a range, which is identified by colour
changes
Identify data and choose resources to gather information about the colour changes of a range of
indicators
Common Indicator
Colour in Acid
Colour in Base
Litmus
Red (<5.0)
Blue (>8.0)
Phenolphthalein
Colourless (<8.3)
Pink (10.0)
Methyl Orange
Red (<3.1)
Yellow (>4.4)
Bromothymol Blue
Yellow (<6.0)
Blue (>7.6)
Perform a first-hand investigation to prepare and test a natural indicator
Method: Heat red cabbage leaves in a beaker under a Bunsen burner. Stop burner after water turns
purple and allow to cool. Pour purple water in three test tubes - one containing acid (HNO3), one with
water and one with a base (NaOH).
Results: Colour in: acid - red; water - purple; base - yellow
Identify and describe some everyday uses of indicators including testing of soil acidity/basicity
Pool Ranger Home Swimming Pool pH Tester
Test: Collect pool sample in tube then add 5 drops of phenol red and shake. Compare tube colour with
adjacent colour markings.
Importance: Acid or basic pool water results from a buildup of bacteria and pollutants. Pools need to
maintain a relatively neutral pH as acidic or alkaline water causes irritations to the skin and eyes.
Aquasonic Home Aquarium pH Test Kit
Test: Collect water from aquarium in tube and add 3 drops of bromothymol blue. Compare test tube
colour with chart provided. Add appropriate chemicals (if needed) to maintain pH between 6.0 - 7.8.
Importance: pH is lowered when there is a buildup of bacterial wastes. A pH between 6.0 - 7.8 provides
the ideal conditions for freshwater aquaria. Extreme changes in pH reproductive abnormalities,
dissolving of scale mucus membrane.
Soil pH Test Kit
Test: Place a teaspoon of sample soil on test plate and add indicator liquid and barium sulfate white
powder then stir. Compare colour of sample with colour card provided.
14

Importance: Different plants prefer/grow best in different soils with varying pH, e.g. azaleas prefer
slightly acidic, vegetables prefer slightly alkaline, no plants grow if pH < 4. Inadequate pH death,
impaired plant growth.

15

9.3.2 While we usually think of the air around us as neutral, the atmosphere naturally
contains acidic oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulfur. The concentration of these
acidic oxides have been increasing since the Industrial Revolution
Identify oxides of non-metals which act as acids and describe the conditions under which they act as
acids
CO2 carbon dioxide, SO2 sulfur dioxide and NO2 nitrogen dioxide are oxides of non-metals which
dissolve in water to form acids and react with bases to form salts and water.
Analyse the position of these non-metals in the Periodic Table and outline the relationship between
position of elements in the Periodic Table and their acidity/basicity of oxides
Acidic character of elements increases across a period. Elements of the left (metals) form basic oxides;
elements in the middle form amphoteric oxides (i.e. they display both acidic and basic character);
elements on the right (non-metals) form acidic oxides; noble gases are inert so do not form any oxides.
Define Le Chateliers principle
If a system at equilibrium is disturbed, then the system adjusts itself as to minimize the disturbance.
Describe the solubility of carbon dioxide in water under various conditions as an equilibrium process
and explain in terms of Le Chateliers principle
CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq) H+(aq) + HCO3-(aq) H: negative
More CO2 shift to the right more H+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)
Less CO2 shift to the left less H+(aq) less acidic
Add H+ or HCO3- shift to the left more CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Add base reacts with H+ shift to the right
Add heat shift to the left (since reverse reaction absorbs heat) *vice versa+
Note: If H is negative, the forward reaction is releasing heat, if H is positive, forward reaction
is absorbing heat.
Identify factors which can affect the equilibrium in a reversible reaction
Increase in concentration reaction shifts to the side which uses up the added species
Decrease in concentration (removed) reaction shifts to the side which produces the removed
species
Increase in volume decrease in pressure shift to the side which produces the most
gaseous molecules. Note: No change if both sides produce same number of gaseous molecules
Decrease in volume increase in pressure shift to the side which produces the least
gaseous molecules
Increase temperature shift to the endothermic side that uses up the added heat
Decrease in temperature shift to the exothermic side that produces the removed heat
Identify natural and industrial sources of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen
Source
Sulfur Dioxide
Oxides of Nitrogen
Natural
Geothermal hot springs
High temperatures from lightning (which
Volcanoes
forms nitric oxide, NO)
Smoke from bushfires
Bacteria acting on nitrogenous material
16

Industrial

Bacterial decomposition
Burning of fossil fuels (such as coal,

which contains sulfur)

Extraction of metals from sulfide ores
(smelting)

in soil (which forms nitrous oxide, HNO2)

Combustion of nitrogen and oxygen in
vehicle chambers and power stations
(which forms nitric oxide, as in lightning)

Describe, using equations, examples of chemical reactions which release sulfur dioxide and oxides of
nitrogen
As bacteria decompose, it forms hydrogen sulfide (H2S) which oxidises to form sulfur dioxide:
2H2S(g) + 3O2(g) 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
Coal contains sulfur, so when it is burnt, it reacts with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide:
S [in compound] + O2(g) SO2 (g)
High temperatures from lightning or vehicle chambers causes nitrogen and oxygen to combine
forming nitric oxide, which further oxidises to form nitrogen dioxide:
O2(g) + N2(g) 2NO(g) then 2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
Assess the evidence which indicates increases in atmospheric concentration of oxides of sulfur and
nitrogen
Industrial Revolution increased burning of coal + extraction of metals increased SO2 emissions
Electricity + motor car high temperature combustion increased levels of nitrogen oxides
There is a lack of reliable evidence before 1970 since there was a lack of technology that monitored
atmospheric concentrations, and also the technology that existed at the time was insufficient in
monitoring such low levels which existed then since the problems were just emerging.
Calculate volumes of gases given masses of some substance in reactions, and calculate masses of
substances given gaseous volumes, in reactions involving gases at 0C and 100kPa or 25C and 100kPa
Mole Ratio Equations:
n = m fm i.e. number of moles = mass formula mass
n = V mV i.e. number of moles= volume molar volume which is 22.71 at 0C/100kPa or 24.79 at
25C/ 100kPa
Process with worked example:
What volume of carbon dioxide gas measured at 0C/100kPa can be reacted from 15.5g of NaOH to
form NaCO3 and water?
1. Write a chemical equation
2NaOH(s) + CO2(g) Na2CO3 (s) + H2O(l)
2. Find the number of moles of the known substance
nNaOH = 15.5 39.998 = 0.3875
3. Determine the mole ratio (i.e. moles of unknown : moles of known)
CO2: NaOH = 1:2
4. Find the moles of unknown (i.e. multiply moles of known by mole ratio)
nCO2 = nNaOH = 0.38752
5. Convert moles of known into units asked for
V= (0.38752) 22.71 = 4.4 L
Explain the formation and effects of acid rain
SO2 dissolves in air to form aqueous droplets of sulfurous acid, which oxidises to form sulfuric acid.
17

i.e. SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq) then 2H2SO3(aq) + O2(g) 2H2SO4(aq)

Similarly, NO2 dissolves in the air to form nitrous acid and nitric acid.
i.e. 2NO2(g) + H2O(l) HNO2(aq) + HNO3(aq)
Sulfuric acid and nitric acid together form acid rain.
Effects of acid rain:
Increases the acidity of lakes detrimental effect on fish as it upsets their reproductive
processes and strips mucus membrane on their scales
Damages pine forests and vegetation corrodes leaves, changes soil concentration and pH
Erodes marble, limestone and metal structures (carbonates in these materials react with acid
weathering and erosion), e.g. CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) Ca2+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Analyse information from secondary sources to summarise the industrial origins of sulfur dioxide and
oxides of nitrogen and evaluate reasons for concern about their release into the environment
Buildup in atmosphere of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen formation of acid rain +
photochemical smog detrimental health effects on population (e.g. breathing difficulties) +
detrimental effects of acid rain (see previous syllabus dot point). Therefore, the rate of emission of
these chemicals needs to be monitored and regulated.
Identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to gather data to measure the mass changes
involved and calculate the volume of gas released at 25C and 100kPa
Method: Weigh an unopened soda can on an electronic balance. Similarly, weigh another soda can that
has been refilled with water this is a control. Open the soda can. Leave both cans overnight. Reweigh
add record the mass changes. Calculate the volume of CO2 released.

18

9.3.3 Acids occur in many foods, drinks and even within our stomachs
Define acids as proton donors and describe the ionisation of acids in water
An acid ionises in water to form hydronium ions and donates a proton to form a conjugate base:
Acid (aq) H3O+ + Conjugate Base
Identify acids such as acetic (ethanoic acid), citric (2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid),
hydrochloric and sulfuric acid
Acetic acid (vinegar), citric acid (in fruits and as a preservative), hydrochloric (in the stomach and made
industrially) and sulfuric acid (in acid rain) are common acids.
Describe the use of the pH scale in comparing acids and bases
The pH scale is used to compare the concentration of hydrogen ions in solutions of acids and bases
In a neutral solution, e.g. water, [H+] = [OH-] = 10-7 mol L-1 and so pH =7.
In an acidic solution, [H+] > 10-7 mol L-1 and pH < 7.
In a basic solution, [H+] < 10-7 mol L-1 and pH > 7.
pH increases as [H+] decreases
Describe acids and their solutions with the appropriate use of the terms strong, weak, concentrated and
dilute
Use available evidence to model the molecular nature of acids and simulate the ionisation of strong and
weak acids
In a strong acid, all acid molecules ionise, there are no neutral acid molecules.
In a weak acid, only a small percentage of acid molecules ionise, most remain as neutral molecules.
The concentration of an acid refers to its molarity; concentrated if it is above 5 mol L-1 and dilute if it is
less than 2 mol L-1.

Identify pH as -log10 [H+] and explain that a change in pH of 1 means a ten-fold change in [H+]
To calculate pH given [H+]: pH = -log10 [H+]
To calculate [H+] given the pH: [H+] = 10-pH
To calculate [H+] given [OH-]: [H+] = 10-14 [OH-]
As pH increases by 1, the concentration of the hydrogen ions, i.e. [H+], decreases by a factor of ten, or
ten fold. E.g. if pH = 1, [H+] = 10-1 = 0.1 but if pH = 2, [H+] = 10-2 = 0.01
19

Compare the relative strengths of equal concentrations of citric, acetic and hydrochloric acids and
explain in terms of the degree of ionisation of their molecules
Gather and process information from secondary sources to write ionic equations to represent the
ionisation of acids
Acid
Acetic
Citric
Hydrochloric
Ionisation CH3COOH (aq) + H2O (l)
C6H8O7 (aq) + 3H2O (l)
HCl (g) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq)
Equation H3O+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
C6H5O73- (aq) + 3H3O+ (l)
+ Cl- (aq)
pH
2.9
2.1
1.0
Degree of 1%
8%
100%
Ionisation
HCl: strong acid ionises completely high *H3O++ low pH
Citric and Acetic: weak acids only partially ionise less *H3O++ higher pH
Describe the difference between a strong and a weak acid in terms of equilibrium between the intact
molecule and its ions
An aqueous solution of a strong acid contains only hydronium ions and the anions of the acid; there
are no neutral acid molecules, i.e. the ionisation reaction goes to completion.
An aqueous solution of a weak acid is at equilibrium between the neutral acid molecules and
hydronium ions and anions of the acid [see ionisation equations in table above].
Solve problems and perform a first-hand investigation to use pH meters/probes and indicators to
distinguish between acidic, basic and neutral chemicals
Using a pH meter/ probe is a non destructive means of measuring the pH of chemicals. Using indicators
is a destructive means.
Plan and perform a first-hand investigation to measure the pH of identical concentrations of strong and
weak acids
Method: Using a pH probe measure and record the concentration of a strong acid, such as HCl. Rinse
the probe with distilled water to avoid cross contamination. Repeat with a weak acid, such as acetic
acid.
Gather and process information from secondary sources to explain the use of acids as food additives
Acids are added to foods to:
Preserve food acids lower the pH to a range outside one which microorganisms can survive in,
thus enzyme reactions are inhibited or slowed down. e.g. citric acid is a preservative in jams;
acetic acid preserves canned beetroot and pickled onions.
Enhance flavour and/or nutritional value provides a tart, sour taste. e.g. phosphoric acid in
soft drinks; citric acid and ascorbic acid are antioxidants.
Identify data, gather and process information from secondary sources to identify examples of naturally
occurring acids and bases and their chemical composition
Acid or Base Name
Chemical Formula
Where is it Found?
Hydrochloric Acid
HCl
In the stomach
Lactic Acid
CH3CH(OH)CO2H
Milk and Yoghurt
Ammonia (base)
NH3
Formed in the anaerobic decay of organic matter
Calcium Carbonate (base) CaCO3
Limestone
20

Process information from secondary sources to calculate pH of strong acids given appropriate hydrogen
ion concentrations
Example:
Calculate the pH of 2.0 mol L-1 solution of sulfuric acid
[H2SO4] = 2.0
H2SO4 (l) 2H+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)
ratio of H2SO4 : H+ = 1 : 2
[H+] = 2 2.0 = 4.0
pH = -log10 4.0 = -0.6
Process with Harder Worked Example:
[A neutralisation reaction] 50 mL of 0.100 mol L-1 hydrochloric acid is added to 75 mL of 0.050 mol L-1
sodium hydroxide solution. Calculate the pH of the resulting solution.
1. Equation states mole ratio. Calculate the moles of H+ from acid information.
VHCl = 0.050; CHCl = 0.100
C=nV
nH+ = C V = 0.100 0.050 = 0.005 moles
2. Calculate the moles of OH- from basic information.
VNaOH = 0.075; CNaOH = 0.050
nOH- = 0.050 0.075 = 0.00375 moles
3. Determine which is in excess and by how many moles.
H+ is in excess
Excess = (moles of H+) (moles of OH-) = 0.005 0.00375 = 0.00125
4. Find the concentration of excess H+ or OH-.
[H+] = moles total volume = 0.00125 (0.050 + 0.075) = 0.01
Note: If OH- is in excess, calculate its excess, then calculate [H+] using [H+] = 10-14 [OH-]
5. Calculate pH.
pH = -log10 [H+] = -log10 0.01 = 2

21

9.3.4 Because of the prevalence and importance of acids, they have been used and
studied for hundreds of years. Over time, the definitions of acid and base have
been refined
Outline the historical development of ideas about acids including those of:
Lavoisier
Davy
Arrhenius
Gather and process information from secondary sources to trace developments in understanding and
describing acid/base reactions
Scientist
Observations
Theory of Acids
Example
by Date
Lavoisier Non-metal oxides dissolve in water to
Acids contain oxygen
CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
(1780)
produce acids
H2CO3 (aq)
Davy
Decomposed HCl and found that it did
Acids contain replaceable Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq)
(1815)
not contain oxygen
hydrogen (ability to be
ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
replaced by metals)
Arrhenius When an electrical current was passed
Acids ionise in solution to CH3COOH (l)
(1884)
through acid, hydrogen gas evolved at
produce hydrogen ions
H+ (aq) + CH3COO (aq)
the anode
The Bronsted-Lowry definition [see below] expanded our understanding of acids/bases as it proposes
that the acidity of a substance depends on its properties relative to those of the solvent, and not just
its structure. This concept furthers our understanding of acid-base equilibrium and pH calculations.
Outline the Brnsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases
Bronsted-Lowry (1923) analysed the experiments of the scientists before them to propose their theory
that acids are proton donors and bases are protons acceptors.
e.g. HA + H2O H3O+ + A- where HA is an acid or B + H2O HB+ + OH- where B is a base
Describe the relationship between an acid and its conjugate base and a base and its conjugate acid
Acid (aq) H3O+ + Conjugate Base when the acid donates a proton
Base + H+ Conjugate acid when a base accepts a proton
Identify a range of salts which form acidic, basic or neutral solutions and explain their acidic, neutral or
basic nature
Strong Base e.g. H2O, NaOH
Weak Base e.g. NH3
Strong Acid
Neutral salt (neither the conjugate base of the acid nor the
Acidic salt (as cation
e.g. HNO3, HCl
conjugate acid of the base significantly react with water to
reacts)
alter the pH)
Weak Acid
Basic salt (as anion reacts)
Neutral salt
e.g. CH3COOH

22

Identify conjugate acid/base pairs

Acid
Conjugate Base
HCl
ClH2SO4
HSO4NH4+
NH3
H2O
OHH3O+
H2O

Base
CO32HCO3NH3
OHH2O

Conjugate Acid
HCO3H2CO3
NH4+
H2O
H3O+

Identify amphiprotic substances and construct equations to describe their behaviour in acidic and basic
solutions
Amphiprotic substances are those which can react as both a proton donor and a proton acceptor.
e.g. water - [as a B.L. acid]: H2O H+ + OH-; [as a B.L. base]: H2O + H+ H3O+
or HCO3- - [as a B.L. acid]: HCO3- H+ + CO32-; [as a B.L. base]: HCO3- + H+ H2CO3
Identify neutralisation as a proton transfer reaction which is exothermic
Neutralisation reactions are exothermic proton transfer reactions.
e.g. HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) H2O (l) + NaCl (aq) a H+ proton from HCl reacts with OH- in NaCl to form water;
heat is liberated H < 0 (approx. -56kJ mol L-1)
Describe the correct technique for conducting titrations and preparation of standard solutions
Perform a first-hand investigation and solve problems using titrations and including the preparation of
standard solutions, and use available evidence to quantitatively and qualitatively describe the reaction
between selected acids and bases
Preparing a Standard Solution
1. Measure the mass of the primary standard using a beaker and an electronic balance.
2. Dissolve the standard in 100 mL of water.
3. Transfer dissolved solution to a volumetric flask using a filter funnel.
4. Rinse beaker with distilled water and transfer rinsed solution to volumetric flask. Swirl gently.
5. Fill the volumetric flask until the bottom of the meniscus is in line with the calibration mark.
6. Invert and shake to ensure a homogenous mixture.
7. Calculate the concentration of the solution: n = mass molar mass then C = n V (0.250)
To be a primary standard, the substance must be:
Of high purity and stability not be volatile, not absorb moisture or react with CO2, as these
would create an impure substance
Soluble in water
Of accurately known concentration
e.g. Na2CO3 or NaHCO3 but not NaOH
Conducting a Titration
1. Collect 200 mL of the base solution (e.g. NaOH) in a beaker.
2. Rinse the burette with 10 mL of the base solution, including running the solution through the
stopcock.
3. Fill the burette and attach it to the retort stand using a burette clamp. Record the volume of
base solution in the burette.
4. Rinse the pipette with 10 mL of the acid solution (e.g. HCl).
5. Pipette out 25 mL accurately into a clean, dry conical flask.
23

6. Add 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator (or another indicator that will show a colour change
as the equivalence point is reached).
7. Run the base solution from burette, at the same time, gently swirling the conical flask. As the
equivalence point gets closer, add solution drop by drop. Stop when the solution turns a pale
pink colour (for phenolphthalein). [Carry out a rough titration first to get an estimate]
8. Repeat another 2 to 3 times for reliability.
9. Determine the concentration of the acid solution, using CiVi = CfVf.
Titration Calculation Process with Worked Example:
A student performed a titration of 25.00 mL of acetic acid of
unknown concentration with 0.123 mol L-1 solution of sodium
hydroxide. Her results are shown right:
Calculate the concentration of the acetic acid solution.
1. Write an equation
NaOH (aq) + CH3COOH (aq) NaCH3COO (aq) + H2O (l)
2. Find the moles of one species.
Average VolumeNaOH = (22.70 + 22.70 + 22.80) 3 = 22.73
Note: Trial 1 is a rough titration so do not include this
result.
nNaOH = 0.123 0.02273 = 0.00280
3. Use mole ratio to find moles of required species.
Mole ratio of NaOH : CH3COOH = 1 : 1
nCH3COOH = 0.00280
4. Find the concentration of the required species.
C = n V = 0.00280 0.02500 = 0.112 mol L-1

Trial
1
2
3
4

Volume of NaOH used (mL)

23.30
22.70
22.70
22.80

Perform a first-hand investigation to determine the

concentration of a domestic acidic substance using computer
based technologies
Method: Carry out a titration reaction to determine the mass of
acetic acid in vinegar with the aid of technologies such as a
magnetic stirrer and computer programs that plot the pH as the
titrant from the burette is added.

Qualitatively describe the effect of buffers with reference to a specific example in a natural system
A buffer solution is one that contains comparable amounts of weak acid and its conjugate base, so
therefore is able to maintain an approximately constant pH even when significant amounts of strong
acid or base are added.
Example of a naturally occurring buffer: H2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + HCO3- (aq)
As rainwater falls, it forms a dilute solution of carbonic acid with a pH of 5.7 6.0:
CO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2CO3 (aq)
When it lands in the lake or river, comparable amounts of HCO3- from surrounding carbonate rocks,
such as limestone, provide a natural buffer and react with H3O+ in carbonic acid shifts the
equilibrium to the left removes H+ raises pH to 6.5 7.0:
24

H3O+(aq) + HCO3-(aq) H2CO3 + H2O (l)

OH- in water then reacts with H3O+ shifts equilibrium to the right removes OH- restores/
maintains slightly acidic pH:
OH- (aq) + H2CO3 (aq) HCO3-(aq) + H2O (l)
Choose equipment and perform a first-hand investigation to identify the pH of a range of salt solutions
Equipment:
Test tubes
Universal Indicator
pH chart
A range of 0.1 mol L-1 salt solutions
Method: Add 5 mL a salt solution into a test tube. Add 3 drops of universal indicator and record the
colour and corresponding pH with reference to a pH chart.
Conclusion: From the Bronsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases, the ions in the salt solutions act as
acids or bases when reacting with water; acidic solutions donate H+; basic solutions accept H+.
Analyse information from secondary sources to assess the use of neutralisation reactions as a safety
measure or to minimise damage in accidents or chemical spills
As acids are highly corrosive and bases are highly caustic, it is important to neutralise any spills of these
substances if they occur. Amphiprotic substances like HCO3- in NaHCO3 is suitable for neutralising both
acidic and alkaline spills as it can act as a B.L. acid or base:
In an acidic spill: H+ + HCO3- H2CO3
In an alkaline spill: HCO3- + OH- H2O + CO32NaHCO3 is preferred as it is can be safely handled and stored, it is cheap, if excess is used it is not
harmful.

25

9.3.5 Esterification is a naturally occurring process which can be performed in the

laboratory
Describe the differences between the alkanol and alkanoic acid functional groups in carbon compounds
Alkanols contain a hydroxyl OH- functional group attached to a C atom. General formula: CnH2n+1OH
Alkanoic acids are polar, weak acids that contain a carboxylic COOH group attached to a C atom.
General formula: CnH2n+1COOH
Alkanols are a subset of alcohols and alkanoic acids are a subset of carboxylic acids. Both alkanols and
alkanoic acids only contain C, H and O atoms.
Explain the difference in melting point and boiling point caused by straight-chained alkanoic acid and
straight-chained primary alkanol structures
Alkanoic acids have higher melting and boiling points than their corresponding alkanols. Alkanols have
relatively high boiling points as O H bonds are able to form strong hydrogen bonds. But alkanoic
acids, due to their COOH group, have the ability to form 2 hydrogen bonds, creating even higher
melting and boiling points as more energy is needed to break 2 bonds than 1.
Identify esterification as the reaction between an acid and an alkanol and describe, using equations
examples of esterification
Esters (alkyl alkanoates) are formed in a condensation reaction between alkanols and alkanoic acids.
i.e. alkanol + alkanoic acid ester (alkyl alkanoate) + water
e.g. ethanol + propanoic acid ethyl propanoate + water

+ H2O

Identify the IUPAC nomenclature for describing the

esters produced by reactions of straight-chained
alkanoic acids from C1 to C8 and straight-chained
primary alkanols from C1 to C8

Number of
Carbons
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Describe the purpose of using acid in esterification for

catalysis
As esterification is a moderately slow reaction, a few
drops of concentrated sulfuric acid is added to speed
up the rate of reaction. Sulfuric acid is a dehydrating
agent so absorbs the water produced in the reaction
which shifts the equilibrium to the right, thus producing more ester.

Alkyl Part

Alkanoate Part

Methyl
Ethyl
Propyl
Butyl
Pentyl
Hexyl
Heptyl
Octyl

Methanoate
Ethanoate
Propanoate
Butanoate
Pentanoate
Hexanoate
Heptanoate
Octanoate

Explain the need for refluxing during esterification

Refluxing is the process in which any alcohol vapour, which rises in the heat of the reaction, is
condensed using a water cooling condenser to prevent the loss of reactants or products. Thus, the
reaction is able to be heated to a higher temperature pushes the equilibrium to the right (as
reaction is endothermic) produces more ester.
26

Refluxing provides a safe alternative to performing the reaction in a closer container, which leads to a
toxic build up of gases and possibly an explosion.
Outline some examples of the occurrence, production and uses of esters
Process information from secondary sources to identify and describe the uses of esters as flavours and
perfumes in processed foods and cosmetics
Esters naturally occur in fruits and flowers and are responsible for their taste and scent. Industrially,
esters are artificially produced for practical uses, e.g. ethyl ethanoate is a solvent in nail polish
remover; the sweet scent is replicated for use in perfumes, such as apple or pear flavours. Producing
esters industrially is cheaper than extracting them from their natural sources.
Identify data, plan, select equipment and perform a first-hand investigation to prepare an ester using
reflux
Equipment:
15 mL of acetic (ethanoic) acid
Concentrated sulfuric acid
15 mL of ethanol
500 mL beaker
Round bottom flask with water cooling
Wire gauze
condenser
Tripod
3 boiling chips
Bunsen burner
Method:
1. Place 15 mL of ethanol and 15 mL of acetic acid into the round
bottom flask. Add 3 boiling chips (to ensure even boiling) and 10
drops of concentrated sulfuric acid.
2. Heat the mixture using reflux apparatus for 20 to 30 minutes, until
2 layers are visible. Allow to cool.
3. Add 100 mL of water to the mixture and shake. Allow the 2 layers
to separate again.
4. Run this mixture through a separating funnel. Discard the aqueous
layer.
5. Add 50 mL of Na2CO3 solution to the remaining mixture in the
separating funnel. Shake gently, expelling gas that evolves. Allow
the 2 layers to separate again.
6. Run the mixture through the separating funnel again. Discard the
lower layer.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 to leave a pure sample of the ester, ethyl
ethanoate.

27

9.4.1 Much of the work of chemists involves monitoring the reactants and products of
reactions and managing reaction conditions
Outline the role of a chemist employed in a named industry or enterprise, identifying the branch of
chemistry undertaken by the chemist and explaining a chemical principle that the chemist uses
Gather, process and present information from secondary sources about the work of practising scientists
identifying:
the variety of chemical occupations
a specific chemical occupation for a more detailed study
An analytical chemist working for Sydney Water will use AAS to monitor concentrations of metals, such
as Pb and Hg, in water samples which eventually will be supplied to households. The principle of
chemistry used by the scientist is that metal electrons move from one energy shell to a higher one by
absorbing electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength specific to that metal, giving each metal a unique
emission spectrum metals can be identified and their concentration can be determined even in the
presence of other metals. It is important that the scientist monitor and regulate the concentrations of
metals in drinking water sources as excessive concentrations can lead to poisoning and illness, e.g. lead
poisoning can cause mental retardation, but trace element metals, like Zn, are essential in small
concentrations for body functioning.
Identify the need for collaboration between chemists as they collect and analyse data
Chemists specialising in various fields of chemistry, e.g. analytical, organic, industrial, need to
collaborate to solve problems requiring a broad spectrum of chemical knowledge.
Chemists need to regularly exchange viewpoints and have an open minded but critical approach
to ensure that our scientific knowledge is constantly improving.
Describe an example of a chemical reaction such as combustion, where reactants form different
products under different conditions and thus would need monitoring
Combustion reactions can produce solely carbon dioxide or a mixture of poisonous carbon monoxide
and pollutant soot (C), depending on the amount of oxygen present. Using methane as an example:
Oxygen
Bunsen
Flame
Rate of Combustion
Reaction Equation
Supply
Burner Hole
Colour
Sufficient Open
Blue
Complete combustion;
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
maximum energy released
Limited
Partially
Mauve
Incomplete combustion
2CH4 (g) + 3O2 (g) 2CO (g) + 4H2O (l)
open
Blocked
Closed
Yellow
Incomplete combustion
CH4 (g) + O2 (g) C (g) + 2H2O (l)

28

9.4.2 Chemical processes in industry require monitoring and management to maximise

production
Identify and describe the industrial uses of ammonia
Fertilisers (ammonium nitrate) important for growing food and crops for growing populations;
ammonia is reacted with nitric acid to form ammonium nitrate i.e. NH3 + HNO3 NH4NO3
Explosives during WWI, Germany called for more explosives
Identify that ammonia can be synthesised from its component gases, nitrogen and hydrogen
Hydrogen + atmospheric nitrogen ammonia i.e. 3H2 (g) + N2 (g) 2NH3 (g)
Identify the reaction of hydrogen with nitrogen as exothermic
H = -92 kJ mol-1 (exothermic)
Describe that synthesis of ammonia occurs as a reversible reaction that will reach equilibrium
The synthesis of ammonia is a reversible reaction, meaning that ammonia is formed at the same time
as it is being decomposed. Equilibrium is reached when the synthesis (forward) reaction proceeds at
the same rate as the decomposition (reverse) reaction.
Explain why the rate of reaction is increased by higher temperatures
Increasing reactants temperatures increase in their kinetic energy brings them closer to their
activation energy higher chance of successful collisions increased reaction rate
Explain why the yield of product in the Haber process is reduced at higher temperatures using Le
Chateliers principle
By Le Chateliers principle, if the temperature is increased, the equilibrium will shift to the side that
uses up the heat. Since the synthesis (forward) reaction of ammonia is exothermic (heat is produced),
the equilibrium will shift to the left to oppose the change decomposition of ammonia reduced
yield of ammonia.
Explain why the Haber process is based on a delicate balancing act involving reaction energy, reaction
rate and equilibrium
Increased temperatures reduced yield but also an increased reaction rate a balanced,
compromised temperature is needed to maximise yield and have a moderate reaction rate
Explain that the use of a catalyst will lower the reaction temperature required and identify the
catalyst(s) used in the Haber process
The addition of an iron catalyst, such as magnetite Fe3O4, lowers the activation energy, which enables a
faster reaction rate. Thus, the reaction proceeds at a moderate rate at lower temperatures. The
catalyst has no effect on temperature so does not affect the equilibrium.
Analyse the impact of increased pressure on the system involved in the Haber process
A high pressure (250 atmospheric pressure) increases both the reaction rate and the yield.
Higher pressure more moles of gas in the closed container increased chance of successful
collision faster reaction rate
Higher pressure shifts equilibrium to the right (as least gaseous molecules are produced on this side)
more ammonia (increased yield)
29

Explain why monitoring of the reaction vessel used in the Haber process is crucial and discuss the
monitoring required
Temperatures need to be monitored as excessively high temperatures permanently damage the
catalyst and low temperatures compromise the optimum yield and reaction rate
Pressure needs to be monitored as high pressure could be explosive
Incoming gases lower the reactions efficiency and in the case of oxygen, could lead to
explosions if it reacts with hydrogen gas
Gather and process information from secondary sources to describe the conditions under which Haber
developed the industrial synthesis of ammonia and evaluate its significance at that time in world
history
Haber (and Bosch) discovered that a temperature of 400C, high pressure of 20MPa and an iron
catalyst were the ideal conditions needed to optimise the synthesis of ammonia from hydrogen and
nitrogen.
Significance:
The synthesis of ammonia was necessary for the production of explosives for Germany in WWI
after the British cut off Chilean guano (bird dropping) supplies
Habers contributions helped Germanys war efforts, and even prolonged the war
The synthesis of ammonia facilitated the manufacture of fertilisers for food production for
growing populations

30

9.4.3 Manufactured products, including food, drugs and household chemicals, are
analysed to determine or ensure their chemical composition
Deduce the ions present in a sample from the results of tests
Perform a first hand investigation to carry out a range of tests, including flame tests, to identify the
following ions:
Phosphate
Chloride
Lead
Sulfate
Barium
Copper
Carbonate
Calcium
Iron
Unknown Cations
Ba , Ca2+, Pb2+, Cu2+, Fe3+, Fe2+
2+

Add Cl- by
adding dilute 1
mol L-1 HCl

White precipitate
forms

Cation: Pb2+

No precipitate
forms

No precipitate
forms

White precipitate
forms

Cations:
Cu , Fe3+, Fe2+

Cations:
Ba2+, Ca2+

Add
NaOH

Conduct
flame test

2+

Brown
precipitate
forms
Fe3+

Add
H2SO4

Grey green
precipitate
forms
Fe2+

Blue
precipitate
forms
Cu2+

Apple green
flame Ba2+

Orange red
flame Ca2+

31

Unknown Anions
CO32-, SO42-, PO43-, Cl-

Add 2 mol L-1

HNO3

Bubbles
seen

Anion: CO32-

No bubbles

Acidify solution with HNO3

and add Ba(NO3)2
No precipitate forms

Anion: SO42-

Anions:
PO43-, Cl-

White/ pale
blue precipitate
forms

Add NH3 makes solution

basic, then add aqueous
Ba(NO3)2

White precipitate
forms PO43-

Acidify by adding HNO3,

then add aqueous AgNO3

Silver chloride
precipitate forms Cl-

Gather, process and present information to describe and explain evidence for the need to monitor levels
of one of the above ions in substances used in society
Phosphate
Low concentrations are essential in waterways for normal aquatic plant growth
High phosphate concentrations algal bloom algae grows to cover lake/river surface kills
fish + uses up all the phosphate then, algae decays anaerobically low oxygen levels in
water death of marine life in the water
Monitoring the amount of phosphate entering and already present in waterways, scientists can
guard against algal blooms

32

Describe the use of atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) in detecting concentrations of metal ions in
solutions and assess its impact on scientific understanding of the effects of trace elements

Process:
1. A hollow cathode lamp emits light of a specific wavelength in a metals emission spectrum.
2. The sample to be analysed is fed into a flame which vaporises molecules and ions, converting
them into atoms.
3. A monochromator selects a particular wavelength and directs it to a photomultiplier/ detector.
4. The photomultiplier measures the intensity of the light. By comparing the intensity absorbed
with and without a sample, the concentration of a particular element can be calculated.
5. Measure the absorbance of several standard solutions and plot a calibration graph.
Principle of Chemistry:
An electron in a metal atom moves from one energy shell to a higher one by absorbing
electromagnetic radiation of a specific wavelength the wavelength is unique to the metal the
metal has its own unique absorption or emission spectrum. This fact is critical to the success of AAS as
elements can be distinguished, and their concentration can be found, even in the presence of other
elements.
Trace Elements:
Elements present in very small but essential amounts
Help enzymes function to maintain optimum nutrition and functioning in soils and organisms
Prior to AAS, trace elements went unnoticed as analytical methods were not sensitive enough to
measure their minute concentrations
Alan Walshs discovery of AAS has made it possible to monitor and maintain safe but essential
amounts of trace elements nutrient soils for maximum yield of crops and produce + optimum
functioning of organisms
Gather, process and present information to interpret secondary data from AAS measurements and
evaluate the effectiveness of this in pollution control
AAS ability to measure very low concentrations of a wide range of elements makes it an
effective means of monitoring pollution.
Water and soil samples can be analysed to identify the presence of specific trace elements [refer
to principle of chemistry] and their concentrations.
33

Identify data, plan, select equipment and perform first hand investigations to measure the sulfate
content of lawn fertiliser and explain the chemistry involved
Ionic equation: Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) BaSO4 (s)
Method:
1. Dissolve 0.5 g of fertiliser in 25 mL of deionised water use deionised water as sulfate
contaminants in normal water may alter the results.
2. Add 5 drops of HCl HCl breaks down insoluble sulfate complexes.
3. In another beaker, add 25 mL of Ba(NO3)2.
4. Heat both solutions until near boiling heating increases the kinetic energy increases rate of
successful collisions increases particle size.
5. Add Ba(NO3)2 drop by drop to the hot fertiliser solution, constantly stirring adding Ba(NO3)2
slowly allows BaSO4 precipitate crystals to form.
6. Allow to cool for 30 minutes and then add 5 mL of acetone acetone acts as a coagulating
agent.
7. Filter through a sintered glass funnel.
8. Wash the precipitate 3 to 4 times and then dry using a vacuum pump and more acetone
washing the precipitate several times minimises mass loss; drying using a vacuum pump and
acetone ensures no water is mistaken for BaSO4.
9. Weigh the synthesised BaSO4.
10. Repeat steps 8 and 9 until a constant mass is reached.
11. Determine the amount of sulfate present.
12. Calculate percentage mass of sulfate in fertiliser sample, using:
fm (SO4) fm (BaSO4) mass of BaSO4 weighed 100
Analyse information to evaluate the reliability of the results of the above investigation and to propose
solutions to problems encountered in the procedure
Measures taken that ensure reliability
Sources of error that compromise reliability
Adding HCl
Precipitate adheres to walls of apparatus or is spilt
Heating the solutions
so is lost when transferring solutions
Adding BaNO3 very slowly
Contamination by substances absorbed from the
Adding acetone
solution during precipitation
Washing the precipitate 3 to 4 times
Incomplete drying, leaving water in the final
Using a vacuum pump
BaSO4 precipitate
Reweighing until a constant mass was reached

34

9.4.4 Human activity has caused changes in the composition and the structure of the
atmosphere. Chemists monitor these changes so that further damage can be
limited
Describe the composition and layered structure of the atmosphere
Layer
Altitude Composition
(km)
Troposphere
0(sea
Contains 80% of the atmospheres mass
level)
Major constituent gases: nitrogen (78.08%), oxygen
15
(20.95%) and argon (0.93%) and water vapour (0.5-5%)
Minor constituent gases/pollutants: methane, carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides
and ozone (0.02 ppm)
Stratosphere
15 50
Same percentage composition of gaseous molecules as
the troposphere but greater spacing between gaseous
particles low pressure. Water vapour concentration
drops 5 ppm.
Mesosphere
50 85
As altitude increases, spacing between molecules
becomes greater pressure decreases exponentially.
Major constituent gases: nitrogen, oxygen and carbon
dioxide.
Thermosphere 85 500 Gases are widely spread apart and include electrically
charged ions, such as O2+ and NO+, and atoms, such as O,
and free electrons which would not be stable in the lower
atmospheric layers.

Temperature
Range (C)
15 -50

-50 0

0 -100

-100+

Identify the main pollutants found in the lower atmosphere and their sources
Pollutant
Main Source(s)
Carbon monoxide Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels in cars, e.g. incomplete combustion of
petrol: C8H18(l) + 6O2(g) CO2(g) + CO(g) + 5C(s) + 9H2O(l)
Nitrogen oxides
High temperature combustion, e.g. power stations, internal combustion engine:
N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g) then 2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
Sulfur dioxide
Smelting of sulfide ores
CFCs
Refrigerants, air conditioning, halon fire extinguishers
Describe ozone as a molecule able to act both as an upper atmosphere UV radiation shield and a lower
atmosphere pollutant
In the stratosphere, ozone acts as a radiation shield by absorbing, and thus filtering out, short
wavelength ultraviolet UVB and UVC radiation from the Sun. A balanced cycle of ozone formation and
decomposition reactions converts dangerous UVB and UVC radiation to heat energy and maintains a
steady concentration of ozone in the stratosphere:
1. Ozone is formed when oxygen molecules (O2) absorb energy from short wavelength UVC
radiation forming energised oxygen atoms: O2(g) + UV light 2O(g)
2. These free radicals rapidly combine with oxygen molecules to form ozone:
O2(g) + O(g) O3(g) *H = -106 kJ/mol exothermic]
35

3. Ozone decomposes back into oxygen molecules and oxygen atoms as it absorbs the longer
wavelength UVB and remaining UVC radiation: O3(g) + UV light O2(g) + O(g)
Describe the formation of a coordinate covalent bond
Demonstrate the formation of coordinate covalent bonds using Lewis electron dot structures
A coordinate covalent bond is formed when one atom donates both a pair of electrons to another,
resulting in a complete valence electron shell in both atoms. E.g. in the formation of ozone:
Coordinate
covalent bond

Compare the properties of the oxygen allotropes O2 and O3 and account for them on the basis of
molecular structure and bonding
Oxygen
Ozone
Structure

Melting/
Boiling
Point

Reactivity

Lower m.p. and b.p. than ozone, due to:

Lower molecular mass
Weak dispersion forces
Non-polar molecule

Higher m.p. and b.p. than oxygen, due to:

Higher molecular mass
Polar molecule
Strong intermolecular forces more
energy is needed to overcome these
forces
Less reactive than ozone, due to its
More reactive than oxygen, due to its
double covalent bond which requires lots coordinate covalent bond which requires
of energy to be broken
much less energy to be broken

Compare the properties of the gaseous forms of oxygen and the oxygen free radical
Oxygen free radical has unpaired electrons in its incomplete valence electron shell very unstable and
highly reactive more reactive than oxygen and ozone
Identify the origins of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons in the atmosphere
CFCs are compounds containing chlorine, fluorine and carbon only, they do not contain hydrogen. Until
1996, CFCs were released into the atmosphere through their use in refrigerants, fire extinguishers and
foam plastics as they were relatively cheap, non-toxic and inert.
Halons are compounds containing carbon, bromine and other halogens. They were used as BCF fire
extinguishers in cars and boats until 1994.
Identify and name examples of isomers (excluding geometrical and optical) of haloalkanes up to eight
carbon atoms
1. Count the number of carbons to determine the alkane, e.g. methane, ethane.
2. Name, in alphabetical order, any groups attached to the alkane, e.g. Br bromo, Cl chloro, F
fluoro, I iodo.
3. Count how many of each group is present, then denote the number using prefixes, e.g. 2 di, 3
tri, 4 tetra.
36

4. State the position of each group along the carbon chain, numbering using the lowest numbers.
Note: Use hyphens (-) between numbers and words and commas between numbers and do not
have any space between words, e.g. 2-bromo-3-chloropentane
Discuss the problems associated with the use of CFCs and assess the effectiveness of steps taken to
alleviate these problems
The reaction of the chlorine atom from CFCs with ozone destroys many ozone molecules resulting in a
thinning of the ozone layer. Ozone depletion more UV radiation reaching the Earths surface which
results in:
Increased incidence of skin cancer and sunburn
Increased risk of eye cataracts and irritations if its concentration in the lower atmosphere is
greater than 0.3 ppm
Lowering of immune response increased risk of disease and illness
UV radiation interferes with photosynthesis reduced plant growth
To alleviate these problems, countries have phased out the use of CFCs and halons and provide
alternatives like HFCs and HCFCs [refer to next syllabus dot point].
Present information from secondary sources to identify alternative chemicals used to replace CFCs and
evaluate the effectiveness of their use as a replacement for CFCs
HFCs and HCFCs are alternatives replacing CFCs in refrigerants, air conditioners and aerosols.
The C-H bonds in HCFCs and HFCs are reactive so they readily react and decompose to a
significant extent in the troposphere do not diffuse into the stratosphere to damage the
ozone.
HCFCs contain C-Cl bonds which form chlorine atoms which contribute to ozone depletion so
are only a temporary substitute for CFCs.
HFCs do not contain C-Cl bonds no Cl available to react with ozone does not contribute to
ozone depletion.
HFCs are more expensive and less efficient than CFCs.
Analyse the information available that indicates changes in atmospheric ozone concentrations, describe
the changes observed and explain how this information was obtained
Total Ozone Mapping Spectroscopy (TOMS)
Satellites situated above the atmosphere
Measures ultraviolet radiation backscattered off the earth and compared to incoming radiation
Measures total column ozone
Covers the entire planet and produces contour maps of total ozone over large areas of the
Earths surface
Dobson Spectrometer
Situated on the ground
Measures the difference between UV levels coming into the earth from the sky at a frequency
which is absorbed by the ozone and a frequency which is not absorbed by ozone
Measures total column ozone and profiles of ozone in the atmosphere
Provides measurements for a small area only

37

Present information from secondary sources to write the equations to show the reactions involving CFCs
and ozone to demonstrate the removal of ozone from the atmosphere
When CFCs, like CCl3F, reach the ozone layer, they undergo the following reactions:
1. Ultraviolet light breaks CCl3F into a chlorine atom and CCl2F: CCl3F(g) + UV light CCl2F(g) + Cl(g)
2. The chlorine atom reacts with an ozone molecule to form chlorine monoxide and oxygen:
Cl(g) + O3(g) ClO(g) + O2(g)
3. Chlorine monoxide reacts with an oxygen atom to form a chlorine atom and an oxygen
molecule: ClO(g) + O(g) Cl(g) + O2(g)

38

9.4.5 Human activity also impacts on waterways. Chemical monitoring and

management assists in providing safe water for human use and to protect the
habitats of other organisms
Identify that water quality can be determined by considering:
Concentrations of common ions
Acidity
Total dissolved solids
Dissolved oxygen and biochemical
Hardness
oxygen demand
Turbidity
Perform first-hand investigations to use qualitative and quantitative tests to analyse and compare the
quality of water samples
Water
Testing Procedure
Water Quality Information
Property
Concentrations Quantitative test Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+
High concentrations of Na+ and Clof common
are measured by AAS
indicate salinity important to monitor
3ions
Qualitative test PO4 is present if
as aquatic organisms only survive in a
adding ammonium molybdate
narrow range of salt concentration
[(NH4)2MoO4] to an acidified water Mg2+ and Ca2+ indicate water hardness
sample produces a yellow
PO43- is tested to monitor algal blooms
precipitate
and eutrophication
Total dissolved Measured by using a conductivity
TDS increased by irrigation and
solids (TDS)
meter:
industrial and sewage effluent discharge
1. Calibrate the conductivity meter
into waterways
2. Insert the electrodes into water
TDS in drinking water needs to be < 500
sample and swirl once.
ppm
3. Read measurement.
If TDS > 1000 ppm freshwater marine
bugs/ plankton shrivel and die
Hardness
Qualitative test add a small soap
High concentrations of Mg2+ and Ca2+
scraping into hard and soft water
indicate hard water
samples, shake both vigorously and Hard water produces CaCO3 and MgCO3
observe for lathering/scum; hard
a grey scale which sticks to baths and
water does not lather
sinks
Quantitative test volumetric
titration to measure the
concentration of Mg2+ and Ca2+
ions; the result is expressed as
mg/L of CaCO3 or MgCO3
Turbidity
1. Pour water sample into a turbidity
Turbidity is a measure of water
tube in small volumes
cloudiness a greater amount of
2. Repeat until the black markings can
suspended solids higher turbidity
not be distinguished.
Caused by clay/silt from soil drainage,
3. Read the volume below the water
algae and fine organic matter
level.
Prevents light penetration reduced
photosynthesis lesser quantity of
oxygen decreased plant growth
39

Determine pH of water using a pH

meter
Determine pH using test strips and
comparing colours to a standard
colour chart

1. DO sample bottle filled and

recapped while immersed in test
water; ensure no air bubbles are
present.
2. Add 2 drops of MnSO4 and 2 drops
of KI. Recap and mix.
3. Brown precipitate appears light
brown low DO; dark brown
high DO.
O2(g) + 2Mn2+(aq) + 4OH-(aq)
MnO(OH)2(s)
4. Add 8 drops of sulfuric acid
forms a yellow iodine solution.
5. Titrate solution with sodium
thiosulfate using a starch indicator.
Biochemical
1. Collect 2 samples of test water.
Oxygen
2. Determine DO of one sample
Demand (BOD)
immediately using Winkler method
[above].
3. Store the second sample in the
dark for 5 days.
4. Carry out Winkler method on
second sample the difference in
measurement between the two
samples is the BOD

Acidity

Dissolved
Oxygen (DO)

limits food supply to marine animals

decreases biodiversity. Also, suspended
particles clog gills of fish suffocation
improper reproductive development
pH levels outside 6.5 8.2 indicates
pollution by limestone, leaf litter,
detergents and fertilisers
Acidic corrosion of water pipes and
tanks + fish suffering from skin
irritations, impaired gill functioning
and/or ulcers
Dissolved O2 is essential for respiration
in aquatic life
DO increases through photosynthesis of
aquatic plants and algae; and wave
action near the waters surface
DO decreases in high temperatures;
high salinity; as plants and animals
respire or decompose
DO in clean water = 7-9 ppm; DO in
polluted water < 5 ppm

BOD assesses organic pollution as it

measures the concentration of
dissolved oxygen that is needed for
the complete breakdown of the
organic matter in the water by
aerobic bacteria.

Identify factors that affect the concentrations of a range of ions in solution in natural bodies of water
such as rivers and oceans
Pathway from rain to water body
If rain runs off bushland into streams, it only picks up small quantities of Ca2+, Mg2+, NO3- and
PO43- from surface nutrients and decomposing minerals
If water penetrates down to underground aquifers, it will contain increased concentrations of
these ions, and in addition also have SO42-, Cl- and CO32 If water percolates even further into deep underground aquifers, the water would contain even
higher concentrations of these ions, and in addition also have Fe3+, Mn2+, Cu2+ and Zn2+
40

The Nature and Amount of Human Activity in the Catchment

Land clearing destabilises soils increased sediments carried with the water increases
turbidity
Increased fertiliser use on agricultural land, the water run-off will have increased
concentrations of PO43- and NO3- and organic wastes from animals
Effluents Discharged into Water Bodies
Industrial effluents discharge heavy metal ions, such as Pb2+, Hg2+, Cu2+, Zn2+
Raw or treated sewage discharge introduces PO43- and NO3Describe and assess the effectiveness of methods used to purify and sanitise mass water supplies
1. Flocculation Lime [Ca(OH)2] is added to increase pH encourage the formation of a
precipitate. Iron (III) chloride is added, it absorbs suspended particles and bacteria to produce a
gelatinous precipitate of iron hydroxide. This step is cost effective and relatively fast.
2. Sedimentation the floc formed settles at the bottom of the tank for removal. This step
reduces running costs as it is based on gravity but it is slow not efficient.
3. Filtration the water is filtered through a sand and gravel bed to remove remaining suspended
particles. This step does not remove dissolved particles and microscopic pathogens.
4. Chlorination chlorine reacts with water to produce hypochlorous acid (HOCl) which kills
residual bacteria and prevents algal growth as water travels down pipes to households.
Chlorination is cost effective and kills most bacteria but in 1998 Sydney residents had to boil
their water due to a Cryptosporidium and Giardia outbreak.
Describe the design and composition of microscopic membrane
filters and explain how they purify contaminated water
A membrane filter is a thin film of a synthetic polymer, like
polypropylene, through which there are 0.2 m pores. Sheets
of this polymer are pleated around a porous core and held with
mesh. As contaminated water enters through an opening
cavity, it is forced by gravity, vacuum pumps and centrifugal
pressure through the microscopic pores of the polymer, leaving
behind harmful microorganisms. Clean water passes out a
central cavity.
Gather, process and present information on the range and
chemistry of the tests used to:
Identify heavy metal pollution of water
Monitor possible eutrophication of waterways
Heavy Metal Pollution
Heavy metals are those of relatively high atomic mass such as the transition metals and lead
and arsenic.
Mercury, lead, cadmium, chromium and arsenic are the heavy metals that need monitoring in
water as they are poisonous to humans.
AAS is used to monitor heavy metal concentrations due to its advantage of being able to assess
the concentration of several metals in one sample, provided there is an adjustable lamp. [Refer
to the principle of chemistry used in AAS on page 33]
41

Gather, process and present information on the features of the local supply in terms of:
Catchment area
Possible sources of contamination in this catchment
Chemical tests available to determine levels and types of contaminants
Physical and chemical processes used to purify water
Chemical additives in the water and the reasons for the presence of these additives

42

9.6.1 The chemical composition of the ocean implies its potential role as an electrolyte
Identify the origins of the minerals in oceans as:
leaching by rainwater from terrestrial environments
hydrothermal vents in mid-ocean ridges
Leaching involves rainwater, streams and rivers dissolving soluble minerals from terrestrial
rocks and soils and carrying them to oceans
Seawater seeps through mid-oceanic ridge cracks gets heated by upwelling magma hot
water dissolves ionic substances hot, mineral-rich water is vented back into the ocean
water is cooled and minerals crystallise to deposit on the ocean floor.
Outline the role of electron transfer in oxidation-reduction reactions
Oxidation-reduction reactions involve the transfer of electrons from the oxidation site (anode) to the
reduction site (cathode). Ions in solution act as an electrolyte/salt bridge allows for migration of ions
ability to conduct electricity.
Identify that oxidation-reduction reactions can occur when ions are free to move in solid and liquid
electrolytes
Ionic substances in solid form cannot conduct electricity (i.e. be an electrolyte) as they are in fixed
positions in a crystal lattice. The ions need to be free to move to conduct electricity and be apart of
oxidation-reduction reactions.
Describe the work of Galvani, Volta, Davy and Faraday in increasing understanding of electron transfer
reactions
Process information from secondary sources to outline and analyse the impact of the work of Galvani,
Volta, Davy and Faraday in understanding electron transfer reactions
Scientist/ Date
Experiments
Contribution
Galvani (1791)
Connected a wire from frogs spinal
Credited with the generation of electric
cord to a brass hook which was in
current.
contact with an iron railing to observe
Electric fluid in animals caused muscle
continual muscle contraction.
contraction animal electricity.
Volta (1800)
Repeated Galvanis experiment using
Demonstrated that two different wires in
different metals.
solution generated an electric current to
Constructed the first voltaic pile
cause muscular contraction.
(galvanic cell) by sandwiching
electrolytic cardboard discs soaked in
brine between two different metal
plates (Zn and Cu), then attaching a
wire to each end to produce an electric
current.
Davy (1807)
Constructed the largest galvanic cell
Recognised that chemical reactions were
and passed a strong electric current
the source of electric current.
43

Faraday (1830)

through molten salts of various

compounds suspected of containing
undiscovered elements.
Extended on Davys electrolytic
decomposition studies.
Investigated quantitative relationships
in electrolytic processes.

Identified new elements: Group I metals

Na, K; Group II metals Ba, Ca, Sr, and
Mg.
Established electrolysis laws, e.g. the
quantity of a substance produced during
electrolysis is directly proportional to the
quantity of electric charge passed
through the circuit.
Developed the terminology used today.

44

9.6.2 Ships have been made of metals or alloys of metals

Account for the differences in corrosion of active and passivating metals
Corrosion is the degradation of metals as it reacts with environmental substances, like oxygen, so that
it loses its strength and becomes unable to fulfil its intended purpose.
Passivating metals, e.g. aluminium, form an impervious oxide layer as the metal reacts with oxygen and
water when first exposed. This passivating layer prevents more oxygen and water penetrating through
to the unaffected metal underneath provides protection from further corrosion.
Active metals, e.g. impure iron, form a porous, flaky oxide layer which water and oxygen can easily
penetrate to continue corrosion until the metal has corroded completely.
Identify iron and steel as the main metals used in ships
Iron and steel (an iron alloy) are the main metals used in ships.
Identify the composition of steel and explain how the percentage composition of steel can determine its
properties
Gather and process information from secondary sources to compare the composition, properties and
uses of a range of steel
Substance Composition
Properties in relation to composition
Uses in relation to
properties
Pure Iron 100% Fe
Soft; malleable; corrodes very slowly as
Not used commercially
impurities which act as cathodes for corrosion
are absent
Mild Steel <0.2% C
Added carbon makes it relatively soft but
Carbodies malleability
harder than pure iron; more brittle but
allows for easy
relatively malleable; corrodes quickly
moulding
Stainless
4-30% Cr
Chromium corrosion and heat resistance
Kitchen sinks and
Steel
1-22% Ni
Nickel and Manganese increased strength
cutlery does not
1-10% Mn
and hardness
corrode in the presence
of acids/ bases from
foods and detergents
Tool Steel 5% Co
Chromium and manganese corrosion
High speed cutting tools
4% Cr
resistance
does not go soft when
14% W
Cobalt and Tungsten increased strength and heated due to strength
0.5% Mn
hardness
and hardness
Describe the conditions under which rusting of iron occurs and explain the process of rusting
Use available evidence to analyse and explain the conditions under which rusting occurs
Rusting Equations
Oxidation: Fe(s) Fe2+(aq) + 2e-(aq)
Reduction: O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e-(aq) 4OH-(aq)
Redox equation: 2Fe(s) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l) 4OH-(aq) + 2Fe2+(aq) Fe(OH)2(s)
Fe(OH)2 (s) further oxidises to form rust, Fe2O3. H2O, i.e. Fe(OH)2(s) + O2(g) Fe2O3. H2O + 2H2O
Conditions for Rusting
45

Oxygen undergoes reduction, forms the cathode

Water acts as a salt bridge as it is an electrolyte allows for the migration of ions, i.e. Fe2+
moves to cathode, OH- moves to anode

Factors that Accelerate Rusting

Salt water contains Na+ and Cl- ions a better electrolyte faster migration of ions
Points under stress e.g. sharpened points, bends, heads; forms a site for oxidation as the
crystal lattice is distorted to expose more iron atoms
Iron in contact with a less active metal e.g. tin, copper; less active metal becomes the
cathode, forcing iron to be the anode
Identify data, select equipment, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to compare the rate of
corrosion of pure iron and an identified form of steel
Equipment:
Stainless steel
Mild steel
0.1 mol L-1 NaCl
2 test tubes
Method:
1. Place pieces of stainless steel and mild steel (of a relatively similar size and shape) into separate
but identical test tubes.
2. Fill both test tubes with 25 mL of 0.1 mol L-1 NaCl.
3. Leave for 7 days, then record observations and degree of rusting, i.e. look for the amount of
red-brown deposit.
The mild steel piece corrodes more rapidly than stainless steel as there is more red brown deposit. The
carbon content in mild steel provides sites for reduction galvanic cell is produced corrosion
occurs. The chromium content in stainless steel makes it corrosion resistant.

46

9.6.3 Electrolytic cells involve oxidation-reduction reactions

Describe, using half equations, what happens at the anode and cathode during electrolysis of selected
aqueous solutions
Anode (+)
Oxygen gas produced at the inert anode if the anions present are more difficult to oxidise than water
or hydroxide ions. Sulfate, nitrate, carbonate or phosphate ions are never oxidised at the anode.
Cathode (-)
Hydrogen gas produced at the inert cathode if the cations present are more difficult to reduce than
water or hydrogen ions. Potassium, sodium, magnesium or aluminium ions are never reduced at the
cathode.
Describe factors that affect an electrolysis reaction, including:
Effect of concentration
Nature of electrolyte
Nature of electrodes
Factor
Effect on Electrolysis Reaction
Concentration of
High concentration of ions improves conductivity increased rate of
Electrolyte
electrolysis.
Changing concentrations of species which have similar standard potentials
different products. E.g. In molten or concentrated aqueous NaCl solutions (>2
mol L-1), where Na+ and Cl- are present but there is no/ very little H2O, Na+
reduces and Cl- oxidises. In dilute NaCl solutions, Na+ reduces but H2O
oxidises.
Nature of Electrolyte
The electrolyte itself affects the products of the reaction, e.g. CuCl2, CuSO4
and Na2SO4 each produce different products. Both, one or neither of the ions
in the electrolyte may be reacted, depending upon their ease of oxidation or
reduction relative to water.
Nature of Electrodes
The greater the surface area of the electrodes, the greater the conductivity.
The smaller the distance between the electrodes, the greater the
conductivity.
Plan and perform a first-hand investigation and gather first-hand data to identify the factors that affect
the rate of an electrolytic reaction
Testing the Effect of Different Electrolytes
Method:
1. Half fill a 150 mL beaker with 1 mol L-1 solution of potassium bromide.
2. Insert two graphite electrodes and connect these to a voltameter which is set at 4-6 volts.
3. Pass a current through the solution for about one minute and observe colour changes around
each electrode.
4. Repeat steps 1-3 with solutions of potassium iodide and copper sulfate.
Testing the Effect of the Nature of Electrodes
Method:
1. Half fill a 150 mL beaker with 1 mol L-1 solution of copper sulfate.
47

2. Insert a copper anode and graphite cathode and connect these to a voltameter which is set at
4-6 volts.
3. Record observations to the electrodes and the solution.
4. Repeat steps 1-3 using two graphite electrodes.
5. Compare results of both experiments.
Risk Assessment: Safety goggles were worn to protect the eyes from any splashes of chemicals which
would cause burns and irritations.

48

9.6.4 Iron and steel corrode quickly in a marine environment and must be protected
Identify the ways in which a metal hull may be protected, including:
Corrosion resistant metals
Development of surface alloys
New paints
Method
How Method Prevents Corrosion
Using
Aluminium and chromium form passivating oxide layers which are impervious and tightly
corrosion bound to the steel prevents exposure to oxygen and water. However, chromium oxide
resistant layer reacts with chloride ions in sea water so is not suitable for ships hulls.
metals
Surface
Formed by the bombardment of metal ions (e.g. chromium or nickel) onto the surface of
alloys
steel where they become embedded as atoms. This alloyed surface is corrosion resistant
and more economical than using solid pieces of steel alloys.
New
Forms a physical barrier that stops oxygen and water coming into contact with the metal.
paints
New polymer based paints form a pyroaurite interlayer between the paint and metal. This
is a highly insoluble, ionic layer that is tightly bound to the metal surface prevents the
migration of ions from one place on the steel to another prevents corrosion.
Zinc rich paints prevent corrosion by providing cathodic protection as zinc is a sacrificial
anode.
Predict the metal which corrodes when two metals form an electrochemical cell using a list of standard
potentials
When comparing two metals, the one with the algebraically smaller (higher up on the SPT) standard
potential will corrode (oxidise) more easily than the other.
For example, iron has E = -0.45V and tin has E = -0.14V iron is more readily oxidised/corroded (as in
galvanic cells).
Outline the process of cathodic protection, describing examples of its use in both marine and wet
terrestrial environments
Gather and process information to identify applications of cathodic protection, and use available
evidence to identify the reasons for their use and the chemistry involved [refer to next syllabus dot point
aswell]
Cathodic protection is a method of protecting a metal from corrosion by making it the cathode of a
galvanic cell. There are two types sacrificial anode or applied voltage.
Sacrificial Anode
A sacrificial anode is a block of a more active metal than iron, e.g. zinc or magnesium, which is in
contact with the ships hull via an electrolytic medium, e.g. salt water or moist earth, which acts as a
salt bridge. The active metal corrodes preferentially to the iron; iron is made the cathode it does not
oxidise and corrode. This method works well in a marine environment as the ships hull is immersed in
a sea water electrolyte. It does not work well in terrestrial environments as there is no electrolyte/salt
bridge no galvanic cell.

49

Applied Voltage
The hull is attached to the negative terminal of a voltage source (4-5V) supplied with electrons
becomes the cathode prevents oxidation/corrosion. An inert electrode, e.g. platinum, is mounted on
the ships hull and connected to the positive terminal forms the anode. The inert electrode is
insulated from the ships hull, preventing the migration of ions a galvanic cell cannot form. This
method is used in terrestrial environments to prevent corrosion in underground storage tanks and
pipelines.
Describe the process of cathodic protection in selected examples in terms of the oxidation- reduction
chemistry involved
Iron: Fe2+ + 2e- Fe E = -0.45V
Zinc: Zn2+ + 2e- Zn E = -0.76V
Zinc has a lower E than iron zinc oxidises/corrodes more easily than iron zinc is used as sacrificial
anode by galvanising (coating) steel with zinc provides cathodic protection, i.e. zinc corrodes
preferentially, protecting the iron (steel).
Even if Fe2+ ions are formed, Zn reacts with it to convert it back to Fe, i.e. Fe2+ is reduced:
Zn + Fe2+ Zn2+ + Fe
Water is reduced at the iron cathode (ships hull): 2H2O + O2 +4e- 4OHCoating steel with tin is less effective as tin is less reactive than iron if tin is scratched, iron becomes
the anode and tin becomes the cathode accelerates the rate of corrosion.
Identify data, gather and process information from first-hand or secondary sources to trace historical
developments in the choice of materials used in the construction of ocean-going vessels with a focus on
the metals used
Date Metal Used
Use of
Advantages
Disadvantages
Metal
1760s Copper
Sheathing Poisonous deters marine
Sheathing attached by iron
on
organisms
nails forms galvanic cell
wooden
corrosion
hulls
1830s Iron
Body of
Malleable moulded into sheets Fouling due to marine growths
ships
Overcame wood rot problems
Stronger/Safer/Faster/Durable
1880s- Steel
Body of
Lighter than iron more cargo
Expensive
1890s
ships
Later, increased manganese +
Low manganese + high
decreased carbon increased
phosphorous and sulfur
usage
brittle, less ductile, not strong
1950s Aluminium Hull;
Light weight faster ships
More expensive than steel
military
Strong
did not meet yield
vessels
Malleable readily cast
requirements
Corrosion resistant
Passivating aluminium oxide
layer does not adhere well in
marine environments

50

Identify data, choose equipment, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to compare the corrosion
rate, in a suitable electrolyte, of a variety of metals, including named modern alloys to identify those
best suited for use in marine vessels
Equipment:
Brass
Mild steel
0.1 mol L-1 NaCl
Stainless steel
Aluminium
4 test tubes
Method:
1. Place a piece of brass into a test tube half filled with 0.1 mol L-1 NaCl.
2. Repeat step 1 with pieces of stainless steel, mild steel and aluminium that are of a relatively
similar size and shape to brass.
3. Leave the 4 test tubes in a room for 7 14 days.
4. Observe the test tubes each day for signs of corrosion, i.e. the amount of red-brown deposit.
5. Label the metals/alloys from 1-4 in order of their degree of corrosion, 1 being the least
corrosive and 4 being the most corrosive.
Plan and perform a first-hand investigation to compare the effectiveness of different protections used
to coat a metal such as iron and prevent corrosion
Method:
1. Collect a range of iron samples which have been treated differently for protection from
corrosion: e.g. painted, lacquer with inhibitor, galvanised with zinc, coated with wax.
2. Use a control of an untreated iron piece.
3. Record observations of signs and the extent of corrosion of both the treated and untreated
samples of iron, e.g. look for colour changes/ rusting red brown deposits/ dullness/
scratching.
4. Compare results of the treated samples and the control to analyse the effectiveness of each
form of protection.

51

9.6.5 When a ship sinks, the rate of decay and corrosion may be dependent on the
final depth of the wreck
Outline the effect of:
Temperature
Pressure
on the solubility of gases and salts
The solubility of gases decreases with increasing temperature.
The solubility of gases increases with increasing pressure.
The solubility of salts increases with increasing temperature.
The solubility of salts increases with increasing pressure.
Identify that gases are normally dissolved in the oceans and compare their concentrations in the oceans
to their concentrations in the atmosphere
The most abundant dissolved gases are
Gas
% dissolved in
% dissolved in
nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide. The
the atmosphere
sea water
solubility of a gas in the ocean is directly
Nitrogen
78
48
proportional to the partial pressure of that
Oxygen
21
36
gas above the ocean, i.e. in the atmosphere.
Carbon Dioxide
0.036
15
An exception is carbon dioxide which has a
very low concentration in the atmosphere but a higher concentration in sea water. This is because
carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid: CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3 (aq) H+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)
Compare and explain the solubility of selected gases at increasing depths in the oceans
Gas
Concentration at
Reason
Increasing Depth
Oxygen
Low
Photosynthetic phytoplankton and wave action dissolving atmospheric
oxygen increases concentration near ocean surface.
At ocean depths, oxygen is consumed by respiration and
decomposition but is not replenished by photosynthesis as light can not
penetrate beyond 200 m.
Carbon
High
Photosynthetic plants consume carbon dioxide near the ocean surface.
Dioxide
At ocean depths, no photosynthesis occurs but carbon dioxide
continues to be produced through respiration and decomposition.
Predict the effect of low temperatures at great depths on the rate of corrosion of a metal
Use available evidence to predict the rate of corrosion of a metal wreck at great depths in the oceans
and give reasons for the prediction made
At ocean depths, the concentration of oxygen is low and temperatures are as low as 4C scientists
predict that corrosion of wrecks would be very slow or inhibited. This hypothesis comes from the
knowledge that oxygen is essential for corrosion and that corrosion is accelerated at higher
temperatures.

52

Perform a first-hand investigation to compare and describe the rate of corrosion of materials in
different:
Oxygen concentrations
Temperatures
Salt concentrations
Oxygen Concentrations
Method:
1. Add a mild steel nail into a test tube containing tap water. Secure with a rubber stopper.
2. Add an identical mild steel nail to a second test tube containing tap water which has been
boiled and allowed to cool back to room temperature. Secure with a rubber stopper.
3. Leave both test tubes for 7-14 days.
4. Each day, record observations for the amount of red-brown deposit formed on both nails.
Temperatures
Method:
1. Set up 3 identical test tubes, each half filled with tap water and containing a mild steel nail.
2. Place one test tube in the fridge, one in a room, and one in an incubator.
3. Leave test tubes for 7-14 days.
4. Each day, record observations for the amount of red-brown deposit formed on each nail.
Salt Concentrations
Method:
1. Add a mild steel nail into 4 test tubes.
2. Half fill each test tube with the following solutions: T1 deionised water (control); T2 0.01
mol L-1 NaCl; T3 0.1 mol L-1 NaCl; T4 1.0 mol L-1 NaCl.
3. Leave test tubes in a room for 7-14 days.
4. Each day, record observations for the amount of red-brown deposit formed on each nail.

53

9.6.6 Predictions of slow corrosion at great depths were apparently incorrect

Explain that ship wrecks at great depths are corroded by electrochemical reactions and by anaerobic
bacteria
The formation of rusticles and black metal sulfides around ship wrecks is due to anaerobic bacteria,
such as sulfate reducing bacteria, which rely on energy obtained from the reduction of sulfate ions to
hydrogen sulfide.
Cathode: SO42-(aq) + 10H+(aq) + 8e- H2S(aq) + 4H2O
The electrons required for the reduction are supplied by the oxidation of iron.
Anode: Fe(s) Fe2+(aq) + 2eDescribe the action of sulfate reducing bacteria around deep wrecks
Sulfate reducing bacteria obtain energy by reducing sulfate to sulfide:
SO42-(aq) + 5H2O(l) + 8e- HS-(aq) + 9OH-(aq)
These bacteria multiply by feeding on the abundant organic food sources, such as textiles and wood,
supplied from ship wrecks.
Corrosion by bacterial reduction accounts for the rusticle formations that hang from ship wrecks.
Explain that acidic environments accelerate corrosion in non-passivating metals
The rate of corrosion of non-passivating metals, such as iron, in deep ocean ship wrecks is accelerated
by the creation of an acidic environment.
Fe2+ ions, produced from the oxidation of iron, react with H2S, produced from the reduction of
SO42-, to form H+ ions makes sea water acidic: Fe2+(aq) + H2S(aq) FeS(s) + 2H+(aq)
The hydrolysis of iron also from H+ ions: Fe2+(aq) + 2H2O(l) Fe(OH)2(s) + H+(aq)
The presence of H+ ions increase the rate at which oxygen gas is reduced: O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e- 2H2O(l)
Perform a first-hand investigation to compare and describe the rate of corrosion of metals in different
acidic and neutral solutions
Method:
1. Collect 4 pieces of iron each of a similar size and shape.
2. Collect 4 test tubes each containing a solution of HCl with either pH = 2, 4 and 6 or distilled
water with pH = 7.
3. Immerse a piece of iron in each test tube.
4. Record immediate observations, after 2 hours, after 1 day and after 5 days. Look for signs of
corrosion, such as metal flaking into solution, bubbles on metal surface, coloured deposits on
metal.
5. Repeat steps 1-4 with other metals, such as zinc, copper and brass.
Results:
Iron bubbles in the first few minutes at pH = 2; red-brown deposits in all solutions after 5 days
Zinc corroded fastest at pH = 2; no signs of corrosion in pH = 7
Copper no signs of corrosion in any solution
Brass few bubbles but otherwise no signs of corrosion

54

9.6.7 Salvage, conservation and restoration of objects from wrecks requires careful
planning and understanding of the behaviour of chemicals
Explain that artefacts from long submerged wrecks will be saturated with dissolved chlorides and
sulfates
Metals have been seriously corroded because of the presence of electrolytes
Artefacts are severely encrusted with calcium carbonate deposits or coral due to marine
organisms causing differential aeration, i.e. they consume oxygen limited supply near
artefact artefact becomes anodic accelerates corrosion
Porous objects, such as leather and wood, are impregnated with sea water containing dissolved
chlorides and sulphates
Describe the processes that occur when a saturated solution evaporates and relate this to the potential
damage to drying artefacts
Recovered wrecks should not be left to dry in the air or in an oven as water evaporates and leaves solid
salts. These salts crystallise in the pores of the objects the destruction of the cellular structure
distortion, cracking or chemically react with the artefact.
Identify the use of electrolysis as a means of removing salt
Chlorine accelerates corrosion as it provides an acidic environment as it reacts with water to form HCl.
Chlorine is difficult to remove from metal artefacts by leaching in clean water so electrolysis is used to
free and remove chlorine ions from insoluble compounds.
Identify the use of electrolysis as a means of cleaning and stabilising iron, copper and lead artefacts
Electrolysis with a dilute solution of NaOH is used to remove chlorine from recovered metal objects.
NaOH speeds the removal of chlorine as OH- replaces Cl- in insoluble compounds, like Fe(OH)Cl, and
also retard further corrosion. The recovered object becomes the cathode and a stainless steel mesh
surrounding the object forms the anode.
Oxidation: 4OH- (aq) O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e-(aq)
Reduction: 2Fe(OH)Cl(s) + 4e-(aq) 2Fe(s) + 2OH-(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
Discuss the range of chemical procedures which can be used to clean, preserve and stabilise artefacts
from wrecks and where possible, provide an example of the use of each procedure
When artefacts are first recovered, they must be kept wet in the sea water they were found in to
maintain stability and prevent evaporation and crystallisation of salts.
Desalination
Artefacts, like leather shoes, undergo desalination to remove impregnated chlorine and sulfate salts.
The object is immersed in clean water for periods ranging from hours to weeks. Salts diffuse out into
the water; the water is replaced as the salt concentration reaches equilibrium. The treatment is
complete when the diffusion rate is less than 50 ppm.
Removing Concretions
Bacteria feed on the wreck/artefact increases the concentration of carbon dioxide precipitation
of calcium carbonate crusty deposits/ concretions: Ca2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) CaCO3(s)
There are two ways to remove concretions:
Treat the artefact with dilute acid, such as HCl or CH3COOH:
CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) Ca2+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
55

 X-ray the artefact to observe the thickness of the concretion, then break away slabs of
concretions using a hammer or a dentist drill for delicate areas.
Protection
Recovered wooden objects are washed with cold water then conserved using polyethylene glycol.
Wooden objects are regularly sprayed with PEG of increasing concentrations over long periods of time
until PEG completes replaces sea water. PEG fills in wood cavities restores wood strength + stops
further degradation.
Perform investigations and gather information from secondary sources to compare conservation and
restoration techniques applied in two Australian maritime archaeological projects
Vernon Anchors
Endeavour Cannon
Conservation Iron surface blasted with copper slag
Disinfected using 10% formalin in sea water
Process
garnet polished coated with zinc
coral concretions removed using
epoxy paint to prevent rusting.
hammers electrolytic treatment using 2%
Timber stocks saturated with zinc
NaOH to remove chlorine washed with
napthenate solution to prevent
distilled water with chromate ions (chromic
deterioration.
oxide protective layer forms) dried for 48
hours treated with protective wax.
Display
Outside; exposed to the elements
Inside; conditioned environment
rain, sea spray, sun, humidity.
controlled temperature, restricted light,
fenced (no contact)
Maintenance Inspected for deterioration
Minimal maintenance as display
Regularly hosed down with fresh water environment is controlled
to reduce salt build up as anchors are
situated near the sea

56