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Design of Post Tension Slabs PDF
Design of Post Tension Slabs PDF
On
Bachelor of Technology
In
Civil Engineering
(2011-12)
By
GOKARAJU RANGARAJU
HYDERABAD
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the dissertation entitled DETAILED STUDY AND EXECUTION WORK
IN POST TENSIONED SLABS is a bonafide project work done under the guidance of Mr. K.
SURESH REDDY (MANAGING DIRECTOR, CRUX PRESTRESSING SYSTEMS
PVT.LTD.) and Mr. B.H.MAHESH CHANDRAKANTH (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR IN
THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, GRIET.)
GRIET, Hyderabad.
Project by
Prof. Dr. G. Venkata Ramana Dr. J.N. Murthy B.H. Mahesh Chandrakanth
STUDENT DECLARATION
We hereby declare that the project entitled "Detailed Study and Execution work in
Post Tensioned Slabs" is the work done by us during the academic year 2011-2012
with Crux Prestressing Systems Pvt. Ltd. The site is situated at Kothaguda Village
nearby hi-Tech city. The building proposed is on a site with an area of 70,500 sq ft.
and is a 2 basement + G + 5. This was taken up by Crux Prestressing Systems Pvt.
Ltd. for Ektha builders. The name of the building is Ektha Pearl and it is a
Commercial Complex. This project report is submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of degree of Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech) in
CIVIL ENGINEERING from Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering and
Technology, affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Salutations to our beloved and highly esteemed institute "Gokaraju
Rangaraju Institution of Engineering and Technology" for having well qualified
staff and labs furnished with necessary equipment and computers.
First of all we would like to express our deep sense of gratitude towards Our
Principal, Dr. Jandhyala.N.Murthy and Head of the Department, Civil Engineering
Dr. G. Venkata Ramana, for giving us the opportunity to do an industry oriented
project work. We would also like to thank Mr. K. Suresh reddy, Managing
Director, CRUX Prestressing Pvt. Ltd. who has given us the opportunity to work in
his company.
Special thanks all our friends for their help and constructive criticism during
our project period for always being available and guiding us throughout the
project.
Abstract
Post-Tensioned reinforcing consists of very high strength steel strands or bars. Typically, strands
are used in horizontal applications like foundations, slabs, beams, and bridges; and bars are used
in vertical applications like walls and columns. A typical steel strand used for post-tensioning
has a tensile strength of 1860 N/mm2. In comparison, a typical non-pre-stressed piece of
reinforcing bar (rebar) normally has a tensile strength of about 600 N/mm2.
In this project, we have seen and studied thoroughly some works on the site related to post
tensioned slabs. The various sizes of tendons available, which are the materials imparting
prestress to the structure were studied thoroughly. We have also understood and performed
building column line staking on site. We have visited the site and taken part in the execution
work under the structural engineer in-charge. The unbonded tendons are typically prefabricated
at a plant and delivered to the construction site, ready to install. The tendons are laid out in the
forms in accordance with installation drawings that indicate how they are to be spaced, what
their profile (height above the form) should be and where they are to be stressed. After the
concrete is placed( from the RMC trucks) and has reached its required strength, usually about
75% of its final strength, then the prestressing process begins. The concrete grade that was used
was M35 and hence, after 7 days when it achieved the strength of 25 N/mm2, prestressing was
achieved through Prestressing powerpack using a mono strand stressing jack. The principle is
that when the tendons are stretched, want to return to their original length but are prevented from
doing so by the anchorages. The fact that the tendons are kept in a permanently stressed
(elongated) state causes a compressive force to act on the concrete. The compression that results
from the post tensioning counteracts the tensile forces created by the prestress applied. This
significantly increases the load-carrying capacity of the concrete.
Since post-tensioned concrete is cast in place at the job site, there is almost no limit to the shapes
that can be formed. Curved facades, arches and complicated slab edge layouts are often a
trademark of post-tensioned concrete structures. Post tensioning is only advancing more and
more with increasing innovation of creative and environment friendly materials. An important
aspect to be kept in mind is the sustainability. Post tensioned concrete has a large number of
advantages when compared to conventional RCC construction, one of the most important being
the reduction in self weight and overall reduction in the requirement of materials. It is of course
mandatory to use high quality materials which should be able to withstand the prestress.
However, one thing is for certain. Post tensioned concrete is going to serve the building
community for many more years to come given the numerous advantages it bears.
NOTATIONS
fc = compressive stress
c = compressive strain
Ec = elastic modulus
= creep coefficient
l = elastic strain
Vc = shear resistance
Mo = moment necessary to produce zero stress in the concrete at the extreme tension fibre
P = the total prestress force over the panel width after all losses
Zt = section modulus for the top fibre over the width of the side of the critical perimeter
P = the total prestress force for all tendons passing through the side of the critical perimeter
1. Introduction
1.1 History
1.2 Types of prestress
1.3 Important terminology
1.4 Applications
1.5 Materials used in Prestressing
1.6 Post Tensioning Systems
1.7 Devices
1.8 Structural Behaviour
1.9 Structural form
1.10 Losses in prestress
1.11 Construction of prestressed
Concrete Structures
1.12 Maintenance and rehabilitation
of Prestressed Structures
2 Site Inspection
5.1 Materials
5.2 Machinery used
5.3 Anchorage markings
5.4 Laying of tendons
5.5 Concrete pouring
5.6 Prestressing
5.7 Grouting
6 CONCLUSIONS
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.INTRODUCTION
The present report is based on the project work on Detailed study and Execution work in post
Tensioned Slabs. The site was a commercial complex at Kothaguda Village nearby Hi-Tech
city. The building proposed is on a site with an area of 70,500 sq ft. and is a 2 basement + G + 5
building. This was taken up by the pioneer company Crux Prestressing Systems Pvt. Ltd. for
Ektha builders. The name of the building is Ektha Pearl.
Prestressed concrete is basically concrete in which internal stresses of a suitable magnitude and
distribution are introduced so that the stresses resulting from external loads are counteracted to a
desired degree. In Reinforced Concrete members, the prestress is commonly introduced by
tensioning the steel reinforcement. The earliest examples of wooden barrel construction by force
fitting of metal bands and shrink fitting of metal tyres on wooden wheels indicate that the art of
prestressing has been practiced from ancient times. The tensile strength of plain concrete is only
a fraction of its compressive strength and the problem of it being deficient in tensile strength
appears to have been the driving factor in the development of the composite material known as
Reinforced Concrete.
The development of early cracks in reinforced concrete due to incompatibility in the strains of
steel and concrete was perhaps the starting point in the development of a new material like
prestressed concrete. The application of permanent compressive stress to a material like
concrete, which is strong in compression but weak in tension, increases the apparent tensile
strength of that material, because the subsequent application of tensile stress must first nullify the
compressive prestress.
1.1 History
In 1904, Freyssinet attempted to introduce permanently acting forces in concrete to resist the
elastic forces developed under loads and this idea was later developed under the name of
prestressing. In 1886, Jackson of San Fransisco applies for a patent for construction of
artificial stone and concrete pavements, in which prestress was introduced by tensioning the
reinforcing rods set in sleeves. Dohring of Germany manufactured slabs and small beams using
embedded tensioned wires in concrete to avoid cracks. However, the idea of prestressing to
counteract the stresses due to loads was first put forward by Mandl in 1896. Later on, the
importance of losses in prestressing due to Shrinkage of concrete was recognized.
The use of unbounded tendons was first demonstrated by Dischinger in 1928, in the construction
of a major bridge of the deep girder type, in which prestressing wires were placed inside the
girder without any bond. Losses of prestress were compensated by the subsequent re-tensioning
of the wires. Other advancements like development of vibration techniques for the production of
high strength concrete and the invention of the double-acting jack for stressing high tensile steel
wires are considered to be the most significant contributions.
2) Post tensioning:
It is a method of prestressing concrete by tensioning the tendons against hardened
concrete. In this method, the prestress is imparted to concrete by bearing. Post tensioned
concrete may be either bonded or un-bonded.
Bonded post tensioned concrete:
The term used for a method of applying compression after pouring concrete and
the curing process. The concrete is cast around plastic, steel or aluminum curved duct to
follow the area where otherwise tension would occur in the concrete element. A set of
tendons are fished through the duct to follow the area where otherwise tension would
occur in the concrete element, and then concrete is poured. Once the concrete is
hardened, the tendons are tensioned by hydraulic jacks that react (push) against the
concrete member itself. When the tendons have stretched sufficiently, according to the
designed specifications, they are wedged in position and maintain tension after the jack is
removed, transferring pressure to the concrete. The duct is then grouted to protect the
tendons from corrosion. The method is commonly used to create monolithic slabs for
house construction in locations where expansive soils (such as adobe clay) create
problems for the typical perimeter foundation. All stresses from seasonal expansion and
contraction of the underlying soil are taken into the entire tensioned slab, which supports
the building without supports the building without significant flexure. Post tensioning is
also used in the construction of various bridges, both after concrete is cured, support by
false work and by the assembly of prefabricated sections.
Advantages
Large reduction in traditional reinforcement requirements such as tendons cannot
distress in accidents.
Tendons can be easily woven allowing a more efficient design approach.
Higher ultimate strength due to bond generated between the strand and concrete.
No long term issues in maintaining the integrity of the anchor end.
It differs from bonded post tensioning by providing each individual cable permanent
freedom of movement relative to the concrete. To achieve this, each individual tendon is coated
with grease (generally lithium base) and covered by a plastic sheathing formed in an extrusion
process. The transfer of tension to the concrete is achieved by the steel cable acting against steel
anchors embedded in the perimeter of the slab. The main disadvantage over bonded post
tensioning is the fact that a cable can distress itself and burst out of the slab if damaged (such as
during repair on the slab).
The ability to individually adjust cables based on poor field conditions (For ex: shifting a
group of four cables around an opening by placing two to either side.)
The procedure of post stress grouting is eliminated.
The ability to distress the tendons before attempting repair work.
12) Creep Co-efficient: The ratio of the total creep strain to elastic strain in concrete.
13) Cap cable: A short curved tendon arranged at the interior supports of a continuous beam.
The anchors are the compression zone; cable is the curved portion is in the tensile zone.
1.4 Applications
The use of prestressed concrete has revolutionized the entire building industry in the erstwhile
U.S.S.R., U.S.A, U.K, Japan and the Continent. Prestressed concrete building components
comprising hollow cored and ribbed slabs are widely used in the erstwhile Russia. Single and
double tee units and channel sections are popular in the U.S.A. for the construction of floors in
buildings. Prestressed concrete is ideally suited for long-span bridge construction. A typical
twin-box girder bridge under construction, using the segmentally cast cantilever method
Fig2.GangaBridge,Patna.Lengthof
Fig1.CN,Toronto,CanadaWorlds 5575metresandconsistsofspansof
tallestPrestressedbuildingwhichis 121.65mlongprestressedconcrete
553mtall Griders
The present trend is to adopt prestressed concrete for long span cable-stayed bridge of 365 m
Tower main span, constructed at Tampa Bay, Florida, U.S.A. The longest precast prestressed
concrete cable-stayed box girder, the chaco-Corrientes bridge was constructed in Argentina,
South America. Typical use of prestressed concrete simple-span box girders for the Bay area
rapid-transit system is displayed in bridge in San Fransisco, California. Prestressed concrete has
found extensive applications in the construction of long-span folded plate roofs, aircraft hangers,
nuclear containment vessels, pavements, rail road sleepers, poles, piles, television towers and
masts.
The Lubha Bridge, the nations longest single-span 172 m long prestressed concrete box-
girder type continuous bridge built across a 30m deep gorge of the Lubha river in Assam.
Ball tank, Trombay, Maharashtra, consisting of a prestressed concrete, tank of 4 million
litre capacity for the department of atomic energy.
Ganga bridge at Patna, the longest prestressed concrete bridge in the world has a length
of 5575 m consisting of continuous spans of 121.65 m long prestressed concrete girders
of variable depth.
Constituents of concrete:-
Concrete is a composite material composed of gravels or crushed stones (coarse aggregate), sand
(fine aggregate) and hydrated cement (binder).
Properties of Hardened Concrete:
The concrete in prestressed applications has to be of good quality. It requires the following
attributes:-
2) Durability with low permeability, minimum cement content and proper mixing, compaction
and curing.
Strength of Concrete:-
For prestressed concrete applications, high strength concrete is required for the following
reasons:-
Compressive strength:
Tensile strength :-
1) Flexural tensile strength: It is measured by testing beams under 2 point loading (also called 4
point loading including the reactions).
3) Direct tensile strength: It is measured by testing rectangular specimens under direct tension.
fcr = 0.7(fck)
where,
With the advancement of concrete technology, high performance concrete is getting popular in
prestressed applications. The attributes of high performance concrete are as follows:-
1) High strength
3) High durability
4) Easy to cast
5) Cost effective.
Traditionally high performance concrete implied high strength concrete with high cement
content and low water-to-cement ratio.
But higher cement content leads to autogenous and plastic shrinkage cracking and thermal
cracking.
3) Self-compacting concrete
In a post-tensioned member, the concrete next to the anchorage blocks (referred to as end block)
is subjected to high stress concentration. The type of concrete at the end blocks may be different
from that at the rest of the member. Fibre reinforced concrete is used to check the cracking due
to the bursting forces.
For direct compression, except in the parts immediately behind the anchorage, the maximum
strain is equal to 0.8 times the maximum compressive stress under flexure.
The prestressed members are classified into three different types based on amount of
prestressing:
The stress versus strain behavior of concrete under uniaxial compression is initially linear (stress
is proportional to strain) and elastic (strain is recovered at unloading). With the generation of
micro cracks, the behavior becomes nonlinear and inelastic. After the specimen reaches the peak
stress, the resisting stress decreases with the increase in strain
Fig3.ConcreteCubeunder
Compressionandstressstraincurve
underflexure
The equation for the design curve under compression due to flexure is as follows:-
For c o
fc = fck
where,
fc = compressive stress
c = compressive strain
For concrete under compression due to axial load, the ultimate strain is restricted to 0.002.
From the characteristic curve, the design curve is defined by multiplying the stress with a size
factor of 0.67 and dividing the stress by a material safety factor of m = 1.5. In the calculation of
deflection at service loads, a linear stress-strain curve is assumed up to the allowable stress. This
curve is given by the following equation.
Fc = Ecc
Note that, the size factor and the material safety factor are not used in the elastic modulus Ec. For
high strength concrete (say M100 grade of concrete and above) under uniaxial compression, the
ascending and descending branches are steep.
Fig4.StressStraincurveunderCompression
The stress versus strain behavior of concrete under uniaxial tension is linear elastic initially.
Close to cracking nonlinear behavior is observed.
Fig5.ConcreteundertensionandStressstraincurveforconcreteundertension
Creep of Concrete :
Creep of concrete is defined as the increase in deformation with time under constant load. Due to
the creep of concrete, the prestress in the tendon is reduced with time.
Hence, the study of creep is important in prestressed concrete to calculate the loss in prestress.
The creep strain depends on several factors. It increases with the increase in the following
variables:-
2) Water-to-cement ratio
3) Air entrainment
4) Ambient temperature.
The creep strain decreases with the increase in the following variables :-
2) Relative humidity
cr,ult = l
where,
l= elastic strain
Shrinkage of Concrete:
Shrinkage of concrete is defined as the contraction due to loss of moisture. The study of
shrinkage is also important in prestressed concrete to calculate the loss in prestress.
The following figure shows the variation of shrinkage strain with time. Here, t0 is the time at
commencement of drying. The shrinkage strain increases at a decreasing rate with time. The
ultimate shrinkage strain (sh) is estimated to calculate the loss in prestress.
Like creep, shrinkage also depends on several factors. The shrinkage strain increases with the
increase in the following variables:
1) Ambient temperature
3) Water-to-cement ratio
4) Cement content.
The shrinkage strain decreases with the increase in the following variables:- (spacing
corrections)
2) Relative humidity
For pre-tension
sh = 0.0003
For post-tension
sh = (0.0002/log10(t+2))
Where,
Note that for post-tensioning, t is the age at transfer (in days) which approximates the curing
time.
The development of prestressed concrete was influenced by the invention of high strength
steel. It is an alloy of iron, carbon, manganese and optional materials. The following material
describes the types and properties of prestressing steel.
Wires
A prestressing wire is a single unit made of steel. The nominal diameters of the wires are 2.5,
3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.0 and 8.0 mm. The different types of wires are as follows:-
1.5.3 Strands
A few wires are spun together in a helical form to form a prestressing strand. The different types
of strands are as follows:-
1) Two-wire strand: Two wires are spun together to form the strand.
2) Three-wire strand: Three wires are spun together to form the strand.
3) Seven-wire strand: In this type of strand, six wires are spun around a central wire. The central
wire is larger than the other wires.
1.5.4 Tendons
A group of strands or wires are placed together to form a prestressing tendon. The tendons are
used in post-tensioned members. The following figure shows the cross section of a typical
tendon. The strands are placed in a duct which may be filled with grout after the post-tensioning
operation is completed.
Cables
A group of tendons form a prestressing cable. The cables are used in bridges.
Bars
A tendon can be made up of a single steel bar. The diameter of a bar is much largerthan that of a
wire. Bars are available in the following sizes: 10, 12, 16, 20, 22, 25, 28 and 32 mm.
The steel is treated to achieve the desired properties. The following are the treatment
processes:
The cold working is done by rolling the bars through a series of dyes. It re-aligns the crystals
and increases the strength.
Stress relieving:-
The stress relieving is done by heating the strand to about 350 C and cooling slowly. This
reduces the plastic deformation of the steel after the onset of yielding.
This process is done by heating the strand to about 350 C while it is under tension. This also
improves the stress-strain behavior of the steel by reducing the plastic deformation after the onset
of yielding. In addition, the relaxation is reduced.
The steel in prestressed applications has to be of good quality. It requires the following attributes
1) High strength
2) Adequate ductility
3) Bending ability, which is required at the harping points and near the anchorage
6) Minimum corrosion.
The tensile strength of prestressing steel is given in terms of the characteristic tensile
strength (fpk). The characteristic strength is defined as the ultimate tensile strength of the coupon
specimens. The ultimate strength of a plain hard drawn steel wire varies with its diameter. The
tensile strength decreases with increase in the diameter of wires.
For high tensile steel bars (IS: 2090), the minimum tensile strength is 980 N/mm2. The proof
stress should not be less than 80% of the specified tensile strength.
The stiffness of prestressing steel is given by the initial modulus of elasticity. The modulus
of elasticity depends on the form of prestressing steel (wires or strands or bars).
IS:1343 - 1980 provides the following guidelines which can be used in absence of test
As per Clause 18.5.1, IS: 1343 1980 the maximum tensile stress during prestressing (fpi) shall
not exceed 80% of the characteristic strength.
Fpi = 0.8fpk
There is no upper limit for the stress at transfer (after short term losses) or for the effective
prestress (after long term losses).
The stress versus strain behaviour of prestressing steel under uniaxial tension is initially
Beyond about 70% of the ultimate strength the behaviour becomes nonlinear and inelastic. There
is no defined yield point. The yield point is defined in terms of the proof stress or a specified
yield strain. IS:1343- 1980 recommends the yield point at 0.2% proof stress. This stress
corresponds to an inelastic strain of 0.002.
1.5.5Relaxation of steel
Relaxation of steel is defined as the decrease in stress with time under constant strain. Due
to the relaxation of steel, the prestress in the tendon is reduced with time.
Hence, the study of relaxation is important in prestressed concrete to calculate the loss in
prestress. The relaxation depends on the type of steel, initial prestress and the temperature.
The following figure shows the effect of relaxation due to different types of loading conditions:-
Fatigue :
Under repeated dynamic loads the strength of a member may reduce with the number of cycles
of applied load. The reduction in strength is referred to as fatigue. In prestressed applications, the
fatigue is negligible in members that do not crack under service loads. If a member cracks,
fatigue may be a concern due to high stress in the steel at the location of cracks.
Durability :
For unbonded tendons, corrosion protection is provided by one or more of the following
methods:-
1) Epoxy coating
3) Galvanized bars
4) Encasing in tubes.
The prestressing systems and devices are described for the two types of prestressing :-
pre-tensioning
post-tensioning
Stages of Post-tensioning :
In post-tensioning systems, the ducts for the tendons (or strands) are placed along with the
reinforcement before the casting of concrete. The tendons are placed in the ducts after the
casting of concrete. The duct prevents contact between concrete and the tendons during the
tensioning operation.
Unlike pre-tensioning, the tendons are pulled with the reaction acting against the hardened
concrete. If the ducts are filled with grout, then it is known as bonded post-tensioning. The
grout is a neat cement paste or a sand-cement mortar containing suitable admixture. In unbonded
post-tensioning, as the name suggests, the ducts are never grouted and the tendon is held in
tension solely by the end anchorages. Most of the commercially patented prestressing systems
are based on the following principles of anchoring the tendons:
Fig10.Stagesinposttensioning
Advantages of Post-tensioning :
Disadvantage of Post-tensioning:
3) Ducts
4) Anchoring devices
5) Jacks
6) Couplers (optional)
Anchoring Devices:
In post-tensioned members the anchoring devices transfer the prestress to the concrete.
The devices are based on the following principles of anchoring the tendons:-
1) Wedge action
2) Direct bearing
Wedge action:
The anchoring device based on wedge action consists of an anchorage block and wedges. The
strands are held by frictional grip of the wedges in the anchorage block.
Direct bearing:
The rivet or bolt heads or button heads formed at the end of the wires directly bear against a
block.
The Baur-Leonhardt system, Leoba system and also the Dwidag single-bar anchorage system,
work on this principle where the wires are looped around the concrete. The wires are looped to
make a bulb.
Jacks:
Fig12.Jackingandanchoringwithedges
Couplers:
The couplers are used to connect strands or bars. They are located at the junction of the
members, for example at or near columns in post-tensioned slabs, on piers in posttensioned
bridge decks.
1) Effects of prestress:
The primary effects of prestress are a pre compression of the floor and an upward
load within the spam which balances pat of the downward dead and live loads. In a
Reinforced concrete floor, tensile cracking of the concrete is a necessary accompaniment to
the generation of economic stress levels in the reinforcement. In post tensioned flows with
the pre compression and the upward load in the span act to reduce the tensile stresses in the
concrete. However, the level of prestress is not usually enough to prevent all tensile
cracking under full design live loading at serviceability Limit State. Under reduced live load
much of the cracking will not be visible.
The act of prestressing causes the floor to bend, shorten, deflect and rotate. If any of
these effects are restrained, secondary effects of prestress are set up. As stated above,
2N/mm2. The secondary effects due to the restraint to shortening are usually neglected.
However, unless the floor can be considered to be statically determinate, the displacements
of the floor set up secondary moments which cannot be neglected.
The load balancing approach is an even more powerful tool for examining the behavior of two-
way spanning systems than it is for one way spanning members. By the balancing load approach,
attention is focused on the loads exerted on the floor by the tendons, perpendicular to the plane
of the floor. As for one-way floors, this typically means a uniform load exerted upward along the
major portion of the central length of a tendon span and statically equivalent downward load
exerted over the short length of the reverse curvature. In order to apply an essentially uniform
upward load over the entire floor panel these tendons should be uniformly distributed and the
downward loads from the tendons should react against another structural element. The additional
element could be a beam or a wall in the case of one way floors or columns in a two-way system.
Fig14.BendingMomentSurfacesfor
differentArrangementoftendons
Fig15.Appliedloadbendingmomentsinasolidflatslab
The load balancing approach is an even more powerful tool for examining the behavior of two-
way spanning systems than it is for one way spanning members. By the balancing load approach,
attention is focused on the loads exerted on the floor by the tendons, perpendicular to the plane
of the floor. As for one-way floors, this typically means a uniform load exerted upward along the
major portion of the central length of a tendon span and statically equivalent downward load
exerted over the short length of the reverse curvature. In order to apply an essentially uniform
upward load over the entire floor panel these tendons should be uniformly distributed and the
downward loads from the tendons should react against another structural element. The additional
element could be a beam or a wall in the case of one way floors or columns in a two-way system.
However, a look at a plan view if a flat slab reveals that columns provide an upward reaction for
only a very small area. Thus, to maintain statistical rationality, we must provide reinforcement
perpendicular to the above tendons, a second set of tendons to provide an upward load to resist
the downward load from the first set. Remembering that the downward load of the uniformly
distributed tendons occur over a relatively narrow width under the reverse curvatures and that the
only available exterior reaction, the column is also relatively narrow, it becomes obvious that the
second set of tendons should be in narrow strips or bands passing over the columns.
There are two ways of accompanying this two part tendon system to obtain the nearly uniform
upward load we desire for ease of analysis. In the first method, tendons are spaced uniformly in
Fig16.Loadbalancingforprestressedtendonsforregularcolumnlayouts
each of the two directions and react against banded tendons along the column grid lines in each
direction. This results in some of the tendons in each direction being banded over the columns
and some uniformly distributed between these bands. This method works well where the
columns are arranged on a rectangular grid.
The balanced load provided by the tendons in each direction is equal to the dead load. It gives
the most uniform distribution of moments and provides a practical layout of tendons. This
arrangement gives 70% of the tendons in the banded zone and the remaining 30% between the
bands. It should be noted that, since the width of the banded zone is 0.4 times the width of bay,
this arrangement is identical to providing 50% of the tendons evenly distributed over the full
width of the bay in addition to 50% concentrated in the band. The detailed distribution is not
critical, provided that sufficient tendons pass through the column zone to give adequate
protection against punching shear and progressive collapse.
Flexural cracking is initiated at column faces and can occur at load levels in the
serviceability range. While these and early radial cracks remain small, they are unlikely to affect
the performance of the slab. Compression due to prestress delays the formation of cracks, but it
is less efficient in controlling cracking than un-tensioned reinforcement placed in the top of
floors, immediately adjacent to and above the column.
Aspect ratio of any panel should not be greater than 2. This applies to solid flat
slabs, supported on orthogonal rows of columns. The ratio of the stiffness of the slab in two
orthogonal directions should not be disproportionate.
1) Column Layout:
In general, the ideal situation is, of course to think prestressing from the initial concept of
the building and to choose suitably longer spans. However, current experience in many
countries indicates a minimum span is of approximately 7m. In choosing column layouts
and spans for a prestressed floor, several possibilities may be considered to optimize the
design, which include:
a) Reduce the length of the end spans or if the architectural considerations permit, insert the
columns from the building perimeter to provide small cantilevers. Consequently end span
bending moments will be reduced and a more equable bending moment configuration is
obtained.
b) Reduce, if necessary the stiffness of the columns to minimize the prestress lost in
overcoming the restraint offered to floor shortening.
c) Where span lengths vary, adjust the tendon profiles and the no. of tendons to provide the
uplift required for each span. Generally this will be a similar percentage of the dead load
for each span.
Once the column layout has been determined, the next consideration is the type of floor to be
used. This again is determined by number of factors such as lengths, magnitude of loading,
architectural form and use of the building, special requirements such as services, location of
building, and the cost of materials available .
2) Floor thickness and types:
The slab thickness must meet two primary functional requirements-structural
strength and deflection. Vibration should also be considered where there are only a few
panels. There selection of thickness or type (ex : plate without drops, plate with drops,
coffered or waffle, ribbed or even beam and slab) is also influenced by concrete strength and
loading. There are likely to be several alternative solutions to the same problem and a
preliminary costing exercise may be necessary in order to choose the most economical. The
info given in fig 14, 15 & 17 will assist the designer to make a preliminary choice of floor
section. Fig 15 is appropriate for all types of prestressed floors. Fig 15 & 17 are only
appropriate for flat slabs but fig 15 is not appropriate for coffered slabs which do not have a
solid section over the columns
Fig17.Preliminaryselectionoffloorthicknessformulti
spanfloors
Flat slabs tend to exceed punching shear limits around columns and often need shear
reinforcement at these locations. The graphs in fig 18 provide a preliminary assessment as to
whether shear reinforcement is needed or not. As the shear capacity of a slab is dependent on the
dimensions of the supporting columns or column heads, each graph is based on different column
dimensions.
The following procedure should be followed while obtaining a flat slab section:-
Step 1: Knowing the span and imposed loading requirements, Fig 15 can be used to choose a
suitable span/ depth ratio
Step 2: Check the shear capacity of the section using fig 14. Obtain the imposed load capacity for
the chosen section. If this exceeds the imposed load, then shear reinforcement is not needed. If
not, reinforcement will be needed.
Step 3: Check the shear capacity at the face of the column using Fig 17. If the imposed load
capacity is exceeded, increase the slab depth and check again
Post tensioned floors must be allowed to shorten to enable the prestress to be applied to the floor.
Shortening occurs because of :-
The force required to deflect each column may be assumed to be calculated as follows:
i = x Ii
Hi = 12 Ec Ii i
(Hcol)3
For the purpose of calculating Hi, the value of Ec for the column may be reduced by creep in the
column and in some cases cracking. A reduction of at least 50% from the short term elastic
properties is normally justifiable.
The total tension in the floor due to the restraint to shortening is the sum of all the column forces
to one side of the stationary point the tension is H1 + H2 + H3. This tension acts as a reduction in
the pre compression of the floor by prestress.
In prestressed concrete applications, the most important variable is the prestressing force. In
the early days, it was observed that the prestressing force does not stay constant, but reduces with
time.
Even during prestressing of the tendons and the transfer of prestress to the concrete member,
there is a drop of the prestressing force from the recorded value in the jack gauge. The various
reductions of the prestressing force are termed as the losses in prestress.
1) Immediate
2) Time-dependent.
The immediate losses occur during prestressing of the tendons and the transfer of prestress to the
concrete member.
The time-dependent losses occur during the service life of the prestressed member. The losses
due to elastic shortening of the member, friction at the tendon-concrete interface and slip of the
anchorage are the immediate losses. The losses due to the shrinkage and creep of the concrete
and relaxation of the steel are the time-dependent losses.
Rapid development in construction techniques of prestressed concrete structures over the last
decades has resulted in several novel methods of construction.
Prestressed concrete being ideally suited for larger spans, its application is much less for sub
structures than for super structures.
Construction of any structure forms only a small part of the whole gamut of construction
management. Construction management functions comprise the following central activities:-
Before starting the construction of any prestressed concrete structure, it is essential to consider
minimum requirements for material and workmanship which will result in a structure that will
perform satisfactorily in various limit states.
The most important consideration of prestressed concrete structure is the design, production, and
control of high strength concrete with desirable properties.
Most of the long span bridges are built using prestressed concrete and those built by the
cantilever method demonstrate the latest refinements of this construction technique.
This method eliminates the use of expensive form work and scaffolding especially for bridges in
deep valleys and rivers with large depth of water.
In prestressed concrete structures the primary problem encountered is the damage caused to the
anchorages and unbounded tendons due to rusting under the exposure to humid weather
conditions.
The overall objective of the maintenance of prestressed concrete structures is to identify the need
for structural integrity, periodical surveillance, repairs, rehabilitation, and replacement,
depending upon the local conditions.
Inspection of structures:
All types of remedial and preventive maintenance or minor repair work, including
replacement of components should be planned at periodical intervals without causing
inconvenience to the users of the structure.
1. Routine Inspection: under this category, general inspections are carried out
quickly and frequently by highway maintenance engineers. This type inspection is
required to identify the obvious deficiencies which could lead to accidents or major
future repairs or maintenance problems.
General Inspection
Major Inspection
Special Inspection
General inspection is normally made annually it should cover all the structural elements and it is
mainly a visual inspection supplemented by standard instrumental aids, invariably followed by a
written report.
Inspection instrumentation:
Prestressed concrete structures showing visible signs of distress in the form of surface
cracks, spanning of concrete should be subjected to special inspection. Modern testing equipment
which could be of use to the specialized inspection team is listed below:
The instruments listed above are very useful to evaluate the strength of in situ concrete and the
distress caused due to the development of micro cracks in the concrete.
2. SITE INSPECTION :
A site investigation report is the basis for all the subsequent decisions regarding cleanup of a
contaminated site. This report describes the findings of the desk study and the field work and
discuss their implications with respect to the proposed development of the site. An assessment is
made in terms of likelihood of the presence of contamination that may affect the feasibility of the
site for the intended use.
Site characterization:
The site is part of an open car park but lies within a mixed software offices and retail
commercial area.
Site location:
Desk study:
The desk study is carried out in accordance with the technical report-43 by concrete
society. The report provides the base for an opinion on the condition of site.
Hydrological information:
The site is classified as being under laid by a major aquifer of high permeability associated with
soils of high leaching potential.
The environment check has revealed that there is no registered landfill or waste
management facilities within the 1km vicinity of the site. There are no recorded pollution
incidents to the controlled waters or other known site processes which could potentially impact
the development.
The field work was carried out under the supervision of a geo tech - environmental engineer and
comprised of the following elements:
Standard penetration tests were carried out in the cable percussive bore holes at regular intervals
to the full depth of boring. Distributed samples were recovered from the various bore holes for
subsequent testing in the laboratory and/or for contamination testing.
A stand pipe was installed in one of the cable percussive boreholes in order to determine the
depth of the ground water table. It is noticed that ground water level is standing at approximately
9.74m below the ground level, one day after installation.
Bearing capacity is the capacity of soil to support the loads applied to the ground. The bearing
capacity of soil is the maximum average contact pressure between the foundation and the soil
which should not produce shear failure in the soil.
Ultimate bearing capacity is the theoretical maximum pressure which can be supported without
failure; allowable bearing capacity is the ultimate bearing capacity divided by a factor of safety.
There are three modes of failure that limit the bearing capacity: general shear failure, local shear
failure, and punching shear failure. The safe bearing capacity of soil is 140 N/mm2.
Concrete
Typically concrete is of M35 grade manufactured by Aparna cement industry. The ready
mix design arrives at the site and begins to prepare the concerned RMC in situ. If any concrete is
being transported, then admixtures are added in order to delay the setting time.
Strand for post-tensioning is made of high tensile strength steel wire. A strand is comprised
of 7 individual wires, with six wires helically wound to a long pitch around a center wire. All
strand should be Grade 1860 MPa (270 ksi) low relaxation, seven-wire strand conforming to the
requirements of ASTMA 416 Standard Specification for Steel Strand, Uncoated Seven Wire
Strand for Prestressed Concrete. ASTMA 416 provides minimum requirements for mechanical
properties (yield, breaking strength, elongation) and maximum allowable dimensional tolerances.
Strand from different sources may meet ASTMA 416 but is not necessarily identical
in all respects.
Strand is mostly available in two nominal sizes, 13mm (0.5in) and 15mm (0.6in)
diameter, with nominal cross sectional areas of 99mm2 and 140mm2 (0.153 and 0.217 square
inches),respectively. The majority of post-tensioning hardware and stressing equipment is based
on these sizes. Strand size tolerances may result in strands being manufactured consistently
smaller than or larger than nominal values. Recognizing this, industry (Acceptance Standards
for Post-Tensioning Systems, Post-Tensioning Institute, 1998refers to the Minimum Ultimate
Tensile Strength (MUTS) which is the minimum specified breaking force for a strand. Strand
size tolerance may also affect strand-wedge action leading to possible wedge slip if the wedges
and strands are at opposite ends of the size tolerance range.
Strand conforming to ASTM A 416 is relatively resistant to stress corrosion and
hydrogen embrittlement, due to the cold drawing process. However, since susceptibility to
corrosion increases with increasing tensile strength, caution is necessary if strand is exposed to
corrosive conditions such as marine environments and solutions containing chloride or sulfate,
phosphate, nitrate ions or similar. Consequently, ASTMA 416 requires proper protection of
strand throughout manufacture, shipping and handling. Protection during the project, before and
after installation, should be specified in project specifications, details, drawings and documents.
In recent years, various innovations have been developed in order to provide additional corrosion
protection. Some of these measures include:
Plastic coated strand for un bonded tendons has been widely used in buildings, but not
generally in bridges in the United States. However, greased and sheathed mono-strands are now
available for cable-stays or external tendon applications for new structures and the repair of old
ones.
Epoxy coated strand meeting the same requirements as ASTMA 416 is available and should
also conform to ASTMA 882 Standard Specification for Epoxy-Coated Seven Wire Strand.
Epoxy coated strand is available as an outer coating only, or as a coating that also fully fills the
interstices between wires. The latter is preferred for post-tensioning or cable stay applications.
Special wedges are required that bite through the thickness of the coating and engage the strand;
power seating of the wedges is usually required.
Strand made from fiber material (such as carbon or aramid fibers) has limited application as
post-tensioning to date. These composite materials offer advantages for enhanced corrosion
resistance, but lack the benefit of a high modulus of elasticity that is routinely provided by steel
and which is crucial to good load-deflection behavior of a prestressed structure without excessive
cracking under service loads.
Few manufacturers supply galvanized strand. Heating during galvanizing reduces the tensile
strength to about 1660MPa (240 ksi). This strand is not used in bridges.
Tendons in prestressed concrete structures do not experience stress cycling significant enough to
induce fatigue problems. Fatigue is a concern only in certain applications such as cable stays in
cable-stayed bridges where traffic loads significantly affect stresses.
Bars:
Bars should be of Grade 1035 MPa (150 ksi), high strength, thread bar meeting the
requirements of ASTM A 722, Standard Specification for Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bar for
Prestressing
Concrete, Type II bar. Coarse thread bars are used for most permanent and temporary
applications. Fine thread bars are available if necessary for special applications. It is good
practice to limit the stress level and number of re-uses for temporary applications, according to
Grout:
Grouting can be defined as the filling of duct with a material that provides an anti-corrosive
alkaline environment to the prestressing steel and also a strong bond between the tendon and the
surrounding grout. The major part of grout comprises of water and cement, with a w/c ratio of
about 0.5 together with some water-reducing admixtures, expansion agent and pozzolonas.
The primary constituent of grout is ordinary Portland cement (Type I or II). Other
cementitious material may be added to enhance certain qualities of the final product. For
example, fly ash improves corrosion resistance in aggressive environments. The addition of dry
silica fume (micro-silica) also improves resistance to chloride penetration because the particles
help fill the interstices between hydrated cementitious grains thus reducing the permeability.
The water-cementitious material ratio should be limited to a maximum of 0.45 to
avoidvexcessive water retention and bleed and to optimize the hydration process. Any temptation
to add water to improve fluidity on-site must be resisted at all times. Fluidity may be enhanced
by adding a high range water-reducer, HRWR, (Type F or G)
Pre-bagged Grouts
Grouts made of cementitious materials, water and admixtures batched on site do not
always have uniform properties. This arises from variations in materials, day to day mixing
differences,crew changes, weather conditions and so forth. Grouts made of only cement and
water often exhibit segregation and voids due to excessive bleed water. In an endeavor to
eliminate problems related to grout variations and voids, several State DOTs have obtained
greater quality control by requiring pre-bagged grouts. In a pre-bagged grout, all the
constituent (cementitious) materials have been thoroughly mixed and blended at the factory in
the dry condition. This ensures proper blending and requires only that a measured amount of
water be added for mixing on site.
A manufacturer of a pre-bagged grout may already have had the material pre-qualified by a
State DOT or other agency. In this case, it is appropriate to accept it on the basis of a written
certification; providing that the manufacturer has on-going quality control tests that can be
confirmed by submitting test reports to the Engineer. The certification should show the mixed
grout will meet the pre-qualified standard. On site, daily grout production must be monitored by
various field tests in order to maintain quality control and performance.
Admixtures:
Like concrete, admixtures may be used to improve workability and reduce the water
required, reduce bleed, improve pumping properties or entrain air. Care must be exercised to use
the correct quantities in the proper way according to manufacturers instructions and to remain
within the mix properties established by qualifying laboratory tests. Calcium nitrite may help to
improve corrosion resistance in some situations by bonding to the steel to form a passive layer
and prevent attack by chloride ions. High range water reducer (HRWR) improves short term
fluidity. However, a grout with HRWR may lose fluidity later when being injected through hoses
and ducts. Unlike a concrete mix, it is not possible to re-dose a grout especially when it is in the,
pump, hoses and ducts. Also, HRWR tends to cause bleed in grouts. On-site grout mixing with
HRWR is not recommended. Other admixtures include:
Shrinkage compensating agents
Anti-bleed admixtures
Pumping aids
Air-entraining agents
The addition of these should be strictly in accordance with manufacturers recommendations.
Furthermore, the mix should be qualified by appropriate laboratory testing. On site, daily grout
production must be monitored by various field tests in order to maintain quality control and
performance.
Ducts: The hollow materials made out of HDPE (High Density Poly Ethylene) or Aluminium
that holds the tendons within and is responsible for protecting the tendons, which impart
prestress to the slab are called Ducts.
Ducts for Tendons
Corrugated Steel :
Ducts are spirally wound to the necessary diameter from strip steel with a minimum
wall thickness of 0.45mm (26-gauge) for ducts less than 66mm (2-5/8 in) diameter or 0.6mm
(24-gauge) for ducts of greater diameter. The strip steel should be galvanized to ASTM A653
with a coating weight of G90. Ducts should be manufactured with welded or interlocking seams
with sufficient rigidity to maintain the correct profile between supports during concrete
placement. Ducts should also be able to flex without crimping or flattening. Joints between
sections of duct and between ducts and anchor components should be made with positive,
metallic connections that provide a smooth interior alignment with no slips or abrupt angle
changes.
Corrugated plastic duct to be completely embedded in concrete should be
Method B: The minimum wall thickness should be 10mm (3/8 inch) reinforced with a minimum
of four ply polyester reinforcement. Sleeves should be secured with 10mm (3/8 in) wide power
seated, 316 stainless steel band clamps, using one on each end of the sleeve (boot) to seal against
leaking grout. The power seating force should be between 356 and 534 N (80 and 120lbf).
Alternatively, connections may be made using mechanical couplers with plastic components
made of approved plastic resins meeting the same requirements as for external plastic pipes and
metal components of grade 316 stainless-steel. Mechanical connections should meet the same
pressure rating requirements (above) and have seals to prevent grout leaks.
Steel and plastic pipe may be connected directly when the outside diameters do not vary
by more than + 2mm (0.08in). A reducer or spacer should be used when outside this tolerance.
When installed correctly, a single band clamp around each end of the sleeve should be sufficient.
Double banding may be necessary to fix an apparent leak of air, water or grout.
Shrink Sleeves:
In some cases, external tendon connections may be enhanced by the use of shrink sleeve
wrap overlaying the connection and portions of adjacent plastic and steel pipes. This may be
used in tendons.
Tendons are transported to the site in bundles or packed loose in special transport frames.
Ducts are made of bright or galvanized steel or plastic. The ducts have a corrugated surface to
guarantee the adherence between the cable and surrounding concrete.
Ducts thickness varies for 0.3mm to 0.6mm. Technical features of duct:
No of strands 4 7 9 12 15
Internal dia 45 62 72 80 85
(mm)
Grout (l/m) 1.2 2.3 2.8 3.6 3.8
requirement
Cement(kg/m) 1.9 3.6 4.5 5.8 6.1
No. of strands 4 7 9 12
Prestressing Steel
All prestressing steel should be protected against physical damage and corrosion at all
times from manufacture to final installation and grouting. It should be packed in containers for
shipping handling and storage. A rust-preventing corrosion inhibitor should be placed in the
package or be incorporated in the carrier type packaging material. Corrosion inhibitor should
have no deleterious effect on the steel or grout or on the bond strength of steel to grout. Inhibitor
carrier type packaging should conform to Federal Specification MIL-P-3420. Damaged
packaging should be replaced or restored to its original condition.
Shipping containers should be clearly marked with a statement that it contains high-
strength prestressing steel, the type of care needed for handling, the type and amount of
corrosion inhibitor used and the date it was placed, and any other safety precautions and
instructions. Strand should be clearly identified that it is low-relaxation (stabilized) strand per the
requirements of ASTMA 416 and the corresponding LOT number for which quality control test
samples have been taken. Strands not so designated should be rejected. Reels of strand should be
examined by the Contractor and inspected by the CEI when first received on site and periodically
while in storage. During use, any reel that is found to contain broken wires or corrosion should
be carefully examined. Lengths of strand containing broken wires or corrosion should be
removed and discarded. Prestressing steel should also be protected during installation in the
structure. Post-tensioning bars for both temporary and permanent applications should be
identified in a similar manner and inspected for damage or excessive corrosion. At any time
during construction, the inspector (CEI) should have the authority to reject any prestressing steel
that has sustained physical or corrosion damage.
Grout:
Cement and other materials may be delivered in bags but should be stored in a weather
proof building. Storage in the open may be allowed providing that materials are on a raised, dry
platform with adequate weatherproof covering. Additives should be stored in a warm
environment. Dissolvable packaging materials should not be allowed for any components as
they can break down to pulp and cause equipment or duct blockage.
It is essential that the user (Contractor) maintain a record of all delivered materials. A
copy of the manufacturers quality control data sheet should accompany each LOT of grout
components shipped to the site. A LOT is that parcel of material from the same production run
shipped to the site. Each shipment should be clearly identified with the corresponding LOT
number so that it can be tracked to the manufacturers quality control records. Copies of
shipment records and quality control test reports should be maintained by the Contractor and
copies provided to the Inspector (CEI).
Prior to use, all materials in storage should be checked to make sure they have not exceeded the
manufacturers shelf life or have not absorbed moisture and begun to clump or hydrate. It is
recommended that cementitious materials and pre-bagged grouts not be stored on site for more
than one month before they are used. Dry silica fume is available in bags. Special care is
essential when mixing dry silica fume with cement and additives in order to produce a job-site
grout mix, as it can lead to clumping and a poor result. Pre-bagged grouts containing silica fume
have been dry blended and do not exhibit this problem.
Any material with a total time from manufacture to use in excess of six months should be
Re-tested, or recertified by the supplier before use or else be rejected and replaced. Approval of
any grout or grout materials by the Inspector (CEI) should not preclude subsequent rejection if
material is damaged in transit or later found to be defective for any reason.
Duct:
Duct made from galvanized strip steel may be prefabricated or fabricated on site as necessary.
Plastic duct may be shipped in coils or in bundles of straight lengths. In order to avoid
inadvertent introduction of contaminants or debris, it is recommended that the ends of duct coils
or bundles be protected and covered during shipping and storage. Special temporary end caps
may be used to seal the ends of individual ducts. Plastic ducts should be protected from sunlight,
ultraviolet degradation, crushing and excessive bending until installed in the bridge. All ducts
and pipes should be stored in a dry location, on a raised platform, protected from weather and
contamination.
To ensure that correct materials are supplied and used, specific quality control
procedures for material acceptance should be in place. Procedures may differ from State to State
or from Owner to Owner. In some cases, an Owner may require that only post-tensioning
systems be used that have been approved and pre-qualified under the Owners qualification
program. Prequalification in this manner involves prior submission and approval of test reports
and certifications. Samples for testing should be furnished at the job site for each manufacturer
of prestressing steel and bar. Each sample furnished for testing should be accompanied by
certification stating the manufacturers Guaranteed Ultimate Tensile Strength (GUTS),
Minimum Ultimate Tensile Strength (MUTS) or Actual Ultimate Tensile Strength, (AUTS).
An example of typical frequencies of sampling and LOT designations are, as follows:
For strand: three randomly selected samples, 1.5M (5ft) long, per manufacturer, per size
of strand, per shipment, with a minimum of one sample per ten delivered reels.
For bar: three randomly selected samples, 1.5 M (5ft) long, per size of bar, per heat of
steel with a minimum of one sample per shipment. One of each of the sample(s)
furnished to represent a Lot should be tested in accordance with appropriate ASTM
standard, and the remaining samples properly identified and tagged should be stored for
future testing. In the event of a loss or failure the stored sample(s) should be used to
evaluate the strength. For acceptance of the LOT represented, test results must
demonstrate 100% of the guaranteed ultimate tensile strength.
All bars of each size from each mill heat of steel and all strands from each manufactured
reel to be shipped to the site should be assigned an individual lot number and be tagged in a
manner that each such LOT can be accurately identified at the site. All unidentified prestressing
steel (strand or bar) or loss of positive proof of identification is sufficient reason for rejection.
Following initial acceptance, the user of the prestressing steel (Contractor) should maintain good
control over storage and identification, maintain records and supply copies of certifications and
test results to the inspector (CEI). The latter should regularly and periodically check stored
components, records and results.
Approval of any prestressing materials by the Engineer (CEI) should not preclude
subsequent rejection if material is damaged in transit or later found to be defective for any
reason. Costs of acceptance and quality control tests are typically included in the project bid
items for posttensioning work and no separate payment is made. Testing should conform to the
applicable ASTM Specifications. The location where the post-tensioning is to be installed is
considered the site and may be the project site or a casting yard.
Duct:
Key features for acceptance (according to PTI) for internal tendons are:
Duct cast into concrete should withstand at least 3.0M (10ft.) of concrete fluid pressure.
Duct shall not dent more than 3mm (1/8 inch) under a concentrated force of 0.45KN
(100lbf) applied using a 13mm diameter [#4] reinforcing bar.
Where prestressing steel is pre-installed in the duct, the duct shall withstand at least 1.5
M (5 ft.) of concrete fluid pressure and resistance to denting is not required.
Duct with a diameter greater than 50mm (2 in.) shall not deflect more than 75mm (3 in.) when
a 6M (20ft.) length is supported at its ends, although where tight radii are required, more flexible
duct may be permitted.
Plastic duct should withstand the above at 38C (100F) except that longitudinal stiffness
requirements may be reduced by 50% if the installation support spacing is reduced 50% from
that for steel duct.
The above do not apply to ducts stiffened with bars, mandrels or inflatable tubes.
Concrete
Concrete shall be prepared on the site by ready mix trucks. The mix design given was M35.
Materials used were Ordinary Portland Cement, Stone dust, river sand, robo sand and water, fly
ash. Also, for easy pumping of concrete, an admixture, cebex 100 was used.
Surveyors do a lot of different projects on a construction job, but building column line staking is
critical since columns are typically a support structure for the property. Being able to mark an
entire line that is level and straight for the construction of the columns will allow the builder to
ensure that everything is right where it needs to be base on the site plan and for the sake of
structural integrity, which is critical in the building and construction process. It is always in the
best interest of the Construction Company or builder to rely on a professional land surveyor for
the staking process.
A qualified professional land surveyor has an advantage because they can interpret the plans and
then layout the site with temporary markers to fit the goals of the builder, engineers or architect.
The builder will be able to trust that the building column line staking is correct and that
everything can continue to be built accurately and reliably because the land surveyor has taken
the time to mark everything for the construction crew. Staking is critical because it requires a
boundary and topographic survey to make sure that the site plan matches the actual property
built.
Building column line staking is not the only type of staking done. While this will ensure that
columns are constructed evenly and at the right distances, there are other types of staking in a
construction build. For example, mass grading, curb, fences, storm drains, sanitary sewer lines
utilities, building offsets, sidewalks, roads and even parking lots require staking to ensure that
they are all in the right places and that the construction crew can work around them or perform
their job correctly. All land staking is done first and then building staking will begin with a
survey that will utilize the dimensions and controls of their property to find the exact locations
for staking that aids the building process.
Construction Stage : Setting out and positioning works involves establishing lines and grades by
means of stakes and string lines to guide the contractor.
Equipment: Most of the cases Laser Instruments are used. The reasons are
Ex: A level or a Theodolite. A total station may also be used. The ones designed for construction
staking are of lower angular resolution (10 or 20) and shorter range (500m).
Before construction: New control points around the site must be established with high accuracy.
Additional points inside the site are then established. All points must be tied out for
repositioning. These should:
During Construction: Additional control is extended by the contractor as needed around or inside
the structure. These additional points should be close enough to the structure so that workers
with suitable equipment can use them.
1) First step is to locate the building by boundary surveying. Stakes are placed temporarily
at the corners as a check.
2) A set of batter boards and reference stakes are first set. The boards are around the
building corners and nailed are a full number of feet above the footing base or at 1st floor
elevation.
3) Nails are driven into the batter board tops so that a string connecting them will define an
outside wall.
4) The two ends of the offset line, on either side of the building outside the boundary are
joined with strings.
5) At the required locations, the plumb bob is dropped on to the ground to mark the position
of the column.
Fig18.BuildingStaking
4.1 Introduction:
This section considers the various stages of the design process. As in most reinforced and
prestressed concrete design work, the customary design process is of an iterative nature
following the cycle:
1. Preliminary design
2. Check design by analysis
3. Revise design as required
4. Repeat steps 2 & 3
The analysis is normally based on semi-empirical procedures such as the equivalent frame
method. More rigorous analyses based on, for example, finite element methods are rarely
adopted. They should only be considered for large projects of unusual form where the high
design costs and the inapplicability of the empirical method justify them.
The analysis of post-tensioned floor systems differs from a reinforced concrete design approach
owing to the positive effect that the tendons have on the structure. In RCC, the reinforcement is
initially unstressed; the stress in the reinforcement results from the deformation and cracking of
the structure under applied load. On the other hand, the tendons in a post-tensioned floor are
actively stressed by the jacks so that they are loaded before the application of other loads. The
force in the tendon is chosen by the designer and does not vary much with the application of
serviceability Limit state dead and live loads.
The analysis of equivalent frames may be undertaken by hand, using moment distribution or
flexibility methods or by computer using plane frame analysis programs. There are also available
on the market several; computer programs specially written for post tensioned flooring system.
These programs not only undertake the analysis of the frame under applied loading and loading
from the tendons, but also calculate the flexural stresses
This has already been discussed. It is the most important decision in the design process. Unless
previous experience or over riding factors dictate the exact form & section, several possibilities
should be studied although the designer should be able to limit the possible solutions by
considering the various constraints and by rough design and costing exercises.
4.4 Loading:
The loading for serviceability Limit State should consider the dead load and post-tensioning
effects acting with those combinations of live loads which result in maximum stresses. At
transfer of prestressing only the dead loads present during stressing, together with the post-
tensioning effects before losses due to creep, shrinkage and relaxation should be considered in
obtaining stresses. Where the applied loads change significantly during construction or phased
stressing is employed, the various stages should each be checked for transfer stress limits.
It is usual to divide the structure into sub-frame elements in each direction. Each frame usually
comprises one line of columns together with beam/slab elements of one bay width. The frames
chosen for analysis should cover all the element types of the complete structure. The use of the
equivalent frame method does not take account of the two-dimensional elastic load distribution
effects automatically. It will give different support reactions from the analyses in the two
orthogonal directions unless the width of slab will be full panel width.
Ideally the tendon profile is one which will produce a bending moment diagram of similar shape,
but opposite sign, to the moments from the applied loads. This is not always possible because of
varying loading conditions and geometric limitations. It should be noted that for bonded systems
the centroid of the strands will not coincide with centroid of the duct. This is particularly true in
the case of circular ducts.
In the simplest case, for a uniformly loaded simply-supported beam, the bending moment is
parabolic, as is the ideal tendon profile. The total sag in the parabola is referred to as the tendon
drape and is limited by the section depth and minimum cover to the tendon drape & is limited
by the section depth and minimum cover to the tendon. At the supports the tendon has no
eccentricity and hence there is no bending moment due to the tendon forces.
Fig19.Idealizedtendonprofile
The upward forces applied to the concrete by a parabolic profiled tendon are uniformly
distributed along the tendon. At the ends of the tendon downward forces are applied to the
concrete by the anchorages. The upward & downward forces are in equilibrium, so that no
external forces occur. The set of forces applied to the member by the tendon are known as
equivalent or balanced loads in that the upward forces counter-balance a proportion of the
downward forces due to dead and live loads.
For a parabolic profile the upward uniformly distributed load, w, can be calculated as follows:
Ws2 = Pav a
8
The bending moments calculated from the loading conditions given including the tendon effects,
provide the serviceability stresses at each section using:
M = Ma Pc + Ms
E = eccentricity of tendons, taken as positive below the N.A
Ma = applied moment due to dead and live loads
Ms = moment from prestress secondary effects
Transfer condition:
Transfer stresses should be checked for all floors. These are likely to be more onerous for floors
with high imposed loads. For flat slabs, stresses given in Table 2 for the serviceability limit state
also apply to the transfer condition for slabs analyzed using the equivalent frame method, except
that fcu be replaced by fci.
Shear strength:
Step 1: The shear resistance Vc is obtained by adding together the contributions from each of
the sides of the critical shear perimeter as given in BS 8110.
Vcr = vc bv d + Mo (V/M)
Where vc,b & d are values for the relevant side of the critical parameter.
The value of vc should be calculated taking into account both As and Aps for bonded tendons. The
de compression moment Mo, should be calculated for the width of the side of the critical
perimeter under consideration. It should be noted that the axial effects of prestress P/Ac are
uniformly distributed over the width of the slab whereas the prestress moment effects (Pc + Ms)
are concentrated at the location of the tendons at the critical perimeter. So,
Where
P = the total prestress force over the panel width after all losses
Zt = section modulus for the top fibre over the width of the side of the critical perimeter
P = the total prestress force for all tendons passing through the side of the critical perimeter
e = eccentricity of the prestress force P, at the critical perimeter, measured positive below the
centroid.
Fig20.TypicalMomentDiagramduetogravityloads
Fig21.DistributionofMomenttoColumnstripandMiddlestrip
5. EXECUTION
5.1 Materials
All the materials should be ready at the site. Everything will be brought on day one of
execution except Concrete. Concrete will come in Ready Mix trucks on the day of
pouring concrete into the reinforcement.
The main materials
1. High grade Concrete
2. Steel Fe 450, Fe 415 (8 ,10 ,12 ,16)
3. Ducts for tendons (Aluminium, HDPE pipe)
4. Tendons (Mono strand, 3 strand, 5 strands).
The chairs must be prepared for profiling the tendons and supporting them. . After this, the
anchorage markings are made. These are done at every end of a tendon span. The dead end and
live ends are chosen for every tendon profile. Any undulations on the formwork base may be
hammered and must be cleaned thoroughly to remove any kind of dust particles that may have
come upon it during the course of execution in the initial stages.
1. Installation equipments
2. Pumping equipments.
Installation equipments are used to induce prestressing force. They are further classified as :-
Weight (KN) 16 23 23 28
Pump equipments:
Stressing pump
Grouting pump
Vaccum pump
Extrusion jack
Stressing pump:
The PT series jacks require stressing pumps with power ratings ranging between 2.2KN -
10KN. All these pumps are equipped with automatic lock off circuit.
Grouting pump:
It consists of an eccentric screw pump, a mixer and a turbo mixer. All these machines are
equipped with a push button control panel.
Vaccum pump:
The power ratings of vaccum pump range between 4KN 7.5KN. this pump is used to
inject grout under a vaccum thus guaranteeing perfect grouting without any air entrance.
Extrusion jack: The equipment consists of a high powered portable jack fed by hydraulic pump.
This jack extrudes passive anchorages (compression grips) at the ends of the strands.
The bond end operation is completely automatic, controlled by an electronic device that regulates both
time and force.
Characteristic Flat slab Flat slab Flat slab Ribbed Waffle slab One way
imposed load Qk with drop with band slabs slab on
(kN/m2) panel beams deep beam
2.5 40 44 45 30 28 42
5.0 36 40 40 27 26 38
10.0 30 36 33 24 23 34
The components of the stressing anchorages are the anchorage body of the cast steel with the
wedges, a poly ethylene sealing sleeve and the recess former. The fixation of the stressing
anchorage is done by the setting out and marking of cable axes on stop end form work, drilling a
hole (30 35mm) for passage of the recesses former fastener and fastening the recess former
to the dead end with lock out. The prestressing force is transferred to the concrete through the
anchorage only.
Fig22.Anchoragemarkings
The handling and installation of the post-tensioning tendons does require special skill and
knowledge. Trained workers will install the tendons in the precise locations dictated by the
engineer of record, and shown on the post-tension field placement drawings. The high and low
points of the draped profile are critical to maintain and the tolerance for the placement in these
locations can be as tight as inch. In elevated slab construction, the tendons typically are
grouped in bundles in order to increase the spacing between tendons and improve the
constructability of the slab
Fig23.Tendon(3strand)
Fig24.Nominalreinforcement
Tendon laying
Tendons are bound together in different numbers. Strand is a bunch of seven rods. They may
be singly placed or in a group of three or in a group of five. The 3 strand and 5 strand tendons are
placed in Aluminium ducts whereas the mono strand tendons are placed in HDPE pipes. These
are placed according to the drawings obtained. Tendon profiling is achieved at the site according
to the elevation details given in the drawing. At about 0.7m from the anchorage end, grouting
pipe is provided for every tendon. They are supported with chairs on both the ends with the help
of chairs made from 8mm dia,
Bursting reinforcement:
give an economical solution based on the available materials if they meet the basic IS
requirements. This can lead to saving in transportation costs from longer distances.
c) Other properties:
Mix design can help us to achieve form finishes, high early strengths for early
deshuttering, concrete with better flexural strengths, concrete with pump ability
and concrete with lower densities.
Mix Design:
Take Sand content as percentage of total aggregates = 36%
(From IS: 10262 for 20 mm nominal size of aggregates Maximum Water Content = 186 Kg/m3 )
Hence, Cement Content= 172 / 0.43 = 400 Kg /m3
Formula for Mix Proportion of Fine and Coarse Aggregate:
1000(1-a0) = {(Cement Content / Sp. Gr. Of Cement) + Water Content +(Fa / Sp. Gr.* Pf )}
1000(1-a0) = {(Cement Content / Sp. Gr. Of Cement) + Water Content +Ca / Sp. Gr.* Pc )}
Where
Ca = Coarse Aggregate Content
Fa = Fine Aggregate Content
Pf = Sand Content as percentage of total Aggregates
= 0.36
= 0.64
a0 = Percentage air content in concrete (As per IS :10262 for 20 mm nominal size of
Units: kg/m3
With the same Mix Design, we have tested the concrete cubes for strength in compression
since the strength in compression has a definite relationship with all the other properties of
concrete, these properties are improved with the improvement in compressive strength. Hence,
this test was given emphasis.
Apparatus:
Procedure:
Calculate the materials required for preparing the concrete of given proportions (1 : 1.6 : 2.907).
In this case, the weights used are
Cement = 2 kg
Mix them thoroughly in mechanical mixer until uniform colour of concrete is obtained. Pour
concrete in oiled moulds with a medium viscosity oil. Fill concrete in cubes in two layers each of
approximately 75 mm and ramming each layer with 35 blows evenly distributed over the surface
of layer. Strike off concrete flush with the top of the moulds. Immediately, after being made,
they are covered with wet mats. After 24 hours, the specimens are freed from the wet mats and
cured in water for 28 days. Compression tests of cube are made as soon as practicable after
removal from the curing tub. Test specimens during the period of their removal from the curing
pit and till testing are kept moist by a wet blanket covering and tested in a moist condition. Place
the specimen centrally on the location marks of the compression testing machine and load is
applied continuously, uniformly and without shock.
Observation:
Cement = 390 kg
Fine aggregates(stone dust, crushed rock, fly ash, river sand, robo sand) = 832kg
Water = 165 kg
Admixtures may be suitably added in order to ease the pumping of concrete so that the setting
time of the cement may be delayed and the concrete retains its properties on its way to the
destination. These ingredients are thoroughly mixed in the ready mix truck for twenty minutes.
For making M35 once, approximately 60 rotations may be required. After that, the concrete is
pumped from the truck with a long pipe to the concerned floor where concrete is to be placed.
Once concrete is placed, a vibrator is used to compact the concrete thoroughly.
Fig25.Concretepouring
5.6 Prestressing
Concrete is left to harden for a few days, nearly 7 days so that it achieves its desired
strength at 7 days. M35 gains a strength of about 25 N/mm2 at the end of 7 days and it is at this
stage, that the prestressing is done. For prestressing, mono strand stressing jack is used and
pressure is applied in a controlled way with the help of prestressing power pack. Initially, a
gradual pressure of about 5 kg/cm2 is applied. This is done in order to ensure that there is no
anchorage bursting when prestressing is applied and also to check anchorage slip. The perimeter
of the rod is then marked with paint and then once the anchorage is known to be stable, the
pressure is increasing up to 430 kg/cm2. This arrangement is left for 24 hours and the next day, it
is to be checked if any anchorage slip has occurred. If yes, prestress must be applied again. If
not, the anchorage portion is locked (with cement paste) and then the extra portion of steel
protruding out is cut off.
Fig26.prestressingpowerpack
Fig27.Monostrandstressingjack
Fig28.Processofprestressing
5.7 Grouting :
After 2 days of the completed prestressing process, grouting is done for the tendons. The
primary and the most important reason for grouting to be done is to retain the prestress. Another
important reason is to protect them from corrosion by filling all the spaces in the provided duct.
1. Grouting is done with the help of grout pump. The mixture of cement, water
and admixtures must be done under a strict mixing time and velocity control
and must not contain lumps nor any air bubbles during injection into the
ducts.
2. Grouting machines include the mixing and injecting operation in a single
piece of equipment, easily handled, with pressures of up to 25 bar i.e. 5
kg/cm2, without the presence of air bubbles, using any type of cements and
admixtures.
The grout slurry used in the site contained the following ingredients:
Cement = 50 kg
Water = 22.5 kg
w/c = 0.45
Admixture Cebex 100 may be added proportionately.
When cubes of 75mm x 75mm x 75mm were tested in the laboratory, the
compressive strength of these cubes was found to be 17kN.
This completes the process of laying of the post tensioned slab. The slab is then
subjected to curing for about 5-6 days and then left to harden. At the end of 28 days,
its compressive strength may be checked with any suitable equipment (rebound
hammer). Other properties may as well be checked.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Prestressed concrete offers great technical advantages in comparison with other
forms of construction such as reinforced concrete and steel. They possess improved resistance to
shearing forces, due to the effect of compressive prestress, which reduces the principles tensile
stress. The use of curved cables, particularly in long span members helps to reduce shear forces
developed at the support sections. A prestressed concrete flexural member is stiffer under
working loads than a RCC member of the same depth.
However, after the onset of cracking, the flexure behavior is similar to that of RCC, The use of
high strength concrete and steel in prestressed member result in lighter and slender members
than is possible with reinforced concrete. These two structural features contribute to the
improved durability of the structure under aggressive environmental conditions. Prestressing of
concrete helps in improving the ability of the material for energy absorption under impact loads.
The economy of prestressed concrete is well established for long span structures. Standardized
precast bridge beams between 10m and 30 m long and precast prestressed piles have proved to
be more economical than steel and reinforced concrete. Precast prestressed concrete is
economical for floors, roofs and bridges of spans up to 30m and for cast in situ work, up to
100m. In the long-span range, prestressed concrete is generally more economical than reinforced
concrete and steel.
Prestressed concrete has considerable resilience due to its capacity for completely recovering
from substantial effects of overloading without undergoing any serious damage. In prestressed
concrete elements, cracks which temporarily develop under occasional overloading close up
completely when the loads are removed. Since the fatigue strength of prestressed concrete is
comparatively better than that of other materials, chiefly sure to the small stress variations in
prestressing steel, it is recommended for dynamically loaded structures, such as railway bridges
and machine foundations. Due to utilization of concrete in the tension zone, an extra saving of 15
to 30% in concrete is possible in comparison with reinforced concrete. The savings in steel are
even higher, 60 to 80% mainly due to the high permissible stresses allowed in the high tensile
wires. Although there is considerable saving on the quantity of materials used in prestressed
concrete members in comparison with RCC, it is not much significant due to the additional costs
incurred for the high strength concrete, high tensile steel, anchorages and other hardware
required for production of prestressed members. However, there is an overall economy in using
prestressed concrete, as the decrease in dead weight reduces the design loads and the cost of
foundations.
BIBILOGRAPHY :
1. N. Krishna raju, Prestressed concrete, Tata Mc. Graw Hill Publishing Company
Limited.
2. Working party of concrete society Technical Report No.43- Post Tensioned Concrete
Floors Design Handbook, published 1994.
3. N.Rajagopalan, Prestressed concrete 2, Narosa publications.
4. Nptel.iitm.ac.in
5. www.vsl.net/portals/PT_slabs.