J.

LEV: UMN PEKLADU

Kapitola prvn: Stav teoretickho mylen v otzkch pekladu

Pekladatel m znt (= pekladatelsk trivium)

- jazyk, ze kterho pekld
- jazyk, do kterho pekld
- vcn obsah pekldadho textu (dobov i mstn relie, autorovy zvltnosti, obor v ppad odborn literatury)

Rozbor a pojmov definovn pekladatelskch otzek:

- Maimonid (stedovk nominalista, 12. st.)
- Jan Hus (o pekladu biblickch reli)
- humanismus (jak je pomr mezi pojmem a slovnm vyjdenm)

Francouzsk pekladatelstv - pochybnosti o umleck autonomnosti pekladovho dla, pekldn ver przou

Schopenhauerova idealistick koncepce pekl. procesu = vyjden v jazyce A - nah mylenka - vyjden v jazyce B
- nkte teoretici vyvozuj, e ver je prozaick mylenka peloen do jin formy, tj. peklad na druhou
- oproti tomu v zp. literaturch je peklad ovlivnn ligvistikou, tlumonictvm a specializovanmi asopisy (Babel, LInterprte, Le
Linguiste a Journal des Traducteurs)

- strojov peklad: prce na transferovch gramatikch = definovn pekladovch jednotek (smanticky nedliteln reakce na situaci) a
analza vztahu mezi jazykovm vrazem a kontextem (mikro a makrotext)
- m opan cl ne umleck peklad (redukuje vznamov pole tak, aby slovo v SL odpovdalo jednomu slovu v TL; atomizovn vty na
srovnateln jednotky; vylouen vznam slov, kter jsou mimo hranice dan vty; st informace se me ztratit, ale nikdy ne zskat)

- obecn teorie informace (Georges Mounin), pli obrazn pojmy byly ble definovny lingvistikou: informace = souhrn vznam
promluvy zakldajcch se na mimojazykov skutenosti; obsahuje vce ne jen souet jazykovch znak; kontext = vznamy vyplvajc
z textu; situace = vechny informace, kter nejsou obsaeny v jazykovm vrazu, ale pesto jsou nutn pro pln peklad

Kapitola druh: Pekladatelsk proces

Osnova:
Vznik literrnho dla a pekladu
Ti fze pekladatelovy prce
- Pochopen pedlohy
- Interpretace pedlohy
* Hledn objektivn ideje dla
* Interpretan stanovisko pekladatele
* Interpretace objektivnch hodnot dla
- Pestylizovn pedlohy
* Pomr dvou jazykovch systm
* Stopy jazyka originlu ve stylizaci pekladu
* Napt ve stylu pekladu

VZNIK LITERRNHO DLA A PEKLADU

- umleck dlo vznik subjektivnm petvoenm obrazu objektivn skutenosti

- zpsob, jakm autor vybr a petvi fakta je podmnn jeho dobovm svtovm nzorem, politickm pesvdenm i stavem umleck
techniky (nap. Shakespeareovy hry se odehrvaj v zahrani, ale vldnou tam anglick pomry)
- v umleckm dle tedy nejde o skutenost objektivn, ale o autorovu interpretaci skutenost, pekladatel by proto neml dlo vylepovat
(oprava botanickch a zoologickch nesprvnost v Psni o Hiawathovi)
- je teba odliovat jazykovou formu a ideovou a estetickou hodnotu (p. dvojteka m jin vznam v anglosask a esk tvorb); mly by se
zachovvat formy se smantickou funkc a ne trvat na formch jazykovch (forma ale me mt i specifickou hodnotu, nap. aliteran ver
v germnsk poezii)
- ti stupn subjektivnho petven reality (autor - text; pekladatel - peklad, ten - pochopen pekladu)
- dleit vztah mezi:
SL a TL (srovnvac jazykovda)
obsahem a formou SL (odhalovn estetick funkce) a TL (hledn ekvivalentn formy)
vslednou hodnotou pvodnho dla a pekladu

TI FZE PEKLADATELOVY PRCE

1) Pochopen pedlohy

- pekladatel mus bt dobr ten

- do smyslu dla pronik ve tech rovinch: - pochopen textu (filologick)
- pochopen estetickch hodnot
- pochopen umleckch celk

- v pekladatelskch neporozumnch psob dva faktory:

- neschopnost pedstavit si autorovu mylenku
- myln vznamov spoje navozen jazykem originlu

- rozdl mezi tvrm a mechanickm pekladatelem: tvr pronik za text (k postavm, situacm a idem), mechanick vnm jen text a
slova
- pokud je pekladatel v zajet objektivn reality, me do pekladu vnst odraz tohoto prosted, kter autor nevyjdil
- tak me zapomenout, e autor pedstavuje teni vztahy mezi postavami postupn a pekladatel je me stylistickmi prostedky
prozradit dve = pekladatelsk pedvdn

- prostedky k cvien skutenostnho chpn = dramaturgick interpretace dramat, intenzivn promlen literrnch dl, vnitn i vnj
charakteristiky postav, popisy djit a situac, rozbory vztah mezi postavami, mezi djem a scenri, autorem a dlem, dlem a dobou,
rozbor odrazu cizho prosted v dle a rozbor ideje dla (jako Stanislavskho vchova herc)
- nejvt proheky v souasnch pekladech vyplvaj z nepochopen zkladn ideje dla (Hardyho Tess z DUbervill)

2) Interpretace pedlohy

- pi nesoumitelnosti obou jazykovch materil nen mon pln vznamov shoda mezi pekladem a pedlohou, je num interpretace
- asto nen TL schopen vznamov tak irokho nebo mnohoznanho vrazu jako SL - pekladatel mus vznam zit

a) hledn objektivn ideje dla

- sprvn interpretace mus vychzet z nejpodstatnjch rys dla a snait se doshnout jeho objektivn hodnoty
- pekladatelovo pojet dla nesm sklouznout do osobn sentimentality a vztahovanosti (literrn postava nebo udlost nkdy pipomn
zitky z vlastnho ivota), svdjc k lokalizacm, kter mohou bt v rozporu s objektivnm smyslem dla (vkldn eskch reli a
narek, a estetickch kvalit - ve Sldkv pekladu Shakespearova dramatu Jak zkrotit sa pekladatel za pvodn relie dosazuje msta
vlastnho rodit; Whitmanv cyklus bsn je pekldn jako Stbla trvy, i kdy pvodn znamen listy trvy, sm Whitman se ohradil
proti blades i spears of grass)

b) interpretan stanovisko pekladatele

- rozdl mezi zpadn pekladatelem (E. Pound, pekldn etymologickou metodou = vrazy staroanglick poezie nahrazeny modernmi,
etymologicky pbuznmi, ale s odlinm vznamem) a socialistickm (jde po ideji dla a pizpsobuje j technick prostedky)

c) interpretace objektivnch hodnot dla - pekladatelsk koncepce a monost "pehodnocen"

- pekladatel neme do pekladu vkldat sv subjektivn npady, ale me pinst nov pohled na dlo tm, e objev nebo zdrazn nkter
aspekt (konkrtn satirick zamen Veera tkrlovho ji nen aktuln, ustupuje obecnj satie)
- pokud pekladatel prosazuje v dle vlastn ideu, vznikne jinotaj (kter me plnit funkci v politickm boji), nebo se do poped dostane
pvodn druhotn motiv (clem Havrana je piblit smutek nad smrt milovan eny, ale Poeovy umleck prostedky ji nejsou aktuln -
Nezvalv peklad Havrana ztrc na melancholinosti)
- k vnitnm rozporm v dle dochz, je-li pesun v hierarchii hodnot takov, e to odporuje pvodnmu smyslu dla (Ornestv peklad
Vegova Psa)
- stylistick pehodnocen nesm zkreslit smysl originlu, pekladatelova koncepce se nesm projevovat zkracovnm nebo doplovnm
originlu

3) Pestylizovn pedlohy

- jazykov problematika pekladu se dotk otzek:

a) pomr dvou jazykovch systm

- jazykov prostedky dvou jazyk nejsou "ekvivalentn", a proto nelze pevdt mechanicky (rozdl slabik v zatku romnu Dobr lovk
jet ije), i dobr peklad je vlastn kompromis
- djovou posloupnost, kterou m originl monost odstnit 6 - 8 slovesnmi asy, mus pekladatel vystihnout temi asy eskmi
- je nutno kompenzovat tak lexikln a stylistick pednosti cizho jazyka (protoe mnoha stylistickch jemnosti nen etina schopna, mus
pekladatel ut bohatstv etiny tam, kde m nco navc ped jinmi jazyky)
- nedoceovanm bohatstvm etiny jsou zdrobnliny a slova citov zbarven
- pleitost ke stylistickmu rozrzovn dv etin monost vytvet pedponami a pponami inn odvozeniny

b) stopy jazyka originlu ve stylizaci pekladu

- vliv je pm (ptomnost nestrojnch vazeb tvoench podle originlu i neptomnost tch prostedk, jimi jazyk pedlohy nedisponoval)
i nepm (jak se pekladatel sna odliit od stylistickch rys originlu, kter pokld za gramatick, bezpznakov; v na pekladov
literatue je tak mn pechodnk)

c) napt ve stylu pekladu (je vznik tm, e mylenka se pevd do jazyka, v nm nebyla vytvoena)
- v pekladu jsou umleck obohacovn zprostedkovan jazykem jen zcela vjimen (peklad Mje: Le temps de Mai... le temps d'aimer)
- pro peklenut propasti mezi vrazivem dvou jazyk si pekladatel mnohdy jednou provdy vytvo stylistick kli (vysok frekvence
nkterch vazeb - v pekladech ze zpadnch jazyk je npadn mnoho vztanch vt, vazbami s pedlokou s se nahrazuj francouzsk
aposin pipojen)
- stereotypn een jsou dsledkem nedostaten tvoivosti a objevuj se i u druhho reproduknho umn - herectv (ustlen gesta pro
vyjden cit a charakteristiky postav; ti zkladn proheky v herectv - manrismus, vnjkov charakteristika postav, pirozen hra)
- pekladatel poslednch destilet asto pebarvuj text vrazy hovorovmi a vulgrnmi
- pinou patnch peklad nebv jen povrchnost, ale pekladateli-filologovi asto unik celkov hodnota pase
- pekladatel stle pekldajc z jazyka A do jazyka B ztrcej schopnost mluvit jazykem A, pekld-li pekladatel stdav obma smry,
ztrc cit pro rozdly ve stavb obou jazyk a vzrst u nho poet neobratnch formulac; dlouholetou rutinou si pekladatel vypracovvaj
pm asocian spoje
- pekladatelstv vyaduje: pedstavivost, schopnost objektivizace a stylistick nadn

Kapitola tet: Realismus v pekladatelstv

Osnova
Tvr reprodukce
- Pekladatelstv jako typ umn
- Dvoj norma v pekladu
- Podvojnost peloenho dla
 - Dvojznan vztah k pvodn literatue
Pekladatel jako literrn a jazykov tvrce
- Klasick, normativn peklad
- Pekladatelsk tradice
- otzka samostamosti pekladatele ve vztahu k nrodnmu jazyku
Reprodukn vrnost
- Pekladatelovy pracovn postupy
- Nrodn a dobov speifinost
- Celek a jeho st

TVR REPRODUKCE

1) Pekladatelstv jako typ umn

- ze vech umn je pekladatelstv nejbli herectv

- O. Fischer: peklad je innost na rozhrann vdy a umn; peklad mus bt do t mry voln, aby mohl bt vrn
- nkdy se vce zdrazuje filologick, nkdy umleck rz
- nejvt st pekladatelovy prce zabr hledn jazykovch ekvivalent, ale pat do n tak odhad, jak budou hodnoty dla psobit, volba
interpretanho stanoviska, petransponovn umleckch skutenost i jeho stylistickch rovin
- clem pekladatelovy prce je zachovat, vystihnout, sdlit pvodn dlo, nikoliv vytvoit dlo nov; cl pekladu je reprodukn; pracovnm
postupem je nhrada jazykovho materilu jinm, je tedy pvodn tvr
- normativn definice (jak m peklad bt): peklad je reprodukce a pekldn je pvodn tvr proces

2) Dvoj norma v pekladu

- dalm kolem je stanovit zkladn hlediska pro hodnocen

- v reproduknm umn se uplatuj dv normy: reprodukn (poadavek vrnosti, vstinosti) a umleckosti (poadavek krsy),
v pekladatelstv tzv. protiklad vrnosti (v kadm obdob chpna jinak, humanismus - tlumoen vznamu, romantismus - reprodukci
nrodnch zvltnost, lumrovci - reprodukci metrick formy) a volnosti
- pro realistick peklad je dleit: co nejpesnj reprodukce pvodnho dla, ale zrove mus bt hodnotnm eskm literrnm dlem
- pravdivost neznamen nutn shodu se skutenost, ale vystien a sdlen vech podstatnch kvalit originlu
- metody zachovn stylu: - zachovn formlnch prostedk pedlohy
- nahrazen domcho stylu za ciz
- styl pedlohy je objektivn fakt, kter si pekladatel subjektivn petv (Dickensovo mnohonsobnho opakovn tho syntaktickho
vzorce je ji zastaral)
- umleckost je dna estetickou hodnotou pekladu; pekladatel maj pirozenou snahu originl opravovat a pikralovat (ale zdnliv
nedostatky dla maj asto pvod v nedokonalm pochopen autorovch zmr)
- znaky pekladatelskho ke: stylistick a citov exhibicionismus, pedvdn vlastnho jazykovho umn a sentimentln zesilovn
citovch efekt
- nejspnj esk peklad po druh svtov vlce bylo Fikarovo pebsnn ipaovovch Slok lsky z r. 1952

3) Podvojnost peloenho dla

- peklad nen dlo jednolit, ale prolnn vznamovho obsahu a formlnho obrysu originlu s celou soustavou umleckch rys vzanch
na jazyk, kter dlu dodal pekladatel (rozpor: obsah v cizm prosted, jazyk esk - obzvl u kestnch jmen jsou pote s pp. poetnm
a skloovnm, dal problm je u asov odlehlosti dla)
- rozpornost je jednm z dvod, pro peklady obyejn strnou rychleji ne dlo pvodn
- psychologick rozpory vznikaj mezi dvma odlinmi kulturami (mohou vst k poznn)

4) Dvojznan vztah k pvodn literatue

- v pekladatelstv je nutn jednotn koncepce (pevn nzor na dlo a jednotn zkladn pstup k nmu - peklad asto nese stopy toho, jak
pekladatel postupn pichzel na lep een stle se opakujc situace)
- funkce pekladu v nrodn kultue: Peklad se stv soust esky psan literatury a m obdobnou kulturn funkci jako pvodn esk dlo;
krom toho ns navc jet informuje o originlu a ciz kultue vbec
- v nkterch situacch ten chce mt vdom, e te peklad, a je teba mu toto vdom poskytnout zachovnm koloritu = pekladovost
(plnj zachovn nrodnch zvltnost dla si pekladatel me dovolit podle toho, jakou informovanost o ciz kultue me u tene
pedpokldat)
- v dob naeho nrodnho obrozen bylo teba nzvem dla pithnout co nejir vrstvy k esk etb (nevkusn tituly)
- pekladatelsk metoda zvis na kulturnch potebch doby

PEKLADATEL JAKO LITERRN A JAZYKOV TVRCE

1) Klasick, normativn peklad

- otzka, zda je mon tzv. ideln a aspo pro jednu generaci normativn peklad, a m-li oprvnn nkolik souasnch peklad tho dla
(o standardn interpretaci je mon mluvit u hudby, ne tak u herectv - stejn tak neexistuje definitivn pojet pekladatelsk)

2) Pekladatelsk tradice (mra samostatnosti pekladatele ve vztahu k vvoji eskho pekladatelstv)

- u vtch dl, kter se pekldaj astji, se vytvo interpretan tradice (pejmn slov z dvjch peklad, podobnost vynucen rmem)
- u okdlench ren a pojm, u kninch titulk apod je vhodn zachovvat star een, pokud nov nen vrazn lep

3) Jazykov tvoivost (otzka samostamosti pekladatele ve vztahu k nrodnmu jazyku)

- pekladatel me nov vrazy vytvet (neologismy), ale tak ciz vrazy ve svm prosted zdomcovat (exotismy), ciz jazykov
jednotky zahrnuj i stylistick hodnoty (blankvers, sonet, gazel, haiku, blues)
- nkdy vak upad do samoeln virtuozity a bezdvodn vytv slova nov a petv slova star (P. Eisner) - pekladatel je tm lep, m
nenpadnj je jeho ast na dle
- nejsvzelnj prci, ale zrove i nejvt monost tvrho pnosu, m pekladatel pi pevdn dl, pro n v eskm literrnm vvoji
chyb protjek (klasicistick prza)

REPRODUKN VRNOST

1. Pekladatelovy pracovn postupy

- stejnm problmem je otzka reprodukn pesnosti pekladu (boj zejmna mezi klasicistickou teori adaptanho pekladu a romantickou
teori doslovnho pekladu)
- vrn peklad se upn na momenty zvltn, pipout jen vmnu jazykovho materilu a ostatn jedinen prvky zachovv jako soust
koloritu, asto na kor srozumitelnosti
- voln peklad zachovv obecn obsah a formu a zvltn prvky nahrazuje: za nrodn a dobovou specifinost dosazuje nrodn a dobovou
specifinost oblasti, do n se peklad uvd, proto vede k lokalizaci a k aktualizaci
- jedinen a zvltn momenty v dle jsou mstn a dobov narky, vlastn jmna a umleck prostedky podmnn spoleenskou situac
(francouzsk humor za anglick)
- vlastn jmno je mon peloit, pokud m hodnotu vznamovou (pojmov jmna ve stedovkch alegorich, ve fabliau nebo v komedii
dell'arte), jakmile je jmno zvisl na nrodni form, je mon jen substituce (bez n se peklad obejde pi pevodu mezi pbuznmi jazyky -
p. Chlestakov) nebo transkripce
- substituce: nap. za Shakespearovu dvojici Mr. Ford a Mr. Page se nahrazuj jmna Brodsk-Pacholk (Sldek) nebo Vodika-Hoek
(Saudek); zneuvn substituce vede k adaptaci a aktualizaci
- transkripce (pepis): zachovn jmna v cizm znn
- clem pekladu poezie je pepsat zvukov hodnoty vere do jinho jazyka, nikoliv opsat jeho metrick schma
- uit t zkladnch postup -- peklad, substituce, transkripce -- je ureno pomrem jedinenho a obecnho v umleckm prvku

2. Nrodn a dobov specifinost

- rys dobov nemus bt vdy zrove soust nrodn specifinosti (nap. rytsk kultura feudln bude od pekladatele vyadovat een
dobovch reli, spoleenskch konvenc a psychickch rys)
- Don Quijote byl napsn jazykem neutrlnm, dobov i nrodn bezpznakovm, nikoliv archaickm: je logick jej pekldat zase
bezpznakovm jazykem domcm
- mezi originlem a pekladem neme bt vztah totonosti, proto nelze zachovat specifinost do vech dsledk (dleit je vsledn
dojem, psoben na tene)
- v pekladu m smysl zachovvat prvky specifina, kter ten me ctit jako charakteristick pro ciz prosted (nap. anglick pejmn
manelova jmna i pjmen po satku se nezachovv, how do you do se nepekld jako jak se mte
- za prostedky, pro kter TL nem ekvivalent a kter v pvodnm znn nemaj schopnost vyvolat iluzi prosted originlu, je mono nahradit
domc analogi bezpznakovou, neutrln, kter nen jasn spojena s dobou a mstem pekladu (pekldat policii v paskm prosted jako
SNB je nesmysl; naproti tomu se ciz mrn jednotky pevdj do metrick soustavy, pokud nevystihuj dobov kolorit; nikoliv vak ciz
mny)
- pot pro pekladatele jsou narky na fakta bn znm v dob a oblasti vzniku originlu, ale neznm v prosted, do nho se dlo
pevd (jmna denk v erven a ern typizuj jejich odbratele), e se vnitnmi vysvtlivkami (oi jako sherry jsou jak?), kter jsou
vhodnj ne poznmka pod arou; nebo nznakem (tam, kde nen mon petlumoen - ciz jazyk pouit v SL, nap. francouztina ve
Vojn a mru - pokud se pelo do etiny, ztrat svou charakterizan hodnotu)

3. Celek a jeho st

- ulpvn na jednotlivosti je podstatou neuml formy "vrnho", otrockho pekladu, naopak celostn chpn asto svd vynikajc
pekladatele k tomu, e se sousted na pli obecn principy a zkresluj jednotliv mylenky
- kde slovo nem vznam samo o sob, ale jen jako soust celku, pekld se celek bez ohledu na vznamy jednotlivch slov
- kontext, charakter, fabule, autorsk zmr, jsou zase jen dl celky, kter jsou samy slokami celku nejvyho -- ideje dla
- voln peklad se zamuje k obecnmu na kor jedinenho, a tak potlauje st ve prospch celku, a to nejen po strnce ideov, ale i
umleck; jedna z forem substituce je kompenzace (O. Fischer, kdy se dlo nkde ochud, je nutn ho zase jinde obohatit)
- pesn peklad nedl pote u textu pevn pojmovho (odborn literatura, kde je tak na mst co nejvt pesnost, substituce nen
eln ani v podrobnostech
- nejastji se substituce uv v dlech zvislch na jedinench initelch (historicky nelokalizovan komedie a fraky - Shakespeare,
Goldoni, Molire, pohdky a nikov literatura)
- z protiklad obecn-jedinen, celek-st a obsah-forma stav realistick peklad do poped obecn, celek a obsah, ale nepotlauje ani
druhou protivu: formu je nutn zachovat tam, kde je nositelem vznamov (stylistick, expresvn) hodnoty, jednotlivost tam, kde je soust
hodnoty obecnj, tj. nrodn a dobov specifinosti

Kapitola tvrt: Dv kapitoly z pekladatelsk poetiky

Osnova:
Styl umleck a styl pekladatelsk
- Vbr slov
* uit obecnho pojmu msto konkrtnho pesnho oznaen
* uit stylisticky neutrlnho slova msto citov zbarvenho
* mal vyuit synonym k obmovn vrazu.
- Vztah mylenky a vrazu
* Zlogiovn textu
* Vykldn nedoeenho
 * Formln vyjadovn syntaktickch vztah
Pekldn kninho nzvu

1. Styl umleck a styl pekladatelsk

- je stylistick rozdl mezi (pod)prmrnm pekladem a pvodnm eskm dlem (pekladatelsk argon)

a) Vbr slov

- pi volb eskho vrazu pouije pekladatel slova obecnjho a tm mn nzornho a svho (I. Olbracht navrhuje nepsat na strom
sedl ptk, ale na oli sedl strnad)
- vtinu aktivn slovn zsoby tvo vrazy nejobecnj a vznamov nejchud, kter se nejsnadnji vybavuj pi hledn vrazu

3 typy stylistickho ochuzovn slovnku:

- uit obecnho pojmu msto konkrtnho pesnho oznaen (K. ukovskij - jsou dva druhy patnch peklad: takov, v nich jsou
vznamov nebo i stylistick chyby, kter je mono opravit, a za druh pevody, kter ani nemus obsahovat mnoho chyb, ale jsou pesto
neopraviteln, protoe jsou psny edivm "pekladatelskm" jazykem)
- uit stylisticky neutrlnho slova msto citov zbarvenho (krom oslabovn jemnjch estetickch hodnot dla se v pekladu uplatuje i
zdnliv protichdn zesilovn hrubch stylistickch hodnot, pedevm tch nejvraznjch, kter jsou zameny na siln inek)
- mal vyuit synonym k obmovn vrazu (nap. u autor, kte se zmrn vyhbaj opakovn slov

b) Vztah mylenky a vrazu

- zkladn pekladatelovou snahou je dlo domcmu teni petlumoit, podat mu je srozumitelnou formou

Zlogiovn textu
- v umleckm textu bv zmrn napt mezi mylenkou a jejm vyjdenm; pekladatel maj sklon takov vrazy zlogiovat (apkovy
zdnliv nelogick vrazy)

Vykldn nedoeenho
- sveden snahou petlumoit text domcmu teni vykld asto pekladatel naplno mylenky, kter jsou v textu jen naznaeny a ponechny
v podtextu
- mezi pirovnnm a metaforou nen rozdl v podstat, ale v koncentraci: metafora je zkrcen, zhutn pirovnn, pirovnn je doplnn,
vysvtlen metafora

Formln vyjadovn syntaktickch vztah

- pekladatel asto skryt vztahy mezi mylenkami, kter jsou v textu obsaeny jen v nznaku, naplno vyslovuj a formln vyjaduj
spojkami, mn souvt souadn na podadn (ta dodvaj pekladatelskmu stylu pedantsk, neiv rz)
- zkladnm rysem pekladatelsk psychologie je zamen na text; z nho vyplvaj ob druhotn psychologick tendence pekladatelskho
procesu: intelektualizace a nivelizace; jejich estetickm dsledkem je oslaben estetick funkce vrazu ve prospch funkce sdlovac;
vrazov roziovn a zobecovn textu vedou k intelektualizovn, ke ztrt ivosti a ivotnosti

2. Pekldn kninho nzvu

- nzev popisn, ist sdlovac, udv pmo tma knihy (jmenuje hlavn osobu a asto i literrn druh)
- nzev symbolizujc, zkratkov (udv tma, problematiku nebo atmosfru dla zkratkou, typizujcm symbolem), mus mt snadno
zapamatovatelnou formu, obvykl je soumrn vstavba (nejastji podle sla 2 - vznamov kontrast), pekladatel nkdy, zvlt u
nesnadno peloitelnch nzv, formu zpevuj; a tak mus bt vrazn
- obecn formov principy (tj. konciznost stavby a vraznost obrazu) je nutno v pekladu zachovat, zvltn nrodn formy je zpravidla teba
nahradit formami bnmi v domcm prosted
- nzvy nkterch dl svtov literatury se staly soust eskho kulturnho povdom v uritm znn, maj svou pekladovou tradici (O.
Fischer nahradil Vybrav pbuznosti nzvem Volbou spznni)
- vrazn se projevuje problematika zobecovn vrazu nebo naopak hledn jedinenho vyjden

Kapitola pt: Pekldn divadelnho dialogu

Osnova:
Princip nerovnomrn stylizace
Mluvnost a jevitn stylizace
Vznamov kontexty a slovn jednn
Dialog a postavy

1. Princip nerovnomrn stylizace

- text divadeln hry nen uzaven jazykov ada, ale dynamick soustava vznamovch podnt, z nich se vytvej dramatick tvary, tj.
situace, souhry postav atd, a proto pekladatelsk pstup nelze vystihnout pmoarm a statickm stanoviskem (substituce dvou dobovch
styl, aktualizace nebo naopak zdraznn historick, dokumentrn sloky hry apod.)
- jde o soustavu promnlivch postup, podzench pekladatelovu pojet dramatickch tvar a jeho pedstav o hlavnm cli pedstaven
- ve scnickch poznmkch nezle na stylizaci, ale i drobn vznamov odchylka me pozmnit nap. vtvarn een scny (rozbor
pekladu Gorkho Mk - B. Mathesius, K. Podolinsk)
- v nkterch bodech hry zle spe na vztazch mezi postavou a tm, co k, postavou a situac, apod.; v takovch ppadech si i pozornosti
pekladatele zaslou jej zamen, modln podbarven, vyjden asto njakm pomocnm slovem, zjmenem nebo spojkou
- stylizace je nerovnomrn, protoe text je prostedkem, ne clem

2. Mluvnost a jevitn stylizace

- divadeln dialog je promluva, m funkn vztah k hovorov etin (mluvnost a jevitn stylizace), k posluchai (voln zamen repliky a
mnohost adrest - rzn vnmn ostatnmi postavami na jeviti a divky) a k mluvmu (replika pojmenovv pedmty a dje, ale
souasn charakterizuje samotnou postavu)
- nevhodnost tce vyslovitelnch a snadno peslechnutelnch hlskovch spojen, dleit je vtn stavba (lpe se vnmaj krat vty -
problm u Shakespeara); snadno srozumiteln jsou spojen, kter maj velkou pravdpodobnost pechodu (vyskytuj se asto v uvedenm
poad)
- modern prza si vypracovala rysy typick pro mlo stylizovan mylen, dialog

3. Vznamov kontexty a slovn jednn

- replika me vstoupit do dalch vznamovch vztah k pedmtm na jeviti, me mt souasn pro nkolik vnmatel rzn vznam
(dramatick ironie), replika nen jen slovn pojmenovn, ale tak slovn jednn

4. Dialog a postavy

- dobr dialog obsahuje "dc momenty" , kter sta na vytvoen ivotn postavy, na odvodnn jejho jednn, a aby herec pi dotven
postavy nemusel improvizovat a tpat
- dramatik m svou postavu charakterizovat zevnit
- divadeln peklad pln zpravidla dvoj funkci: je ten a je podkladem pro inscenaci

Kapitola est: Peklad jako problm literrnhistorick

Osnova:
Stav prce v djinch pekladatelstv
Analza pekladu
Peklad v nrodn kultue

1. Stav prce v djinch pekladatelstv

- nejvce dlch studi bylo napsno o obdobch, jejich pekladatelsk metoda je hodn vrazn a pomrn jednoznan (antika, renesance a
klasicismus) a nejastji bv oddlen zkoumna pekladatelsk estetika a praxe
- v esk literatue chyb rozbor pekladatelsk metody klasicismu, zato jsou zsadn pekladatelsk poznatky v tzv. metod "baroka"
2. Analza pekladu

- peklad nen umleck fakt samostatn, jeho nejpodstatnjm rysem je vztah k pedloze, proto peklad hodnotme ve vztahu k originlu
(zjistit, jak text byl pekladateli pedlohou - asto jin peklady, a do jak mry se o n opral)
- kad peklad se skld z uritho procenta odlinch hodnot, kter textu dodal pekladatel (tyto odchylky od pedlohy mohou nejlpe
pouit o pekladatelov umleck metod i o jeho nzoru na pekldan dlo)
- tvr podl pekladatele na dle je tm vt, m je text silnji jazykov a historicky podmnn

3. Peklad v nrodn kultue

- vtina prac se sousteduje na zjitovn vztahu k pedloze a nevmaj si toho, jak peklad fungoval jako soust esk literatury
- nkolik typ vztah k literatue pvodn: pomr pvodn a pekladov tvorby tho autora; vztah konkrtnho dla literatury peloen ke
konkrtnm dlm literatury pvodn a naopak; a vztah mezi celou oblast pekladov literatury a eskm psemnictvm

SUSAN BASSNETT-MCGUIRE: TRANSLATION STUDIES

- distinction between word for word and sense for sense translation, established within the Roman system, has continued to be a point for
debate up to the present

1) Problems of period study

George Steiner: After Babel (4 periods of translation theory, practice and history):

1) from Cicero and Horace to 1791 (A. F. Tytler: Essay on the Principles of Translation)
- immediate empirical focus (theories about translation originate directly from the
practical work of translating)

2) from 1791 to 1946 (Paul Valry: Sous linvocation de Saint Jrome)

- period of theory and hermeneutic enquiry, development of a vocabulary and
methodology

3) from 1940s (papers on machine translation) up to now

- introduction of structural linguistics and communication theory

4) from 1960s up to now

- return to hermeneutic, almost metaphysical inquiries
 - vision that sets translation in a wide frame that includes a number of other disciplines
(i. e. classical philology, comparative literature, lexical statistics, ethnography,
sociology of class-speech, formal rhetoric, poetics, study of grammar)

- Steiners divisions the difficulty of studying translation diachronically (span of 1700 years x mere 30y)
- It is virtually impossible to divide periods according to dates for, as Lotman points out, human culture is a dynamic system

Yet there are concepts of translation that prevail at different times, which can be documented:
T. R. Steiner: English transl. theory between the dates of 1650-1800 (from J. Denham to W. Cowper)
- examines 18th century concept of the translator as painter or imitator

A. Lefevere: collection of documents that traces the establishment of a German translation tradition
F. O. Matthiesson: analysis of 4 major translators of 16th c. (Hoby, North, Florio, Philemon Holland)
T. Webb: study of Shelley as translator

- to investigate changing concepts of translation systematically is of great value to a student, however, studies of past translators and
translations have focused more on the question of influence (the effect of the TL product in a given cultural context), rather than on the
processes involved in the creation of that product and on the theory behind the creation; so for ex. there has yet to be a systematic study of
Roman translation theory in English
- the word for word v. sense for sense lines can be seen emerging with different degrees of emphasis

2) The Romans

- E. Jacobsen claims that translation is a Roman invention

- both Cicero and Horace were to have great influence on successive generations of translators (they discuss translation within the wider
context of the two main functions of the poet: the universal human duty of acquiring and disseminating wisdom and the special art of making
and shaping a poem)

- significance of translation in Roman literature has often been used to accuse the Romans of being unable to create imaginative literature in
their own right (until BC 100 stress laid on creative imagination of the Greeks as opposed to practical Romans) - but its a wrong judgement,
because Roman literary system sets up a hierarchy of texts and authors that overrides linguistic boundaries (it reflects the Roman ideal of the
hierarchical but caring central state based on the true law of Reason)

- Cicero: mind dominates the body as a king (or a father his children), but he warns against its dominance as a master ruling his slaves =
ideal SL text is to be imitated and not to be crushed by too strict Reason (word for word sounds rough, but alteration means departing from
the function of a translator)

- Horace and Cicero make distinction between word for word and sense for sence translation (attempts to enrich their native language
through translation lead to stress on aesthetic criteria of the TL product)

Horace: Art of Poetry (warns against slavish translating word for word; sense for sense is desirable)

- process of the enrichment of the literary system is essential - borrowing or coining words was so dominant that Horace advised the sparing
use of new words (addition and decline of words is natural like changing of leaves in spring and autumn, but it must not be exaggerated)
- another important feature is the preeminence of Greek as the language of culture and the ability of educated Romans to read texts in the SL
(Roman reader was able to consider the translation as a metatext in relation to the original, the translated text was read through the source
text)
- with the extension of the Roman Empire, bilingualism and trilingualism became increasingly commonplace, the gulf between oral and
literary Latin widened

3) Bible translation

- the translators work encompassed both aesthetic and evangelistic criteria

St. Jerome: translation of the New Testament was commissioned by Pope Damasus in 384 AD. (translated sense for sense)

- problems intensified with growth of national cultures and coming of the Reformation (translation became a weapon in dogmatic and
political conflicts - decline of the Church and Latin)

John Wycliffe: first complete Bible, translated 1380-84

- theory of dominion by grace (man is responsible to God and Gods law, each man should be
granted access to the text in the vernacular)
- his views attacked as heretical, he and his followers were called Lollards
- his disciple John Purvey revised the first edition in 1408 (it contains a general Prologue and
the 15th chapter describes 4 stages of the translation):
- collecting old Bibles and glosses, establishing an authentic Latin source text
- a comparasion of the versions
- counselling with old grammarians about hard words and meanings
- translating as clearly as possible the meaning with the translation corrected by others
- Purveys version was very popular, copied even under a danger of excommunication

William Tyndale: New Testament, first version which was printed, in 1525 (translated from the Greek)
parts of the Old Testament (translated from the Hebrew)
- he was burned at the stake in 1536
In the 16th century Bible was translated into many languages, in both Protestant and Catholic versions:
- 1482 Hebrew Pentateuch (printed at Bologna)
- 1488 complete Hebrew Bible
- 1516 Greek New Testament (published by Erasmus in Basle)
- 1522 German New Testament (Martin Luther, used Erasmuss version)
- 1529 and 1550 Danish NT
- 1521-41 Swedish NT
- 1579-93 Czech Bible

- Erasmus wanted all people (including women) to read the Bible

Protestantism:
- 1526 public burning of Tyndales NT
- 1535 Coverdales Bible (was also banned, but the tide could not be stemmed)
- 1539 the Great Bible
- 1560 the Geneva Bible

The aims of 16th century Bible translators:

- clarify errors of previous versions
- produce an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style
- clarify points of dogma

Martin Luther: Circular Letter on Translation (1530)

- brings together ideas of translating and Germanizing
- relationship between style and meaning is important (grammar shall not rule the
meaning)

- important criteria was fluidity and intelligibility of the TL text as well as literally accurate message (danger of being condemned to death as
heretic)
- 1611 King James Bible (in Preface question is the kingdom of God words or syllables?)

4) Education and the vernacular

- the Lindisfarne Gospels (700) - in the 10th century into the Latin text added translation glosses in Northumbrian dialect

- King Alfred (9th century) translated or caused to be translated a number of Latin texts (purpose was to help the English to recover from the
Danish invasions that destroyed old monastic centres of learning
- Cura pastoralis (handbook for parish priests) - revival of learning through greater accessibility of
texts, direct result of translations into the vernacular, Alfred translated it sometimes word by
word, sometimes sense by sense

- translation as a writing exercise and as a means of improving oratorical style

- medieval educational system based on the study of the Seven Liberal Arts, formed by:

Quintilian
- it consists of Trivium = grammar, rhetoric and dialectic; and the Quadrivium = arithmetic,
geometry, music and astronomy
- he sees paraphrasing as useful means of assisting the student to analyse the structures and to
experiment with forms, paraphrases has two stages - closeness and complex stage when writer
adds his own style)
- he recommends tranlsating from Greek into Latin as a variation on paraphrasing original Latin
texts to extend the students imaginative powers

Gianfranco Folena:
- article on vulgarization and translation (medieval translation is vertical = translation from SL,
that has a special prestige, e. g. Latin, into vernacular, or horizontal = both SL and TL have
similar value (Provenal into Italian, Norman-French into English); other writers were aware of
that = Bacon and Dante, who both talk about translation in relation to moral and aesthetic criteria
- vertical apporach splits into two distinct types: the interlinear gloss (word-for-word technique)
and is opposed by Ciceronian sense-for-sense method, elaborated by Quintilians concept of
paraphrase
- horizontal approach involves complex questions of imitatio and borrowing; high status of
imitatio meant that originality of material was not greatly prized and an authors skill consisted
in the reworking of established themes and ideas (often not clear what is translation and what is
plagiarism); accuracy is dependent on the translator s ability to read and understand the original
and does not rest on the translators subordination to that SL text

R. Bacon - discusses the problem of loss in translation and coinage, its counter-issue
Dante - focuses on the importance of accessibility through translation

5) Early theorists

- significant changes in translation thanks to printing techniques and increase of translated volumes
- attempt to formulate a theory of translation (altered perspectives due to scientifical development)
Etienne Dolet (150946)
- French humanist, one of the first writers to formulate theory of translation, executed for heresy
after mistranslating a Platos dialogue (implied disbelif in immortality)
- 1540 published La manire de bien traduire dune langue en aultre (How to Translate Well from
one Language into Another; an outline of translation principles), five principles:

1. The translator must fully understand the sense and meaning of the original author, although he is at liberty to clarify obscurities.
2. The translator should have a perfect knowledge of both SL and TL.
3. The translator should avoid word-for-word renderings.
4. The translator should use forms of speech in common use.
5. The translator should choose and order words appropriately to produce the correct tone.

George Chapman (15591634), the great translator of Homer, 1598 published the Seven Books:
- to observe the sentences, figures and forms of speech proposed by the author and translate them
in the same way in the TL
- in Epistle to the Reader (in the translation of The Iliad) - the translator must:

1. avoid word for word renderings;

2. attempt to reach the spirit of the original;
3. avoid overloose translations, by basing the translation on a sound scholarly investigation of other versions and glosses.

6) The Renaissance

Edmond Cary stresses the importance of translation in the 16th century (it became an affair of State and
a matter of religion)

Joachim du Bellay: Dfense et Illustration de la Langue franaise (translation related problems)

- major characteristics of the period is an affirmation of the present through the use of contemporary idiom and style (Matthiessons study of
Elizabethan translators - he notices frequent replacement of indirect discourse by direct discourse in Norths translation of Plutarch, which
adds vitality to the text)
- in poetry, Wyatts and Surreys adjustments led critics to describe their translation as adaptation, but its misleading (Wyatts translation of
Petrarch shows faithfulness to notion of the meaning of the poem, it is seen as an artefact, which should have a similar cultural function in
TL)

Philemon Holland (1552l637)

- updates text by means of additions, ommissions or alterations when translating Livy and uses
popular style
- he inserts explanatory phrases to clarify obscure passages
- his confident nationalism shows through the text
- Preface to the Reader (in translation of Pliny) he attacks critics who disagree with vulgarization
of Latin classics

- translation in Europe played an important role, it established a logic relation between past and present and between different tongues and
traditions; it had a shaping force on intellectual life

7) The seventeenth century

- radical changes in theory of literature and translation because of the Counter-Reformation (conflict between absolute monarchy and
Parliamentary system, widening gap between Christian Humanism and science)

Descartes (15961650) attempted to formulate a method of inductive reasoning, literary critics tried to formulate rules of aesthetic
production

- writers turned to ancient masters (looking for models), imitation became a major means of writing
- during the French classicism (1625 - 1660) greatly increased translation of the classics, French theatre was based on the Aristotelian unities
- but an emphasis on rules and models didnt mean that art was perceived only as imitative skill, it was the inborn ability that transcended
definition and yet prescribed the finished form

Sir John Denham (16l569):

- poem To Sir Richard Fanshawe upon his Translation of Pastor Fido (1648)
- Preface to The Destruction of Troy (1656)
- his theory of translation covers the formal aspect (art) as well as the spirit (nature) of the work
- he warns against literal translation in poetry
- translator and author are equal, but operating in different social and temporal contexts

Abraham Cowley (1618-67)

- Preface to Pindarique Odes (1656)
- he took, left out and added what he pleased, aiming to let reader know what was authors way
and manner of speaking
- argues with critics who term his form as imitation (Dryden)

John Dryden (1631-1700)

- in Preface to Ovids Epistles (1680) formulates three types of translation:
 1. metaphrase, or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another
2. paraphrase, or translation with latitude, the Ciceronian sense-for-sense view of translation
3. imitation, where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.

- he chooses the second type (is most balanced)

- to translate poetry, the translator must be a poet, a master of both languages and must understand
characteristics and spirit of the author (uses metaphor of translator as portrait painter which
reappeared frequently in the 18th century)
- Dedication of the Aeneis (1697) - he updated the language to the way Vigil would speak if he
was born in England

Alexander Pope (1688-1744)

- follows in Drydens shoes, stresses close reading of the original to keep alive the fire of poem

8) The eighteenth century

- question of moral duty of the translator to his contemporary reader

- to clarify spirit of a text, many earlier texts were rewritten to fit standards of language and taste of era (re-structuring of Shakesperian texts
and reworkings of Racine

Samuel Johnson (1709-84)

- Life of Pope (1779-80) - additions to a text through translation are desirable if elegance is gained
and nothing is taken away
- purpose of a writer is to be read (Pope wrote for his own time and nation)

- concept of translator as painter or imitator with a moral duty to his original subject and receiver

Goethe (1749 - 1832)

- literature must pass through 3 phases of translation:
1. acquaintance with foreign countries on home-based terms (= Luthers German Bible)
2. appropriation through substitution and reproduction (translator absorbs the sense of a
foreign work but reproduces it in his own terms = French translating)
3. highest one aims for perfect identity between SL and TL text through creation of a new
manner (combines uniqueness of the original with new form and structure = Voss)

Alexander Fraser Tytler (1747-1813)

- The Principles of Translation (1791): first systematic study in English of transl. processes:

1. The translation should give a complete transcript of the idea of the original work.
2. The style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original.
3. The translation should have all the ease of the original composition.

- reacts against Dryden, his concept of paraphrase led to loose translations

- agrees that part of the translators duty is to clarify obscurities in the original
- translator is like a painter, but he cannot use the same colours and still he has to give his picture
the same force and effect

- the era from Dryden to Tytler is concerned with the problem of recreating an essential spirit, soul or nature of the work of art

9) Romanticism

(Paul van Tieghem: Le romantisme dans la littrature europene, 1948 - the movement is described as a crisis of European conscience)

- reaction against Neo-classical ideals (rationalism and formal harmony), supported by the French Revolution of 1789
- stress on vitalist function of imagination, individual poets world-vision as a metaphysical and a revolutionary ideal, freedom of the creative
force that would create anew the universe (P. Shelley in The Defence of Poesy, 1820)

Samuel T. Coleridge (1772-1834)

- Biographia Literaria (1817) - distinction between Fancy and Imagination, the latter is the
supreme creative and organic power, Fancy is just lifeless mechanism

August Wilhelm Schlegel (1767-1845)

- Vorlesungen ber dramatische Kunst und Literatur (1809) - similar theory; opposition of
mechanical and organic form
- all acts of speaking and writing are acts of translation (communication decodes and interprets
received messages
- form of the original should be retained

- the ideal of great shaping spirit that transcends everyday world, re-evaluation of poets role in time
- rediscovery of great individuals of the past (translations of Shakespeare by Schlegel and Tieck, Schlegels and Carys version of Divina
Commedia)
- such a great number of translation had crucial effect on TL (uneasy distinction between influence and translation study)
- a shift of interest away from the actual processes of translation
- two conflicting tendencies: - translation as a category of thought, translator a creative genius
- mechanical function of making known a text or author
- Shelley saw translation as a way of filling in the gaps between inspiration, he shifted from translating works which were admired for their
ideas to works admired for their literary graces (follows Goethes hierarchy)

- the assumption that meaning lies below and between language leads to one of two predicaments:

1. the use of literal translation, concentrating on the immediate language of the message; or
2. the use of an artificial language somewhere in between the SL text where the special feeling of the original may be conveyed
through strangeness.

10) Post-Romanticism

Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834)

- proposes the creation of a separate sub-language to be used in translations only

Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828-82)

- translators subordination to forms and language of the original

- Schleiermachers theory of a separate translation language was shared by a number of nineteenth-century English translators, such as F.W.
Newman, Carlyle and William Morris

Newman - translator should retain every peculiarity of the original wherever possible
Morris (183496)
- translated Norse sagas, Homers Odyssey, Vergils Aeneid, Old French romances
- O. Wilde noted Odyssey was a true work of art, translating poetry for poetry, but more Norse
than Greek
- his translations are deliberately archaic, full of peculiarities, difficult to read and often obscure,
reader is expected to deal with the work on its own terms

11) The Victorians

- need to convey the remoteness of the original in time and place

Thomas Carlyle (17951881)

- used elaborate Germanic structures in his translations from the German
- praised the richness of German translations

Dante Gabriel Rossetti (182882)

- Preface to Early Italian Poets (1861)

- from Schleiermacher-Carlyle-Pre-Raphaelite concept emerges a paradox = immense respect for the original, which is based on individual
writers sureness of its worth (i. e. translator invites the cultivated reader to share what he deems to be an enriching experience; the original
text is perceived as property, as an item of beauty to be added to a collection)
- by producing consciously archaic translations, read by a minority, the translators reject the ideal of universal literacy - foundations were laid
for thc notion of translation as a minority interest

Matthew Arnold (182268)

- lecture On Translating Homer - reader should trust scholars who only can decide whether the
translation produces more or less the same effect as the original (would-be translator should
translate for those who know Greek and can appreciate poetry)
- translator must focus primarily on SL, the reader is brought to SL through the means of the
translation (opposite position to Erasmus and his need for accessibility of SL text)

- with the growth of national culture, French, English or German translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their
own culture
- if translation were perceived as a means of bringing the TL reader to the SL text in the original, then the translators own ability to write
were of less importance

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (180781)

- translation of Divina Commedia into blank verse (exactly what Dante says; it is rhytmic, but as
literal as a prose translation - fidelity and truth is more important than beautiful rhymes)

Edward Fitzgerald (180963)

- The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (1858) - complete contrast to Longfellows view; a text must
live at all costs, famous remark that it were better to have a live sparrow than a stuffed eagle (to
bring a version of the SL text into the TL culture as a living entity)

- the main currents of translation typology in the great age of industrial capitalism and colonial expansion up to the First World War are:
1. Translation as a scholars activity, where the pre-eminence of the SL text is assumed de facto over any TL version.
2. Translation as a means of encouraging the intelligent reader to return to the SL original.
3. Translation as a means of helping the TL reader become the equal of what Schleiermacher called the better reader of the original,
through a deliberately contrived foreignness in the TL text.
4. Translation as a means whereby the individual translator who sees himself like Aladdin in the enchanted vaults (Rossettis
imaginative image) offers his own pragmatic choice to the TL reader.
5. Translation as a means through which the translator seeks to upgrade the status of the SL text because it is perceived as being on a
lower cultural level.
 - types 1 and 2 produce literal, pedantic translations for a minority
- type 3 tends to produce translations full of archaisms of form and language
- types 4 and 5 lead to free translations, potentially altering the SL text completely

- type 3 is strongly attacked by Arnold (he even coined the verb to newmanize, after F.W.
Newman, a leading exponent of this type of translation)

12) Archaizing

J. M. Cohen - theory of Victorian translation was founded on a fundamental error (= conveying remoteness of time and place through the
use of a mock antique language) and pedantry of many translators only contributed to setting translation apart from other literary activities, to
its decline

G. Steiner
- discusses the translation practice of Emile Littr (LEnfer mis en vieux langage Franois, 1879)
and Rudolf Borchardt (Dante Deutsch - translation should restore something to the original)

13) The twentieth century

- much of the discussion in English on translation in theory and practice in the first half of the 20th century notes the continuation of many of
the Victorian concepts of translation (literalness, archaizing, pedantry and the production of a text of second-rate literary merit for an lite
minority)
- then it also returns to continuing problem of evaluation of translation without a solid theoretical base (increased isolationism of British and
American intellectual life, anti-theoretical development in literary criticism)
- but first half of the century isnt the Waste Land of English translation theory: Ezra Pounds works were very important

Hilaire Belloc
- lecture On Translation (1931) is an intelligent and systematic approach to practical problems of
translating

James McFarlane
- article Modes of Translation (1953) was seen as first Western publication that deals with
translation from a modern, interdisciplinary view
 PETER NEWMARK

Chapter 3 - The Process Of Translating

1) Introduction
1. choose a method of approach
2. translate with 4 levels in mind:
a) textual = SL text level (level of language, where we begin and continually go back to)
b) referential level (l. of objects and events, which we have to visualise and build up)
c) cohesive level (l. which traces the train of thought, tone and presuppositions of SL text)
d) l. of naturalness (common language appropriate to writer or speaker in certain situation)
3. revision procedure (at least half of the complete process)

a) The Textual Level

- automatic 'conversions':
- transpose the SL grammar (clauses and groups) into their 'ready' TL equivalents
- translate the lexical units into the sense that appears immediately appropriate in the context

- base level is the text; it is the level of literal translation of SL into TL, the level of the translationese you have to eliminate; it also acts as a
corrective of paraphrase and the parer-down of synonyms

b) The Referential Level

- make up your mind what the text is about, what it is in aid of, what the writer's peculiar slant on it is
- you have to be able to summarise in crude lay terms, to simplify at the risk of over-simplification, to pierce the jargon, to penetrate the fog
of words
- when there is an ambiguity, the writing is abstract or figurative, you have to ask yourself: What is actually happening here? And why?
- gain perspective to stand back from the language and have an image of the reality behind the text
- this level, where you mentally sort out the text, is based on the clarification of all linguistic difficulties and, where appropriate,
supplementary information from work of reference or textbook
- you are working continuously on two levels, the real and the linguistic, but you write on the linguistic level, where your job is to achieve
the greatest possible correspondence, referentially and pragmatically with the words and sentences of the SL text

c) The Cohesive Level

- generalised level, linking the first and the second one, it follows the structure and the moods of the text:
- structure = connective words, such as conjunctions, enumerations, definite article, general words,
referential synonyms and punctuation marks, which are linking the sentences, usually
proceeding from theme (known information) to rheme (new information)
= proposition, opposition, continuation, reiteration, opposition, conclusion
= thesis, antithesis, synthesis
- the structure follows the train of thought; ensures that there is a sequence of time, space and
logic in the text
- mood - dialectical factor moving between positive and negative, emotive and neutral (these differences
are often delicate)

- this level is a regulator, it secures coherence and adjusts emphasis (you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation
of the title, the tone of the conclusion)

d) The Level of Naturalness

- except for texts which are odd, badly written but authoritative, innovatory or special, you have to ensure: - that your translation
makes sense
- that it reads naturally, it is written in ordinary language, grammar, idioms and words that meet
that kind of situation
- you can do this by disengaging yourself from the SL text, by reading your own translation as though no original existed
- when you translate an innovatory expressive text, you have to try to decide the degree of its deviation from naturalness, from ordinary
language, and reflect this degree in your translation
- level of naturalness is grammatical as well as lexical
- natural usage must be distinguished from ordinary language (plain non-technical idiom used by Oxford philosophers) and basic language
(between formal and informal, is easily understood, and constructed from a language's most frequently used syntactic structures and words)
- pay special attention to:
- word order (adverbs and adverbials are the most mobile components, indicate emphasis)
- silly one-to-one translation
- cognate words (those drawing nearer to each other in meaning
- the appropriateness of gerunds, infinitives, verb-nouns
- old-fashioned, now rather 'refined' , or 'elevated' usage of words and idioms (it doesnt matter
how old-fashioned it is in SL, you translate into the modern TL - only exception if it is a part
of a dialog and characteristics of a person)
- use of the articles; progressive tenses; noun-compounding; collocations; the currency of
idioms and metaphors; aspectual features of verbs; infinitives

- naturalness depends on the relationship between the writer and the readership and the topic or situation (what is natural in one situation may
be unnatural in another, but everyone has a 'neutral' language where spoken and informal written language more or less coincide)
- naturalness is confused with: colloquial style, clichd idioms, jargon and formal language

Combining the four levels

- your first and last level is the text; then you have to continually bear in mind the level of reality, but you let it filter into the text only when
it is necessary to complete the readership's understanding of the text
- accuracy becomes most important (if literal translation does not do, there is a great temptation to produce an elegant variation because it
sounds right or nice)

2) The Relation of Translating to Translation Theory

- if the main purpose of the text is to convey information and convince the reader, a method of translation must be 'natural';
- if the text is an expression of the peculiar innovative and authoritative style, the translator's own version has to reflect any deviation from a
'natural' style.

3) The Approach
- two approaches to translating:
1. start translating sentence by sentence to get the feeling tone of the text, and then deliberately
sit back, review the position, and read the rest of the SL text
- intuition, suitable for literary, easier text, leaves too much revision (is time-wasting)

2. read the whole text two or three times, and find the intention, register, tone, mark the difficult
words and passages and start translating only when you have taken your bearings
- analysis, technical, harder texts, can be mechanical

- freak methods and ideas = relying entirely on bilingual dictionaries, substituting encyclopaedia descriptions for dictionary definitions, using
the best-sounding synonyms for literary translation, transferring all Graeco-Latin words, continuous paraphrasing

4) The Unit of Translating

- you normally translate sentence by sentence (not breath-group by breath-group) - if it has no problems, it is based firmly on literal
translation
- problem is, when automatic procedures are not adequate (struggle between SL words and TL thought):
you may forget SL words and produce independent thought or interpret SL words on their basis
- literal translation works best with written, prosy, semi-formal, non-literary and innovative language
- sentence is the basic unit of translation (first sort out its object, put new information at the end), then it is a clause and less context-bound
groups (adjective-plus-noun or verb-plus-object)

5) The Translation of Lexis

- chief difficulties in translating are lexical (words, collocations and fixed phrases or idioms)
- two types of difficulties with words: - you do not understand them
- you find them hard to translate
- many common nouns have 4 types of meaning: physical or material, figurative, technical and colloquial
- corresponding SL and TL words do not usually have precisely the same semantic range, you are over- or under-translating most of the time

6) The Translation of Proper Names

- give classifiers to any town, mountain or river which is likely to be unknown to the readership
- check the existence of any place name used in a work of fiction and spelling of all proper names

7) Revision
- during the final revision try to cut down your version in favour of elegance and force, at the same time allowing some redundancy to
facilitate reading and ensuring that no substantial sense component is lost
- in communicative translation you have to use a language that comes naturally to you, whilst in semantic translation, you have to empathise
with the author
- be accurate - you have no licence to change words that have plain one-to-one translations

- translation can be regarded as scholarship if:

- the SL text is challenging and demanding or if it is a literary or philosophical text written
in innovatory, obscure, difficult or ancient language
- the text evidently requires some interpretation, which should be indicated in the
translator's preface
- the text requires additional explanation in the form of brief footnotes

- translation 'qualifies' as research if:

- it requires substantial academic research
- it requires a preface of considerable length, giving evidence of this research and stating
the translator's approach to his original
- the translated text is accompanied by notes, a glossary and a bibliography

Chapter 4 - Language Functions, Text-categories and Text-types

1) The Expressive Function

- the core is the mind of the speaker, he expresses his feelings irrespective of any response

Types: - serious imaginative literature (lyrical poetry, short stories, novels, plays lyrical poetry is the
most intimate expression, while plays are more evidently addressed to a large audience)
- authoritative statements (texts derive their authority from the high status or the reliability and
linguistic competence of their authors; they have the personal 'stamp' of their authors, but they
 are denotative, not connotative = political speeches and documents; statutes and legal
documents; scientific, philosophical and 'academic' works written by acknowledged authorities
- autobiography, essays, personal correspondence (they are expressive when they are personal
effusions, and the readers are a remote background

- translator must distinguish idiolect (= personal dialect: unusual collocations; original metaphors; 'untranslatable' words, neologisms;
strange words) as opposed to ordinary language

2) The Informative Function

- the core is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, with reported ideas or theories
- the texts are concerned with any topic of knowledge
- the format: a textbook, a technical report, an article in a newspaper or a periodical, a scientific paper, a thesis, minutes or agenda of a
meeting

- 4-point scale of language:

- a formal, non-emotive, technical style for academic papers (passives, present and perfect
tenses, literal language, latinised vocabulary, jargon, multi-noun compounds with 'empty' verbs,
no metaphors
- a neutral or informal style with defined technical terms for textbooks (first person plurals,
present tenses, dynamic active verbs, and basic conceptual metaphors
- an informal, warm style for popular science or art books (simple grammatical structures, a wide
range of vocabulary, stock metaphors and a simple vocabulary
- a familiar, racy, non-technical style for popular journalism (surprising metaphors, short
sentences, Americanese, unconventional punctuation, adjectives before proper names and
colloquialisms

3) The Vocative Function

- the core is is the readership, the addressee; it means 'calling upon'
- also called conative, instrumental, operative or pragmatic
- the relationship between the writer and the readership is realised in socially or personally determined grammatical relations or forms of
address (tu/vous, infinitives, imperatives, subjunctives, indicatives, impersonal passives; first and/or family names, titles, hypocoristic names;
tags, such as 'please'
- texts must be written in a language that is immediately comprehensible to the readership

4) The Aesthetic Function

- language designed to please the senses, through its actual or imagined sound, and its metaphors
- the sound-effects consist of onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, rhyme, metre, intonation, stress
- it is often not possible to 'translate' sound-effects exactly, compensation of some kind is usually possible

5) The Phatic Function

- it is used for maintaining friendly contact with the addressee, it usually occurs in the form of standard phrases ('How are you?', 'You know',
'Are you well?')
- some are 'universal', others cultural (talking about weather)
- in written language, phaticisms attempt to win the confidence and the credulity of the reader ('of course', 'naturally', 'undoubtedly', 'it is
interesting/ important to note that', often flattering the reader: 'it is well known that')

6) The Metalingual Function

- it indicates a language's ability to explain, name, and criticise its own features (if these items are language-specific, e.g. 'supine', 'ablative',
'illative', 'optative', they have to be translated in accordance with the various relevant contextual factors)
- expressions signalling metalingual words = 'strictly speaking', 'in the true (or full) sense of the word', 'literally', 'so called', 'so to speak', 'by
definition', 'sometimes known as', 'as another generation put it', 'can also mean'

- except for BhlerJakobson functions texts can be divided into 3 categories:

- literary
- institutional
- scientific

Chapter 5 - Translation Methods

1) Introduction
- central problem has always been whether to translate literally or freely (up to 19th century writers favoured some kind of 'free' translation,
then the study of cultural anthropology suggested that the linguistic barriers were insuperable - notion that translation must be as literal as
possible)

2) Methods with SL emphasis

a) Word-for-word translation
- interlinear translation, the TL is immediately below the SL words
- SL word-order is preserved, words are translated by most common meanings, out of context
- useful to understand mechanics of SL or to construe a difficult text as a pre-translation process

b) Literal translation
- SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents
- lexical words are again translated out of context

c) Faithful translation
- tries to reproduce the precise contextual meaning within the limitation of the TL grammatical
 structures
- it 'transfers' cultural words and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical deviation

d) Semantic translation
- furthermore it takes more account of the aesthetic value
- it may translate less important cultural words by culturally neutral or functional terms but not
by cultural equivalents
- it is more flexible than faithful translation

3) Methods with TL emphasis

a) Adaptation
- 'freest' form of translation, used mainly for plays and poetry
- themes, characters and plots are usually preserved, the SL culture converted to the TL culture
and the text rewritten

b) Free translation
- it reproduces the matter without the manner (content without the form)
- it is usually a paraphrase much longer than the original

c) Idiomatic translation
- it reproduces the 'message' but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms
and idioms where they do not exist in the original

d) Communicative translation
- it attempts to express the exact contextual meaning in such a way that both content and
language are acceptable and comprehensible to the readership

4) Comments In These Methods

- only semantic and communicative translation fulfil the two main aims of translation (accuracy and economy)
- semantic translation is written at the author's linguistic level and used for 'expressive' texts; it is personal and individual, follows the thought
processes of the author, tends to over-translate, pursues nuances of meaning, yet aims at concision in order to reproduce pragmatic impact
- communicative translation is written at the readership's level and used for 'informative' and 'vocative' texts; it is social, concentrates on the
message and the main force of the text, tends to under-translate, to be simple, clear and brief, and is always written in a natural and
resourceful style

5) Equivalent Effect
- purpose of any translation should be to achieve 'equivalent effect' on the readership of the translation as was obtained on the readership of
the original - it is the desirable result, rather than the aim

- it is an unlikely result in two cases:

- if the purpose of the SL text is to affect and the TL translation is to inform (or vice versa)
- if there is a cultural gap between the SL and the TL text

- but in communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is essential (to keep off the grass, to buy the soap, to join the Party, to
assemble the device)
- the more cultural (local, remote in time and space) a text, the less is equivalent effect even conceivable unless the reader is imaginative,
sensitive and steeped in the SL culture.
- cultural concessions (shift to a generic term) are possible only where the cultural word is not important for local colour, and has no relevant
connotative or symbolic meaning.
- communicative translation is more likely to create equivalent effect than is semantic translation

6) Methods And Text-Categories

- vocative and informative texts are translated too literally, and expressive texts not literally enough
- the inaccuracy has longer roots: the attempt to see translation as an exercise in style and the refusal to translate by any TL word that looks
the least bit like the SL word

7) Translating
- the more difficult the text is, the more preliminary work you should do before translating a sentence
- translate by sentences wherever you can (and as literally or as closely as you can) whenever you can get the general sense, and then make
sure you have accounted for (which is not the same as translated) each word in the SL text

8) Other Methods

a) Service translation
- from one's language of habitual use into another language

b) Plain prose translation

- prose translation of poems and poetic drama initiated by E. V. Rieu for Penguin Books
- stanzas become paragraphs, prose punctuation is introduced , original metaphors and SL culture
retained, no sound-effects are reproduced
- plain prose translations are often published in parallel with their originals

c) Information translation
- it conveys all the information in a non-literary text, sometimes rearranged in a more logical
form, sometimes partially summarised, and not in the form of a paraphrase.
d) Cognitive translation
- it reproduces the information in a SL text converting the SL grammar to its normal TL
transpositions, reducing figurative to literal language

e) Academic translation
- it reduces an original SL text to an 'elegant' idiomatic educated TL version which follows a
(non-existent) literary register
- it is still alive at Oxbridge ( 'the important thing is to get the flavour of the original')

Chapter 6 - The Unit of Translation and Discourse Analysis

1) Introduction
- discourse analysis is the analysis of texts beyond and 'above' the sentence (attempt to find linguistic regularities in discourse); its main
concepts are cohesion (the features that bind sentences to each other grammatically and lexically) and coherence (which is the notional and
logical unity of a text)
- the unit of translation is the minimal stretch of language that has to be translated together as one unit

- the general properties of a text are the tone, the intention, your own intention as a translator, the type of the text, the quality of the writing,
the permanent features of the writer (dialect, sociolect, period, sex, age, etc.), the situation linked to the readership, the degree of formality,
generality or technicality, and emotional tone

- the three typical reader-types are: the expert (in the SL text culture and/or the subject of discourse)
the educated layman
the ignoramus

2) Coherence
- the more cohesive, the more formalised a text, the more information it affords the translator.
- if a narrative has a formulaic opening ('Once upon a time') and a formulaic close ('They all lived happily ever after') the translator has to
find standard phrases if they exist
- the structure of the text may consist of:
- a thesis, an antithesis and a synthesis
- an introduction, an entry into the subject, aspects and examples, a conclusion
- a setting, a complication, a resolution, an evaluation
- a definition of the argument of the title, the pros and cons, and the conclusion
- a build-up, a climax, and a denouement
- a retrospect, an exposition, a prospect
3) Titles
- if the SL text title adequately describes the content, and is brief, leave it
- translating fiction titles is a separate problem - it should sound attractive, allusive, suggestive, even if it is a proper name, and should
usually bear some relation to the original
- there are 'descriptive titles', which describe the topic of the text, and 'allusive titles', which have some kind of referential or figurative
relationship to the topic

4) Dialogue Cohesion
- the main cohesive factor is the question, which may be a disguised command, request, plea, invitation
- each language has marking words that signal a break or end of a subject ('Right', 'Well', 'Good', 'Fine')
- the translator has to bear in mind the main differences between speech and dialogue: speech has virtually no punctuation , is diffuse, and
leaves semantic gaps filled by gesture and paralingual features

5) Punctuation
- use of semi-colons for a number of simultaneous events or activities, not isolated or important enough to be punctuated by full stops or
exclamation marks, is more frequent in French and Italian than in English
- punctuation is an essential aspect of discourse analysis (it gives a semantic indication of the relationship between sentences and clauses)

6) Sound-Effects
- sound-effects, even at the level beyond the sentence, should be taken into account, not only in poetry

7) Cohesion
- most common forms of relations between sentences are connectives denoting addition, contradiction, contrast or result
- German modal connectives can only be over-translated and therefore they are often rightly and deliberately omitted in translation

8) Referential Synonyms
- sentences cohere through the use of referential synonyms, which may be lexical, pronominal or general
- words at all degrees of generality can be used to connect sentences, from general words ('thing', 'object', 'case', 'affair'; through 'hypernyms'
(superordinate nouns) and 'hyponyms' ('foal') to proper name, nickname, familiar alternative, pronoun.
- all three types of referential synonym are used to avoid repetition rather than to supply new information

9) Enumerators
- they also act as connectors between sentences
- numerical adverbs are usually straightforward, although double enumerators ('on the one hand . . . on the other', etc.) may oscillate between
enumeration and contrast

10) Other Connectives

- linguistic synonyms are used as well to avoid repetition, particularly in a reinforcing sentence
- words more or less vaguely expressing analogy, e.g. 'similarly', 'likewise', galement, 'also', de mme, 'so', 'parallel', 'correspondingly',
'equally', are also used as connectives.
11) Functional Sentence Perspective
- FSP, the Prague School's contribution to linguistics, links the study of discourse, sentence and emphasis
- it examines the arrangement of the elements of a sentence in the light of its linguistic, situational and cultural context, determining its
function within the paragraph and the text
- what is known is regarded as the theme (often signalled by a definite article, a determiner, or a generic term, such as 'Smith'); the new piece
of information is the rheme (often signalled by an indefinite article, a determiner, a specific term, such as 'Robert Smith')
- elements that belong neither to theme nor rheme are transitional
- however, every language has various phonetic, lexico-grammatical and punctuation devices for highlighting important information so
emphasis can be switched to any part of the sentence
- Firbas's 'communicative dynamism' indicates the importance of preserving emphasis in translation
- when a SL verb appears as rheme it is likely to be translated in English as empty verb + verbal noun

12) Contrasts
- climax or focus can also be marked by a negativepositive sequencec (negative is likely to introduce an opposite or a heightened meaning)
- less frequently, the contrast is from positive to negative, the latter being signalled as exceptional
- other types of contrast are signalled by comparatives and superlatives - these devices are all 'anaphoric' (looking backward); 'cataphoric'
devices (looking forward) are rarer (colons, 'the following', 'viz.', 'i.e.', 'later', 'subsequent')
- rhetorical questions (they are more common in many other languages than in English, should be translated into statements) are anaphoric or
cataphoric - they are used to summarise an argument, or introduce a fresh subject
- sentences are joined to each other by substitutions ('I do', 'I am', 'I think so', 'the same for me', 'I must') combined with ellipses ('I have ' '
been swimming').
- general words such as 'structure', 'system', 'balance', 'organisation', 'list', 'catalogue', 'anthology', 'chrestomathia' , may be used to group
sentences together

13) The Lower Units Of Translation

- paragraph is Nietzsche's unit of thought (and mine); sentence is the 'natural' unit of translation

- paragraph schemes:
- start with a generalisation and then produce two or three examples, evidence to support it
- introduce and relate an event and give the result
- introduce and describe an object or brief scene

- translate sentence by sentence, and look at paragraphs and text only when:
- you have difficulties with connectives
- you are not happy about the sentence as a unit
- you start revising your version

- within the sentence, there are five possible sub-units of translation (the morpheme, the smallest unit of meaning, the clause and the group,
which are grammatical; the collocation and the word which are lexical)
- you have to be looking at the grammatical and the lexical at the same time
- the most common collocations are: adjective plus noun; adverb plus adj. or adverb; verb plus object

14) Conclusion
- most translation is done at the level of the smaller units (word and clause)

Chapter 7 - Literal Translation

1) Introduction
- present excessive emphasis on discourse analysis is resulting in the idea in translation theory that the only unit of translation is the text
(almost any deviation from literal translation can be justified by appealing to the text as an overriding authority); it is leading to the rejection
of literal translation
- my thesis is that literal translation is correct and must not be avoided, if it secures referential and pragmatic equivalence to the original

2) Varieties Of Close Translation

- word-for-word translation transfers SL grammar and word order, as well as the primary meanings of all the SL words, into the translation; it
is normally effective only for brief simple neutral sentences
- in one-to-one translation each SL word has a corresponding TL word, but their primary meanings may differ; it normally respects
collocational meanings,
- literal translation ranges from one word to one word, through group to group, collocation to collocation, clause to clause to sentence to
sentence (the longer the unit, the rarer the one-to-one)

3) The Translation Of Poetry

- emphasis is put on the creation of a new independent poem, and literal translation is usually condemned (exception is Stefan George)
- if translation is to be regarded (if only partially) as 'scientific', it has to
- reduce its options to the taste area
- reject both the open choices and the random paraphrasing of free translation
- eliminate the universal negative connotations of and prejudices against literal translation

4) Faithful And False Friends

- many adjectives of feeling cut up meaning in their own way, so that we cannot trust a transparent translation of 'sincere', 'loyal' , 'trivial',
'important', 'truculent', 'brutal'
- more general and abstract words ('phenomenon', 'element', 'affair') may or may not be translated transparently; there is often a shift at that
abstract level (qualit as 'property') but
- there are more faithful friends than faux amis
- everything is translatable up to a point, but that there are often enormous difficulties
5) Words In Their Context
- we do translate words, because there is nothing else to translate; they are bound by their syntactic, collocational, situational, cultural and
individual idiolectal contexts - this is not so, the basic thought-carrying element of language is its grammar

6) Elegant Variations
- they sometimes satisfy the translator's wish to write in a style or phrase that is entirely natural to him
- more often, however, they exhibit the translator's flair for colloquialisms or synonymy

7) Back-Translation Test
- validity of literal translation can sometimes be established by the back-translation test, but is not valid in the case of SL or TL lexical gaps
- figurative element in language militates against literal translation when it is a cultural or a stock metaphor, but favours literal translation
when it is universal and/or original.
8) Accepted Translation
- some transparent institutional terms are translated literally in at least Western European languages even though the TL cultural equivalents
have widely different functions ('President' , 'Senate' , 'Prefect' , 'Chancellor' , 'Mayor')
- the terms are normally so important in their relation to the TL culture that a literal translation rather than transference is indicated

9) Constraints On Literal Translation

- the SL word may
- be used more frequently
- have a wider semantic range than the corresponding TL word

- if a perfectly natural SL unit produces a clumsy literal translation, then the translation is 'wrong'

10) Natural Translation

- there are all kinds of insidious resistances to literal translation (mechanical, automatic, not clever)
- apart from translationese (i.e. inaccurate translation) the only valid argument against literal translation of an ordinary language unit is that
you find it unnatural
- another of the tensions within translation is that by repeating to yourself a slightly 'unnatural' unit of language, you can sometimes make it
sound more natural, and convince yourselfit is a good translation

11) Re-Creative Translation

- good translator abandons a literal version only when it is plainly inexact or badly written
- bad translator will always do his best to avoid translating word for word

12) Literary Translation

- modern literary translators pursue what is to them more natural, colloquial, easy and more relaxed, than the original, which was not
particularly relaxed anyway (the reason is their relish for racy, earthy, idiomatic English, which is in flagrant contrast with a neutral original)

13) The Sub-Text

- the concept of the 'sub-text' by Michael Meyer (1974) = what is implied but not said, the meaning behind the meaning
- translator shouldnt go beyond words of the original by promoting the sub-text to the status of the text

14) The Notion Of The 'No-Equivalent' Word

- difficulties of literal translation are often highlighted by the context of a cultural tradition
- Gadamers statement 'No translation is as understandable as the original' is misleading

15) The Role Of Context

- translator has to be aware of all the varieties of contexts, but it doesnt mean that context is overriding factor in all translation, and has
primacy over any rule, theory or primary meaning
- translator with his eye on his readership is likely to under-translate, use more general words in the interests of clarity, simplicity and brevity,
which makes him 'omit' to translate words altogether
- the less context-bound the words are, the more likely a literal translation will do

Chapter 8 - The Other Translation Procedures

- translation methods relate to whole text, procedures are used for sentences and smaller units

Transference (= emprunt, loan word, transcription)

- it is the process of transferring a SL word directly to a TL text
- it includes transliteration (conversion of different alphabets into English), loan words
- normally transferred are: names of living and most dead people; geographical and topographical
names including newly independent countries, names of periodicals and newspapers, titles of as
yet untranslated literary works; unless they have recognised translations
- in regional novels, cultural words are ofthen transferred to give local colour, attract the reader
- problems with semi-cultural words (abstract words associated with a period - Enlightenment), they
should be translated with transferred word and functional equivalent in brackets
Naturalisation
- this procedure succeeds transference and adapts the SL word first to the normal pronunciation, then to the normal morphology of the TL
(komiks)
Cultural equivalent
- approximate translation where a SL cultural word is translated by a TL cultural word
- Abitur = (the German) A level; Palais Bourbon = (the French) Westminster
- usage is limited (they are not accurate), can be used in general texts and publicity
Functional equivalent
- this common procedure, applied to cultural words, requires the use of a culture-free word,
sometimes with a new specific term; it therefore neutralizes or generalizes the SL word
- baccalaurat = French secondary school leaving exam
- it is also used when SL technical word has no TL equivalent; often combined with transference
Descriptive equivalent
- description is sometimes more important than function (for machete, the description is a Latin
American broad, heavy instrument, the function is cutting or aggression and if you combine
both, you can use word knife)
- description and function are essential in explanation
Synonymy
- near TL equivalent to an SL word in a context, where a precise equivalent may or may not exist
- it is used when for SL word where there is no clear one-to-one equivalent and the word is not
important in the text (economy precedes accuracy)
Through-translation (= calque, loan translation)
- the literal translation of common collocations, names of organizations, the components fo
compounds (e.g. superman, bermensch)
- most obvious are names of international organisations (also known by their acronyms)
- this should be used only when they are really recognized terms
Shift or transpositions
- translation procedure involving a change in the grammar from SL to TL
- types: a) from sg. to pl. (furniture das Mbel) or in position of adj. (la maison blanche)
b) when an SL grammatical structure does not exist in the TL (cest lui, qui...)
c) literal translation is grammatically possible but may not accord with natural usage in TL
d) replacement of a virtual lexical gap by a grammatical structure (aprs sa sortie - after
hed gone out)
Modulation
- variation through a change of viewpoint, of perspective and very often of category of thought
- free modulations are used by translators when TL rejects literal translations
- negated contrary (= positive for double negative - Il na pas hsit = He acted at once)
- part for the whole (= familiar alternatives)
- abstract to concrete (sleep in the open dormir a la belle etoile)
- cause for effect (youre quite a stranger on ne vous voit plus)
- one part for another (from cover to cover de la premiere a la derniere page)
- reversal of terms (health-insurance assurance-maladie)
- active for passive
- space for time (as this in itself (space) presented a difficulty - cela presentant deja (time)
une difficulte)
- intervals and limits
- change of symbols
Recognized translation
- you should normally use the official or the generally accepted translation of any institutional term
- you can gloss it, if appropriate, and indirectly show your disagreement with this official version
Translation label
- a provisional translation, usually of a new institutional term (it should be made in inverted
commas, which can later be discreetly withdrawn)
- it could be done through literal translation
Compensation
- when loss of meaning, sound- effect, metaphor or pragmatic effect in one part of a sentence is compensated in another part, or in a
contiguous sentence
Componential analysis
- splitting up of a lexical unit into its sense components, often one-to-two, -three or four translations
Reduction and expansion
- rather imprecise translation procedures, which you practise intuitively in some cases
- for each there is at least 1 shift which you may like to bear in mind, mainly in poorly written texts:
- SL adjective of substance + general noun => TL noun (science linguistique linguistics)
- SL adjective => English TL adverb + past participle/ present participle+object
Paraphrase
- amplification or explanation of the meaning of a segment of the text
- it is used in an anonymous text when it is poorly written, or has important implications and
omissions
Equivalence
- implies approximate equivalence, accounting for the same situation in different terms
- they are different ways of rendering the clichs and standard aspects of language (the story so
far the resume des chapitres precedents)
Adaptations
- use of a recognised equivalent between two situations
- this is a matter of cultural equivalence (Dear Sir translated as Monsieur)
Couplets
- couplets, triplets or quadruplets combine 2, 3 or 4 of the above-mentioned procedures respectively
for dealing with a single problem