2.

Manual Metal Arc Welding

2. Manual Metal Arc Welding 18

Figure 2.1 describes the burn-off of a cov-

ered stick electrode. The stick electrode
air electrode core
consists of a core wire with a mineral cover-
(O2, N2, etc.)
electrode coating ing. The welding arc between the electrode
and the workpiece melts core wire and cover-
ing. Droplets of the liquefied core wire mix
Smoke and gas
with the molten base material forming weld
metal while the molten covering is forming
slag which, due to its lower density, solidifies
on the weld pool. The slag layer and gases
which are generated inside the arc protect the
liquid slag metal during transfer and also the weld pool
solid slag
from the detrimental influences of the sur-
rounding atmosphere.
br-er2-01.cdr c ISF 2002

Weld Point

Figure 2.1

Covered stick electrodes

have replaced the initially
applied metal arc and car-
bon arc electrodes. The
covering has taken on the
functions which are de-
scribed in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2

2005
2. Manual Metal Arc Welding 19

The covering of the stick electrode consists of a multitude of components which are mainly
mineral, Figure 2.3.

coating raw material effect on the welding characteristics

quartz - SiO2 to raise current-carrying capacity

rutile -TiO2 to increase slag viscosity,

good re-striking
magnetite - Fe3O4 to refine transfer of droplets through the arc
to reduce arc voltage, shielding gas
calcareous spar -CaCO3
emitter and slag formation
fluorspar - CaF2 to increase slag viscosity of basic electrodes,
decrease ionization
calcareous- fluorspar - easy to ionize,
K2O Al2O3 6SiO2 to improve arc stability
ferro-manganese / ferro-silicon deoxidant
cellulose shielding gas emitter
kaolin -
Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O lubricant

potassium water glass

K2SiO3 / Na2SiO3 bonding agent

br-er2-03.cdr ISF 2002

Influence of the Coating Constituents

on Welding Characteristics

Figure 2.3

For the stick electrode manufacturing mixed ground and screened covering materials are
used as protection for the core wire which has been drawn to finished diameter and subse-
quently cut to size, Figure 2.4.

raw material storage

for flux production

raw wire
storage wire drawing machine
and cutting system
jaw
1 2 3
crusher
descaling inspection
magnetic
separation example of a three-stage wire drawing machine to the
drawing plate pressing
cone crusher plant
for pulverisation
sieving 6 mm 5,5 mm 4 mm 3,25 mm electrode
compound
to further treatment like milling,
sieving, cleaning and weighing weighing wet mixer
sieving system and
mixing

inspection
inspection
br-er2-04.cdr ISF 2002

Stick Electrode Fabrication 1

Figure 2.4

2005
2. Manual Metal Arc Welding 20

the pressing plant The core wires are coated

with the covering material
which contains binding

inspection inspection
agents in electrode extru-

electrode
electrode-
press
compound packing
inspection
sion presses. The defect-
compound
core wire TO
DELIVERY
free electrodes then pass
maga-
zine nozzleconvey-
wire wire pressing
magazine feeder
ing
belt
through a drying oven and
head

drying stove are, after a final inspection,

inspection
automatically packed, Fig-
inspection
inspection ure 2.5.
br-er10-33e.cdr ISF 2002

Stick Electrode Fabrication 2

Figure 2.5

Figure 2.6 shows how the moist extruded cov-

ering is deposited onto the core wire inside an
electrode extrusion press. core rod
coating
pressing nozzle
pressing cylinder pressing cylinder

pressing mass core rod guide

br-er2-06.cdr

Production of Stick Electrodes

Figure 2.6

2005
2. Manual Metal Arc Welding 21

Stick electrodes are, according to their covering compositions, categorized into four differ-
ent types, Figure 2.7. with concern to burn-off characteristics and achievable weld metal
toughness these types show fundamental differences.

cellulosic type acid type rutile type basic typ

cellulose 40 magnetite Fe3O4 50 rutile TiO2 45 fluorspar CaF2 45
rutile TiO2 20 quartz SiO2 20 magnetite Fe3O4 10 calcite CaCO3 40
quartz SiO2 25 calcite CaCO3 10 quartz SiO2 20 quartz SiO2 10
Fe - Mn 15 Fe - Mn 20 calcite CaCO3 10 Fe - Mn 5
potassium water glass potassium water glass Fe - Mn 15 potassium water glass
potassium water glass
almost slag solidification slag solidification slag solidification
no slag time: long time: medium time: short
droplet transfer : droplet transfer : droplet transfer : droplet transfer :
medium- sized fine droplets medium- sized to medium- sized to
droplets to sprinkle fine droplets big droplets
toughness value: toughness value: toughness value: toughness value:
good normal good very good

br-er2-07.cdr ISF 2002

Characteristic Features of
Different Coating Types

Figure 2.7

The melting characteristics of the different coverings and the slag properties result in further
properties; these determine the areas of application, Figure 2.8.

coating type cellulosic type acid type rutile type basic type
symbol C A R B

current type/polarity ~/+ ~/+ ~/+ =/+

gap bridging very good moderate good good

ability
PG,(PA,PB, PA,PB,PC, PA,PB,PC, PA,PB,PC,
welding positions
PC,PE,PF) PE,PF,PG PE,PF,(PG) PE,PF,PG
sensitivity of
low high low very low
cold cracking

weld appearance moderate good good moderate

slag good very good very good moderate

detachability

spatter, low burn-out

characteristic little slag, high burn-out universal losses
features intensive fume losses application hygroscopic
formation predrying!!
br-er2-08.cdr ISF 2002

Characteristics of
Different Coating Types

Figure 2.8

2005
2. Manual Metal Arc Welding 22

The dependence on
temperature of the slags
electrical conductivity ing slag
-contain

conductivity
r u ti le
determines the reignition high r
nducto
semico reignition
behaviour of a stick elec- threshold

e
e
ur

to ur
trode, Figure 2.9. The

co tem lag
uc mp g
r at

uc rat
n d - te l a

s
to e r
co igh id s

r
nd pe
i c
electrical conductivity for a

hig bas
h ac

h-
rutile stick electrode lies,
also at room temperature,
temperature
above the threshold value br-er2-09.cdr ISF 2002

which is necessary for Conductivity of Slags

reignition. Therefore, rutile
electrodes are given pref-
erence in the production of
tack welds where reigni-
tion occurs frequently.
The complete designation
for filler materials, follow-
ing European Standardi-
Figure 2.9
DIN EN 499 - E 46 3 1Ni B 5 4 H5
3
hydrogen content < 5 cm /100 g welding deposit
butt weld: gravity position
fillet weld: gravity position
suitable for direct and alternating current
recovery between 125% and 160%
basic thick-coated electrode
chemical composition 1,4% Mn and approx. 1% Ni
o
minimum impact 47 J in -30 C
minimum weld metal deposit yield strength: 460 N/mm
2

distinguishing letter for manual electrode stick welding

sation, includes details
partly as encoded abbre- The mandatory part of the standard designation is: EN 499 - E 46 3 1Ni B

viation which are rele- br-er2-10.cdr ISF 2002

vant for welding, Figure Designation Example

for Stick Electrodes
2.10. The identification
letter for the welding proc- Figure 2.10
ess is first:
E - manual electrode welding G - gas metal arc welding
T - flux cored arc welding W - tungsten inert gas welding
S - submerged arc welding

2005
2. Manual Metal Arc Welding 23

The identification numbers give information about yield point, tensile strength and elongation
of the weld metal where the tenfold of the identification number is the minimum yield point
in N/mm, Figure 2.11.

key number minimum yield strength tensile strength minimum elongation*)

N/mm2 N/mm2 %

35 355 440-570 22

38 380 470-600 20

42 420 500-640 20

46 460 530-680 20

50 500 560-720 18

*) L0 = 5 D0

br-er2-11.cdr ISF 2002

Characteristic Key Numbers of Yield Strength,

Tensile Strength and Elongation

Figure 2.11

The identification figures for the minimum impact energy value of 47 J a parameter for the
weld metal toughness are shown in Figure 2.12.

characteristic figure 0
minimum impact energy 47 J [ C]

Z no demands
A +20
0 0
2 -20
3 -30
4 -40
5 -50
6 -60
7 -70
8 -80

The minimum value of the impact energy allocated to the characteristic

figures is the average value of three ISO-V-Specimen, the lowest
value of whitch amounts to 32 Joule.

br-er2-12.cdr

Characteristic Key Numbers

for Impact Energy

Figure 2.12

2005
2. Manual Metal Arc Welding 24

The chemical composition

alloy symbol chemical composition*)
of the weld metal is shown %
Mn Mo Ni
by the alloy symbol, Figure without _ -
2,0
2.13. Mo 1,4 0,3 - 0,6 -
MnMo >1,4 - 2,0 0,3 - 0,6 -
1 Ni 1,4 - 0,6 - 1.2
2 Ni 1,4 - 1,8 - 2,6
The properties of a stick 3 Ni 1,4 - 2,6 - 3,8
Mn 1 Ni >1,4 - 2,0 - 0,6 - 1,2
electrode are characterised 1 Ni Mo 1,4 0,3 - 0,6 0,6 - 1,2

by the covering thickness Z other specified compositions

*) companion elements: Mo 0,2; Ni 0,5; Cr 0,2; V 0,08; Nb 0,05; Cu 0,3; Al 2,0
and the covering type. Both (applies only to self-shielded flux-cored electrodes).
single values are maxima
details are determined by br-er2-13.cdr ISF 2002

the identification letter for Alloy Symbols for Weld Metals

Minimum Yield Strength up to 500 N/mm2
the electrode covering,
Figure 2.14. Figure 2.13

Figure 2.15 explains the additional identifica-

key letter type of coating tion figure for electrode recovery and applica-
ble type of current. The subsequent identifi-
A acid coating cation figure determines the application possi-

B basic coating
bilities for different welding positions:

C cellulose coating
1- all positions
R rutile coated
(medium thick) 2- all positions, except vertical down
RR rutile coated (thick)
postion
RA rutile acid coating 3- flat position butt weld, flat position fillet
RB rutile basic coating weld, horizontal-, vertical up position
4- flat position butt and fillet weld
RC rutile cellulose coating
5- as 3; and recommended for vertical
br-er2-14.cdr ISF 2002 down position
Key Letters for
Electrode Coatings

Figure 2.14

2005
2. Manual Metal Arc Welding 25

The last detail of the Euro-

additional deposition efficiency current type*)
characteristic number % pean Standard designation
1 <105 alternating and direct current determines the maximum
2 <105 direct current
hydrogen content of the
3 >105 125 alternating and direct current
4 >105 125 direct current weld metal in cm per 100
5 >125 160 alternating and direct current
6 >125 160 direct current
g weld metal.
7 >160 alternating and direct current Welding current amper-
8 >160 direct current
age and core wire diame-
*) To prove the suitability for direct current,
the tests have to be run with a no-load voltage of max. 65 V. ter of the stick electrode
br-er2-15.cdr ISF 2002
are determined by the
Additional Characteristic Numbers thickness of the workpiece
for Deposition Efficiency and Current Type
to be welded. Fixed stick
Figure 2.15 electrode lengths are as-
signed to each diameter,
Figure 2.16.

d 2,0 2,5 3,25 4,0 5,0 6,0

diameter
mm Figure 2.17 shows the

length
l
250/300 350 350/450 350/450 450 450 process principle of man-
mm
ual metal arc welding.
I
current 40-80 50-100 90-150 120-200 180-270 220-360
A Polarity and type of current
rule-of -thumb min. 20 x d 30 x d 35 x d depend on the applied
for current[A] max. 40 x d 50 x d 60 x d
electrode types. All known
power sources with a de-
br-er2-16.cdr ISF 2002

scending characteristic
Size and Welding Current
of Stick Electrodes curve can be used.

Figure 2.16

Since in manual metal arc welding the arc length cannot always be kept constant, a steeply
descending power source is used. Different arc lengths lead therefore to just minimally al-
tered weld current intensities, Figure 2.18. Penetration remains basically unaltered.

2005
2. Manual Metal Arc Welding 26

Simple welding transformers are used for a.c. welding. For d.c. welding mainly converters,
rectifiers and series regulator transistorised power sources (inverters) are applied. Convert-
ers are specifically suitable
electrode holder
for site welding and are
mains-independent when

stick electrode
an internal combustion en-
- (+)
gine is used. The advan-
power source
= or ~ tages of inverters are their

+ (-) small size and low weight,

arc
however, a more compli-
cated electronic design is
work piece necessary, Figure 2.19.
br-er2-17.cdr ISF 2002

Principle Set-up of MMAW Process

Figure 2.17

arc welding
converter

power source
characteristic
A2 A1 transformer
U

A2
2
rectifier
1
A1

21 inverter
I type
characteristic
of the arc

br-er2-18e.cdr br-er2-19.cdr ISF 2002

ISF 2002

Operating Point at Power Sources

Different Arc Lengths for MMAW

Figure 2.18 Figure 2.19

2005
2. Manual Metal Arc Welding 27

45 7

cy
RA73 kg/h

en
V

ici
eff
6

ion
c

sit
40

po
de
5
RR73

burn-off rate at 100% duty cycle

0%

cy
22

n
medium weld voltage

ie
X

fic
35 4

ef
n
b

io
sit
po
ted

de
3
RR12 oa
-c

0%
a
RA12 ick

16
30 th
d
B53 2 te
c oa
in-
th
B15 1
25 = RR12 - 5 mm
= 3,25 X = RR73 - 5 mm
= 4
0
= 5 0 100 200 300 400 A 500
= 6 welding amperage
20
100 200 300 A 400 a = A- and R- coated electrodes, recovery 105%
b = basic-coated electrodes, recovery <125%
medium weld current c = high-performance electrodes
br-er2-20.cdr ISF 2002 br-er2-21.cdr ISF 2002

Medium Weld Current and Burn-Off Rate

Voltages for Stick Electrodes of Stick Electrodes

Figure 2.20 Figure 2.21

Figure 2.20 shows the standard welding pa-
steel: constructional steels
shipbuilding steels rameters of different stick electrode diameters
high-strength constructional steels
boiler and pressure vessel steels and stick electrode types.
austenitic steels
creep resistant steels
austenitic-ferritic steels (duplex)
scale resistant steels The rate of deposition of a stick electrode is,
wear resistant steels
hydrogen resistant steels besides the used current intensity, dependent
high-speed steels
cast steels on the so-called electrode recovery, Figure
combinations of materials (ferritic/ austenitic)
cast iron: cast iron with lamella graphite
2.21. This describes the mass of deposited
cast iron with globular graphite
weld metal / mass of core wire ratio in per-
nickel: pure nickel
Ni-Cu-alloys cent. Electrode recovery can reach values of
Ni-Cr-Fe-alloys
Ni-Cr-Mo-alloys
up to 220% with metal covering components
copper: electrical grade copper (ETP copper)
bronzes (CuSn, CuAl) in high-efficiency electrodes.
gunmetal (CuSnZnPb)
Cu-Ni-alloys A survey of the material spectrum which is
aluminium: pure aluminium
AlMg-alloys suitable for manual metal arc welding is given
AlSi -alloys
br-er2-22.cdr ISF 2002

in Figure 2.22. The survey comprises almost

Suitable Materials for
Manual Metal Arc Welding all metals known for technical applications and

Figure 2.22 2005

2. Manual Metal Arc Welding 28

also explains the wide ap-

plication range of the
method.
In d.c. welding, the concen-
tration of the magnetic
arc-blow producing
forces can lead to the de-
flection of the arc from
power supply point on the

br-er2-23e.cdr
side of the workpiece, Fig-
Arc Blow Effect through Concentration ure 2.23. The material
of Magnetic Fields
transfer also does not oc-
Figure 2.23 cur at the intended point.

Arc deflection may also occur at magnetiz-

able mass accumulations although, in that
case, in the direction of the respective mass,
inwards at the edges
Figure 2.24.

Figures 2.25 and 2.26 show how by various

close to current-connection
measures the magnetic arc blow can be
compensated or even avoided.

close to large workpiece masses

The positioning of the electrodes in opposite
direction brings about the correct placement of
the weld metal. Numerous strong tacks close
in gaps towards the weld
the magnetic flux inside the workpiece. By ad-
ditional, opposite placed steel masses as well
as by skilful transfer of the power supply point br-er2-24.cdr ISF 2002

the various reasons for arc deflection can be Arc Blow Effect
on Steel Parts
eliminated. The fast magnetic reversal when
a.c. is used minimises the influence of the Figure 2.24
magnetic arc blow.

2005
2. Manual Metal Arc Welding 29

tilting of electrode

through additional blocks of steel

great number of tacks

through relocating the current-

connection (rarely used)
the welding
sequence

through using
a welding transformer
alternating current (not
applicable for all
tacks types of electrodes)

br-er2-25.cdr ISF 2002 br-er2-26.cdr ISF 2002

Remedy Against Remedy Against

Arc Blow Effect 1 Arc Blow Effect 2

Figure 2.25 Figure 2.26

Depending on the electrode covering, the wa-
ter absorption of a stick electrode may vary
strongly during storage, Figure 2.27. The ab-
4,0 20C / 70% RF sorbed humidity leads during subsequent
% welding frequently to an increased hydrogen
Water content of the coating

3,0 content in the weld metal and, thus, increases

cold cracking susceptibility.
2,0

1,0

0
0,1 1 10 Days 100
Time of storage

br-er2-27.cdr ISF 2002

Water Absorption of Different

Basic-Coated Electrodes

Figure 2.27
2005
2. Manual Metal Arc Welding 30

Stick electrodes, particularly those with a basic, rutile or cellulosic cover have to be baked
before welding to keep the water content of the cover during welding below the permissible
values in order to avoid
1,0
% hydrogen-induced cracks,
0,9

0,8 basic-coated electrode Figure 2.28. The baking

Water content of the coating

(having been stored at

0,7 18 - 20C for one year) temperature and time are
0,74
0,6
specified by the manufac-
0,5
turer. Baking is carried out
0,4
0,39
0,3 in special ovens; in damp
0,28
0,2
AWS A5.5 working conditions and
0,1 storage and baking
only just before welding are
0
30 40 50 60 70 % 80 electrodes taken out from
br-er2-28.cdr ISF 2002

Water Content of the Coating

electrically heated recepta-
after Storage and Baking cles.
Figure 2.28

2005