1.

0 General

The industrial and commercial systems have advanced and grown in recent years
with capacities close to or sometimes exceeding that of small electric utility (EB =
Electricity Board) system

Todays intensely competitive business environment forces management personnel to

be very aware of the total owning cost of their electrical power distribution system

Therefore they demand assurances of maximum return on all capital investments in

the electrical power systems

The use of digital computers with sophisticated electrical system softwares (like
ETAP, CYME, SKM Power Tools, EDSA, ERACS) makes it possible to study the
performance of proposed and actual systems under many operating conditions.

Answers to many questions regarding impact of system expansion, short circuit

capacity, stability, load distribution etc, can be intelligently and economically obtained,

The planning, design and operation of Utility (i.e the Electricity Board), industrial, oil
and gas, petrochemical and commercial power systems require several studies to
assist in evaluation of the initial and future system performance, system reliability,
safety and ability to grow with the production and/or operating requirements.

The studies most likely to be needed are

load flow studies for steady state power flow and steady state voltage drop
calculation in branches of system like cable, overhead line and transformers.,
short circuit or fault current calculation and analysis studies,
motor start studies
relay coordination studies,
harmonic studies,
transient stability studies.

The Lead engineer or Specialist Engineer must decide which studies are needed to
ensure that the system will operate safely, economically and efficiently over the
expected life of the system.

2.0 Preparation for the study

For a design or plant electrical engineer to solve a power system analysis problem,
the engineer must be thoroughly familiar with the fundamentals of electrical power
engineering.

The engineer can then analyse the problem, prepare necessary equivalent circuits
and obtain appropriate data before using a power system software to perform
repetitive calculations.

Failute to use valid analytical procedure to establish a sound basic approach to the
problem could lead to disastrous consequences in both the design and operation of a
system.

Furthermore, a basic understanding of power engineering is essential to correctly

interpret the results of the power system software calculation results.

It is important to emphasise the need for thorough foundation and base of experience
in electrical power system engineering in addition to modern, effective computing
tools and software.
 Electrical power system analysis engineering softwares (such as ETAP, CYME, SKM
Power Tools, EDSA or ERACS) are excellent for studying power systems but it cannot
be used as a substitute for knowledge and experience. So some basic fundamentals
of power system engineering has to be attained or brushed before an engineer can
use the software.

To set up the electrical system MODEL SLD in the software for system analysis,
certain basic data must be gathered with accuracy and proper presentation.

The extent of system representation, restriction in terms of nodes or buses and

branches ( such as cables, lines and transformers), balanced three phase network
and single line diagram (SLD), impedance diagram, load list at various busbars, spilt
of loads as motor or lighting, identification of harmonic generating loads, etc, are all
important inputs to a meaningful system study.

3.0 Load Flow Studies Using Load flow analysis study module

Load flows are steady state power flow and voltage drop calculation analytical tools.

These calculate active and reactive power flows from the generating or power grid
sources and through each of the branches (brances are transformers and cables and
over head lines) along with and voltages at all the bus and nodes.

Applications include:

Calculation of voltages at all busbars due to power flow throw branches from
sources to load.
Check ALERT for under voltage or over voltage or branch over loading
Calculation of voltage drops (steady state voltage drop) in branches such as
cables, overhead lines or transformers for Identifying excessive voltage
variations/violations under normal circuit operation and abnormal contingency
outage conditions.
Checking current flows under different conditions.
Checking power factor of power flow at all source and branch circuits.
Calculation of current and power flows in branches for Identifying overloaded
circuits and necessary plant upgrades under normal and contingency outage
conditions.
Identifying under loaded circuits for carrying out system optimisation
Estimating overall active and reactive power losses including assessment of
these losses in individual branches.
Estimating the range of TRANSFORMER ON LOAD AUTO TAP changers or
TRANSFORMER OFF Load Tap changers required to ensure system voltages
are maintained at all points to well within desired limits under both peak and
minimum load conditions
Specifying ratings cables, reactors and transformers for all conditions.
 Specifying compensation equipment such as power factor correction capacitors
or reactive absorbing devices such as reactors.
1. Load flow study result acceptance criteria needs to developed and agreed
with the CLIENT for comparison of results with criteria as required to analyse
the power system load flow software results.

2.0 Fault Level Studies

Accurate fault level assessments support the legally required safety rating of
equipment to reduce dangers.

Study includes comparison of evaluated fault levels (like initial AC symmetrical rms
fault current, peak making fault current and Asymmetrical break rms fault current
values) at any given bus in the system for comparison with corresponding switchgear
and breaker peak and break fault ratings.

Each of the above peak fault kA peak, initial symmetrical rms Ik kA rms and
asymmetrical break rms kA rms rating of the switchgear/CB should be greater than
the calculated values of each of these currents. That is:-

Peak fault rating in kA peak of a switchgear/CB should be greater than the

calculated Peak fault (kA peak) current at that switchgear point of the system.
Initial AC symmetrical kA rms fault rating of switchgear/CB should be greater
than the calculated Initial AC symmetrical kA rms fault current at that
switchgear point of the system.
Asymmetrical break kA rms fault rating of switchgear/CB at breaker opening
time (3 cycle to 4 cycle i.e 60 to 80 milli-sec should be greater than the
calculated Asymmetrical break kA rms fault current at that switchgear point of
the system.

Studies Helps To :

Identify equipment where ratings are exceeded.

Specify ratings for plant upgrades and new plant.
Contain or reduce fault levels on existing systems.
Develop plant and operating procedures to limit fault current.

3.0 Stability Studies

System disturbances are a source of instability that can cause loss of

synchronisation, stalling or overloading of generators and motors. Catastrophic failure
of large parts of the power system can result, along with plant damage.

Stability models & Studies used to:

Assess system susceptibility to transient events such as faults, motor starting or

sudden load application and load rejection.
Specify technical requirements for stable operation.
Design or verify suitable protection schemes.

4.0 Electrical protection

 CAD methods to co-ordinate protection on a wide variety of electrical systems so that
faulty equipment is disconnected promptly leaving functioning equipment in service
wherever possible.

5.0 Electromagnetic transients & insulation co-ordination studies

Electromagnetic transients can damage plant and cause mal-operation of equipment.

These studies include:

Calculating system overvoltages resulting from faults or switching operations.

Calculating overvoltages caused by lightning strikes.
Calculating switchgear TRV (Transient Recovery Voltage) and RRRV (Rate of
Rise of Recovery Voltage) to specify or check switchgear ratings.
Specifying or checking surge arrestor ratings.
Analysing faults and recommending solutions.
Investigating linear and non-linear resonance.