Professional Documents
Culture Documents
M2H121722
Fluid mechanics
Laboratory CALEDONIAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING SULTANATE OF
OMAN
Semester B
Source: tecquipment.com/Fluid-Mechanics/Nozzles-Jets-Vortex/H8.aspx
Module Leader
This module hand-out is intended to provide you with a concise guide in respect of
Module M2H121722 fluid mechanics Laboratory. This is intended to present the
basic laboratory experiments involved in this module and it remains as a course guide
to achieve the module objective. It is recommended that the student to go through the
text books and reference books that referred under each chapter in order to have full
understanding of the module. In this hand-out, you will find information and advice that
should prove helpful as you progress through the module.
Grateful acknowledgement is made to all the authors whose works has been cited as
examples from their books, journals and projects.
Module Leader:
Asst.Prof. Natiq Joodi
Module Tutors:
Asst.Prof. Natiq Joodi natiq@caledonian.edu.om
Dr S.V.Satyarana satyarana@caledonian.edu.om
2. And Objectives
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics will be demonstrated in a series of laboratory
exercises. Hands-on experience and communication skills will be achieved.
3. Assessment Strategy
(Each lab experiment report will carry 30% for theoretical part and 70% for the practical
part).
Assessment Strategy Continuous Assessment: 100%
5 20 March17 Revision
R1: Bansal, R.K . (2010), Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics Machines (10th Edition). SI Units.
Laxmi Publication.
R2: Hamill, Les., 2001. Understanding Hydraulics. 2nd ed. United Kingdom: Palgrave
Publication.
E1: Brewster, Hilary D. (2009), Fluid Mechanics: Global Media ebrary [Online] Available from:
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/caledonian/docDetail.action?docID=10417573
E2: Kundu, Pijush K. Cohen, Ira M. Ayyaswamy, P. S. ( 2009), Fluid Mechanics (4th Edition):
Academic Press. ebrary [Online] Available from:
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/caledonian/docDetail.action?docID=10378782
6.4 Safety
At all times you must not put yourself at risk of injury during visit to laboratory. Instructions
and safety regulations by the lab instructors must be followed at all times including
respect for the work operations and privacy.
Indicative
Commentary
Mark
Outstanding
Truly outstanding work to be recognized in all aspects- New invention, novel
technology, new idea worth applying for patent, evidence of excellent
90% and above communication skills, clearly communicated report, results critically analyzed ,
Outstanding alternate solutions and appropriate suggestions put forward
Exceptionally superior work in both content and presentation
Indicates highest level of achievement + points below
High
Displaying a thorough understanding of the topic.
Focusing clearly on the question
Demonstrate extensive reading to support analysis
70-79% Soundness of judgment
Coherently reasoned statement with empirical evidence.
(VERY GOOD)
Suggestions for improvement
Solutions to problems
All steps in a structured manner with relevant units of quantities.
Answers to show accurate results ( may miss simple steps)
Good interpretations of Solution (may be incomplete)
Generally Good
Solid piece of work which answers the question,
A clear conclusion in a generally focused and well written manner,
Use of citations, quotations and references.
60-69% Evidence of wider reading and deep analysis
Solutions to problems
(GOOD)
Contain necessary /important steps with relevant units.
Accurate results, (may miss some steps which are not very critical to problem
solving)
Reasonable level of interpretation of results.
Proper referencing
50-59% Average
Substantial room for improvement, (e.g. in terms of the standard of written
(Satisfactory)
English, the sharpness of focus on the question)
Insufficient analysis of the results
Poor
Exhibits some potential / degree of standard (falls down in at least one of the
40-49%
categories indicated above)
(FAIL) Solutions to problems
Missing important steps for solving the problem
Initial steps correct but mistakes towards final result
RISK ASSESSMENT
Apparatus
Apparatus for the verication of Bernoullis theorem and measuring tank with stop
watch setup for measuring the actual ow r at e .
Theory
Bernoullis equation states that the sum of the kinetic energy (velocity head),
the pressure energy (static head) and Potential energy (elevation head) per unit
weight of the fluid at any point remains constant.
Bernoulli's law indicates that, if an inviscid fluid is flowing along a pipe of varying
cross section, then the pressure is lower at constrictions where the velocity is higher
and higher where the pipe opens out and the fluid stagnates. The well-known
Bernoulli equation is derived under the following assumptions:
2. Flow is steady:
3. Flow is frictionless
4. along a streamline
= velocity head
+ + Z = constant.
Procedure
1. Open the by-pass valve given on the water supply line.
2. Switch on the main power supply and switch on the pump.
3. Close by pass valve to allow water to fill in overhead tank
4. Regulate water flow with the help of valve provided at the end of test section.
5. Measure the raise of water in the tank as well as volume of water collected.
6. Measure the time taken to collect a known volume of water.
7. Measure the height of the water level in each piezometer tube, velocity head as
well as pressure head.
8. Repeat the experiment by changing the flow rate.
Tube Cross section Tube Reading h Tube reading Velocity V Velocity head Pressure Total head H
.N Area a Q/a
head =h
(m2) (cm) (m) (m/s ) (m) (m) (m)
1 6.16*10-4
2 4.34*10-4
3 2.69*10-4
4 1.54*10-4
5 2.69*10-4
6 4.34*10-4
7 6.16*10-4
Objective:
The objective is to determine the co-efficient of discharge for a given orifice meter.
Apparatus:
Theory:
Orifice meter is a device used to measure the rate of flow of a liquid through a pipe. It
consists of a flat circular plate with a circular hole called orifice, which is concentric with
the pipe axis. If the geometric characteristics of the orifice plus the properties of the
fluid are known, then the orifice meter can be used to measure the flow rate.
The coefficient of discharge Cd is given as the ratio between actual discharge Qact and
theoritical discharge Qth where : Qact
(d1=2.4 cm)
A 2: area of the orifice in m2
(d2=2 cm)
g: acceleration due to
2
gravity(9.81m/s )
h: Mano-metric head in m
Procedure:
1. Connect the upstream side and down streamside of the flow to the water
manometer.
2. Switch on the pump to make the water to flow in the pipe.
3. Open the delivery valve slightly to vary the rate of flow.
4. Note the manometer reading.
5. Determine the time taken to collect certain quantity of water.
6. Gradually increase the discharge to repeat the experiment.
7. Calculate the coefficient of discharge for the orifice meter.
Observations:
Are of pipe:
Area of orifice:
Apparatus:
Theory:
In hydraulic engineering, weirs or notch are commonly used to regulate flow in rivers
and open channels, where the relationship between the water level upstream of the
weir and the discharge is known, the discharge at any time may be found out by noting
the upstream water level.
The figure below shows a V-shaped notch weir, in vertical plates. Such notches usually
have sharp edges so that the water springs clear of the plate as it passes through the
notch.
Q= Cd tan H5/2
= angle of V-Notch
1- Before commencing the experiment ensures that the water in the weir channel is in
the same level with the bottom of the notch.
2- When the correct level has been obtained, the depth gauge should be set to
coincide with the free water surface, and his reading his used as datum.
3- Take measurement of discharge and head on the weir, by regulating the flow using
the bench supply valve.
4- For each flow rate allow conditions to become steady, measure and record H and
take reading of volume and time using the volumetric tank to determine the flow rate.
5- Repeat the experiment by changing the rate of flow.
Observations:
Apparatus:
2. Measuring tank
3. Stop watch
Theory:
When the water is flowing in a pipe, it experiences some resistances to its motion,
whose effect is to reduce the pressure and ultimately the head of water available in the
pipe or there are two types of loses in the pipe.
Major losses: major loss is due to frictional resistance of the pipe only. The
frictional resistance of the pipe depends upon the roughness of the pipe. More
the roughness of the inside surface of the pipe, greater will be the resistance.
This friction is known as fluid friction and the resistance is known as frictional
resistance.
Minor losses: the minor losses are caused due to change in velocity of flowing
fluid. The change in velocity is caused by, change in sections of pipe, change
in direction, obstruction, pipe fitting.in case of long pipes these losses are very
small as compared to the frictional loss and hence they are termed as minor
loss.
D= diameter of pipe in m
v= velocity in m/sec
3) Velocity = Q/ A in m/sec
4) Reynolds number:
Where:
V = Velocity of fluid (m/s)
Note: in order to find out the friction factor you have to find out the Reynolds number
first following the above formula and then to be used in Moody diagram to do so.
Moody diagram attached in the references pages
Procedure:
1. Ensure that all manual valves to all the pipes are closed and measure the
temperature degree of water flow used.
2. Open the manual valve only to the pipe under study.
3. One person should operate the stop-watch and the solenoid switch, which
starts the flow, Open the solenoid valve and start the stop-watch
simultaneously.
4. Collect the volume of water required.
5. Note down the manometers reading.
6. Note down the time needed to collect such volume of water.
7. repeat the experiment and Take readings at a number of different flow rates
(altering the flow using the control valve on the apparatus )
Observations:
1. Length of pipe L =1 m
3. Temperature of water =
4. Kinematic viscosity, v=
2
3
4
Note: for viscosity values in different temperature degree (To degree in between the
scale given bellow and not mentioned in the following table) you have to draw a chart
with viscosity value in X-axis and temperature degree in Y-axis.
Semester A P a g e | 21
EXPERIMENT NO 5
IMPACT OF JET
Objective:
The objective is to measure the force generated by a jet of water and to compare it
with the momentum flow rate in the jet (theoretical).
Apparatus: Impact of jet apparatus H8, Hydraulics bench, and Stop watch.
Source: https://www.scribd.com/doc/38008443/Impact-of-Jet
The bench supply is led to a vertical pipe terminating in a tapered nozzle. This
produces a jet of water which impinges on a vane in a form of a flat or a
hemispherical cup. The nozzle and the vane are contained within a transparent
cylinder at the base of the cylinder where there is an outlet by which the flow may be
directed to the weighing tank.
The vane is supported by a lever which carries a jockey weight, and which is
restrained by a spring. The lever may be set to a balance position (as indicated
by the tally suspended on it) by placing the jockey weight at its zero position, and
adjusting the knurled nut above the spring. Any force generated by the impact of
the jet on the vane may now be measured by moving the jockey weight along the
lever until the tally shows that the lever has been restored to its original balance
position.
Procedure
1. The apparatus should be leveled and the lever set to the balanced position with
the jockey weight as its zero position referring to the tally.
2. Admit water through the bench supply valve.
3. Note down the position of the jockey weight y which restores the lever to the
balanced position.
4. Note down the discharge by collecting a known volume of water and measuring
the time required to do so.
5. Repeat the experiment with decreasing the flow rate.
Results and calculations
Diameter of nozzle = 10 mm
2
Cross-sectional area of nozzle (A) = 78.5 mm
The jockey weight weighs (0.6 g) newton. When its moved a distance y
meters from its zero position, the corresponding actual force Fa on the vane is
obtained by taking moments about the pivot as:
The velocity V1 of the jet as it is deflected by the vane is less than the velocity ,
V0 at exit from the nozzle because of the deceleration due to the gravity and
maybe calculated from :
Semester A P a g e | 24
EXPERIMENT NO 6
CAVITATION DEMONSTRATION
Objective:
2. Stop watch
3. Thermometer.
Theory:
Under certain conditions, areas of low pressure can occur locally in a flowing fluid. If
the pressure in such areas falls below the vapour pressure, there will be local boiling
and a cloud of vapour bubbles will form. This phenomenon is known as cavitation.
Cavitation can affect the performance of hydraulic machinery such as pumps, turbines
and propellers, and the impact of collapsing bubbles can cause local erosion of metal
surfaces. In accordance with Bernoullis equation, the pressure at the throat of the
Venturi-shaped test section falls as the velocity of the water increases. However, the
pressure can only fall as far as the vapour pressure of the water at which point the
water starts to vaporize - cavitation occurs. Any further increase in velocity cannot
reduce the pressure below the vapour pressure, so the water vaporizes faster -
stronger cavitation occurs and Bernoullis equation is not obeyed.
Procedure
1. Open the ball valve (right hand end) fully then close the inlet diaphragm (left
hand end) fully.
3. Slowly open the inlet diaphragm valve and allow water to flow
through the cavitation apparatus until the clear acrylic test section
and flexible connecting tube are full of water with no air
entrained.
4. Continue to open the inlet diaphragm valve slowly until fully open
to obtain maximum flow through the system. Note the milky
formation within the test section indicating the presence of
cavitation.
5. Close the inlet valve until there is no visible cavitation in the test section
typically 0.1 Bar on the inlet pressure gauge. Ensure that the test section
remains full of water.
8. Slowly open the inlet valve by a small amount. Record the new values of P1,
P2 and P3 and perform another timed volume collection.
10. On a graph, observe the relationship between flow rate and static pressure
(P 2 ).
For each set of readings calculate the volume flow rate, and then plot the graph of
P2 against volume flow rate Q for each set of results.
If the temperature of the water is known, determine the vapour pressure of the
water using the table below. From your results determine the minimum static
pressure achieved at the throat of the test section and confirm that this agrees with
the vapour pressure of the water.
1- A tank of water empties by gravity through a horizontal pipe into another tank (Figure-
1). There is a sudden enlargement in the pipe as shown. At a certain time, the
difference in levels is 3 m. Each pipe is (last two digit of your ID) m long and has a
friction coefficient f = 0.005. The inlet loss constant is K = 0.3. Consider all losses
(major and minor), calculate the volume flow rate at this point.
Figure-1
5%
2- A vertical Jet of Oil (=900kg/m3) issues out of a 10cm diameter nozzle at a velocity of
15 m/s. The Jet directed upwards and is defected by horizontal fixed plate at a height
of (1+ last digit of your ID) m above the nozzle exit. Estimate the force of impact of
the Jet and its direction on the plate.
5%