Table of Unit 2 Present Perfect and Past

Construction and use of the Preterit* (Past

contents
...Simple)
Regular and Irregular Verbs
The Present Perfect
Differences between Present Perfect and
Unit 1 Present ...Preterit* (Past Simple)
The verb to be and contractions The Present Perfect Continuous
The verb to have Present Simple For /Since / Ago
The negative form verb to be, Present 'Ever' / 'Never'
...Simple Expressions with the Present Perfect
Tags- short answers verb to be, Present The Preterit Continuous* (Past
...Simple ...Continuous)
The Present Simple vs. Present Continuous Past Perfect
The Present Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
The Affirmative Imperative Used To
The Negative Imperative
Verbs without a continuous form Unit 3 Future
Verbs without a continuous form: exceptions The Near Future be + -ing* (Present
Always + Present Continuous ...Continuous for Future)
The Future Will
Future Continuous Will be doing
The Future Will + To be going to
Future Perfect Will have done
The Future with be + Infinitive

*This is the title of the grammar point in the online software. 3

 Unit 4 Modals
Can ability and likelihood
Can perception and knowledge
Can, could, to be able to
Should and Ought to: advice
Should and Ought to: probability
Must and have to
Using must for obligation
Strong probability using must
Absence of necessity
May and Might
Shall
Would like: expressing wishes
Modal Auxiliaries
Near certainty in the past:
...must have/ cant have
4
Unit 5 Questions
Questions without interrogative words
Interrogative Words
How long...
Past Interrogatives
Question Tags
Which / What
How long..(for)/ Since when'
Short Questions
Unit 6 Articles and Nouns
Definite and Indefinite Articles
The Plural
Names of Countries: Capitals
Countable and Uncountable Nouns
Exclamations with what a
Construction of Compound Nouns
The use and omission of the
Definite articles with geographical names
Nouns without singular forms
Negation of the indefinite article
Unit 7 Pronouns and Determiners Unit 8 Relative Clauses and
Subject Pronouns Dependent Clauses
Object Pronouns Relative Pronouns and Adverbs
Possessive Pronouns That and Dependent Clauses
Reflexive Pronouns When that may be left out
No / None To hope + Dependent Clause
The Possessive
Unit 9 Adjectives and Adverbs
More uses of the Possessive
Possessive Adjectives
The Indefinite Possessive
Too / Too Much
Use of Pronoun one
Placement of Enough
Demonstrative Pronouns
Also / As well / Too
Here/ There
Adverbs of Time / Frequency
Some and Any
The Adverb that
How much / How many
Yet / Not yet
As much as / As many as
Still / Yet
Some / Any: singular or plural?
Compound Adjectives
Eitheror
Adjectives ending in ing and ed
Either. or / Neither .nor
Adjectives ending in ing
Everybody / Nobody
The Past Participle as an adjective
Everybody / Somebody / Nobody
Adverbs of Degree
Each other / One another
Adverbs and Adjectives
Different meanings of all
Uses of so
A little / A bit
The placement of even
Use of both
Even though / Even if
Quite / Quite a few

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 Unit 10 Comparatives
and Superlatives
Comparing equals using as..as
Regular and Irregular Comparatives
Regular and Irregular Superlatives
The more . . . the more
A use of the comparative
Unit 11 Prepositions
Prepositions of Time
Prepositions of Place
Final Prepositions
Verbs + prepositions
Unit 12 Conjunctions
Conjunctions
Use of so to express a goal
So that + may or can
Similarity: like and as
*This is the title of the grammar point in the online software.
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Unit 13 Gerunds and Infinitives
Gerunds and Infinitives
Use of be used to
Use of get used to
Verbs: Reactions and Preferences
Verb + Infinitive Clause
Verbs expressing a wish to act
Expressions followed by the gerund
Verbs introducing a second action
Unit 14 Conditionals
Present Conditional* and Sequence
...of Tenses with if* (Zero, First, Second)
The Perfect Conditional* (Third Conditional)
The Perfect Conditional using should
Unit 15 Subjunctive and Wishes
Present Subjunctive
Past Subjunctive
Wishes and Regrets
Unit 16 Passive
The Passive Voice
The Impersonal Structure
Unit 17 Reported speech
The Sequence of Tenses* (Reported
...Speech)
Unit 18 Phrasal Verbs Unit 20 Other
The Main Postpositions* (Common phrasal There is/are
...verbs) Time
Phrasal Verbs Have or make without to
To let
Unit 19 Expressions When / while + Present
To get + Adjective How + Adjective or Adverb
To look forward to Had better / Would rather
Kind of followed by a noun Expressions of Preference
To be likely Words ending in ever
To be left / To have left Whether
For the sake of Emphatic 'do
Expressions with to have Verbs expressing impressions
Baseball Expressions ...and feelings
To be at stake I am told
Expressions of Increase

*This is the title of the grammar point in the online software.

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I
You
Present
The verb to be and contractions
The verb to be expresses existence, action, or occurrence.
Conjugation of to be

He /She /It
We
am
are
is
are
Im
Contraction of to be

Youre
Hes / Shes / Its
Were
I am a student.
Im a student.

He is my brother.
Use + examples
( as a stative verb)

They are Theyre Hes my brother.

Negative to be Negative contraction to be Question

I am not Im not Am I?
You are not Youre not or You arent
He /She /It is not Hes / Shes / Its not or
He / She / It isnt Is he/ she/ it?
We are not Were not or We arent

Are we / you / they?

They are not Theyre not or They arent

The verb to have

The verb to have is used to express possession, ownership, qualities or characteristics.
The verb to have Negative to have Question
I I dont have Do + I + have?
You You dont have you
He /She / It He/ She/ It doesnt have we
We We dont have they
They They dont have Does + he + have?
she
it

Examples Examples Examples

I have 2 brothers. I dont have 2 brothers. Do you have 2 brothers?
He has 2 brothers. He doesnt have 2 brothers. Does he have 2 brothers?

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Present Simple

We use the present simple for:

things that are true in general
things that happen sometimes or all the time
to describe regular actions, events or habits

Present simple affirmative Present simple negative Present simple question

I work I dont work Do + I + work?
You work You dont work you
He /She / It works He / She /It doesnt work we
We work We dont work they
They work They dont work Does + he + work?
she
it

Examples Examples Examples

I work everyday. I dont work everyday. Do you work everyday?
He works everyday. He doesnt work everyday. Does he work everyday?

Third person (He / She / It)

You must always add an s to the verb.
Spelling
Verbs ending in: s / sh / ch pass : passes finish : finishes
add es
Verbs ending in : y study : studies try : tries
add ies
Except when the verb is preceded by a vowel. play : plays
Also do : does go : goes

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The Negative Form

The negative form of the verb to be expresses the nonexistence, nonaction, or non
occurrence of an action.
Structure Examples
The verb to be
I am not
Add : not or nt to contractions You are not
He /She /It is not
We are not
They are not

They are not my friends. (arent)

He is not my brother. (isnt)
Present Simple
I dont work.
Add : do not (I, you, we, they) You dont work.
or dont He / She /It doesnt work.
We dont work.
does not (he, she, it) They dont work.
or doesnt
I dont play football on the weekends.
He doesnt go to university.

Tags short answers

When we answer a question with yes or no, it is usually followed by a tag which is
a repetition of the verb to be or an auxiliary.
The verb to be
Am I a teacher? Yes, you are. No, youre not. / you arent.
Are you a teacher? Yes, I am. No, Im not.
Is he a teacher? Yes, he is. No, hes not. / he isnt.
Is she a teacher? Yes, she is. No, shes not. / she isnt.
Are we teachers? Yes, we are. No, were not. / we arent.
Are they teachers? Yes, they are. No, theyre not. / they arent.

Present Simple
Do I like football? Yes, you do. No, you dont.
Do you like football? Yes, I do. No, I dont.
Does he like football? Yes, he does. No, he doesnt.
Does she like football? Yes, she does. No, she doesnt.
Do we like football? Yes, we do. No, we dont.
Do they like football? Yes, they do. No, they dont.

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The Present Simple and Present Continuous

The present simple describes a present condition, regular or general action; the
present continuous describes the action that is currently taking place.
Use Examples
The Present Simple
- Regular actions or events I always eat eggs for breakfast.
- When talking in general
- Facts He often has English class.
- Often used with adverbs
of frequency sometimes, Banks lend money to make profits.
often, always, never etc.

The Present Continuous

- The action is not happening Catherine wants to work in Italy, so
. at the time of speaking. she is learning Italian. (but
perhaps she isnt learning exactly
at the time of speaking)

He is having English class at

- Now the moment.

- For temporary situations Banks are lending more money

(these days) to encourage
businesses to expand.

Im eating.

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The Present Continuous

Present continuous:
something is happening now / at the moment / currently
Past Now Future
Im working.
Hes playing football.
Theyre watching television.

Structure + Examples
The verb to be + verb ing
I am (not) verb-ing I am working.
He/she/it is (not) verb-ing Chris is writing a letter.
We/you/they are (not) verb-ing Were having dinner.

Question:
What are you doing now?
What is he doing now?

We are
Im eating. running.

It is raining.

Spelling
Verbs that end in e drop the e , add ing
Make making, write writing, come coming, dance dancing
Verbs that end in ie change to ying
Lie lying, die dying, tie tying

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The Affirmative Imperative

Sit down.
You can use the
imperative form to
give an order, a
warning or advice.

Affirmative Imperative Structure Examples

you (singular + plural) Infinitive without to Be Quiet!
Walk down the street
I, he, she, we, they Let + object pronoun + Let me check in
infinitive without to the dictionary.

Let + noun phrase + Let Mark sit there.
infinitive without to Lets (us) go to the beach.
Let them do what they want.

The Negative Imperative

The negative imperative form is used to give an order, warning or the advice to NOT
perform a specific action.

Negative Imperative Structure Examples

you (singular + plural) Do not (dont) Dont be quiet!
+ Infinitive without to Dont walk down the street
I, he, she, we, they Do not (dont) let + object Dont let me fall asleep.
pronoun + infinitive without to
Do not (dont) let + noun phrase + Dont let the children fall asleep.
infinitive without to

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Verbs without a continuous form

Some verbs are never or hardly ever used in continuous forms.
Many of these non-continuous verbs refer to states rather than actions.

Mental and emotional states

To believe
To doubt
To feel (= have an opinion)
To imagine
To know
To (dis)like
To love
To hate
To prefer
To recognize
To remember
To see (= understand)
To suppose
To think (= have an opinion)
To understand
To want
To wish
To realize

Use of the senses

To appear
To hear
To look (=seem)
To see
To seem
To smell
To sound
To taste

Communicating and causing reactions

To agree
To deny
To impress
To please
To satisfy
To mean
To disagree

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Verbs without a continuous form: exceptions

Certain verbs which do not normally take the continuous form may take it in some cases.
Verbs of perception
When they express voluntary actions To see
To hear
To feel
To smell
To taste

Im seeing Lynn tomorrow.

I see what you mean.
NOT Im seeing what you mean
Stative verbs
Expressing notions of belief, To think (to reflect)
preference, feelings or an What are you thinking about?
intellectual activity.
. NOT to think ( have an opinion)
What are you thinking of it?
What do you think of it?

Always + Present Continuous

Always is normally used with the simple present. However, sometimes it is used with the
present continuous in these situations:
Use Example
To express a repeated action which Youre always running late!
has an effect on the speaker.

To talk about unexpected or Compare:

unplanned events. When Alice comes to see me, I always
meet her at the station.
(a regular, planned arrangement)

Im always meeting Mrs. Jones at the supermarket.
(accidental, unplanned meeting)

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Present Perfect and Past Simple

The Preterit (Past Simple)

USE
To talk about completed actions or finished events that
happened at a specific time (yesterday, last year, etc.)
I watched television
yesterday.

Regular Verbs:
For regular verbs add ed
For regular verbs ending in y , drop the y , add ied
I watched I didnt watch Did you watch?
You watched You didnt watch he/she/it
He/she/it watched He/she/it didnt watch
We watched We didnt watch we
They watched They didnt watch they

Examples
I watched television last night. I didnt watch television last night. Did you watch television last night?

Irregular Verbs: There is no rule for the construction of irregular verbs in the past, therefore
you must memorize them.
Here are some important irregular verbs:
begin began fall fell leave left sell sold
break broke find found lose lost sit sat
bring brought fly flew make made sleep slept
build built forget forgot meet met speak spoke
buy bought get got pay paid stand stood
catch caught give gave put put take took
come came go went read read(red) tell told
do did have had ring rang think thought
drink drank hear heard say said win won
eat ate know knew see saw write wrote

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Irregular Verbs
For the preterit (past simple) and past participle of regular verbs add -ed
However, for irregular verbs there are no rules. You must memorize them.

Here are some common irregular verbs:

Verb Past Tense Past Participle

be was/were been
begin began begun
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
do did done
drink drank drunk
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
fly flew flown
give gave given
have had had

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The Present Perfect

The Present Perfect is used to indicate actions that happened in a unfinished period of time.

Structure Past Participles

I/you/we/they have + past participle go gone
He/she/it has + past participle have had
take taken
Have I/you/they/we + past participle.? eat eaten
Has he/she/it + past participle? drink drunk
sing sung

Uses Examples
Shows there is a connection with now. -Where is your key? I dont know. I have lost it.
An action in the past has a result now. (I cant find it now.)

-Is Sally here? No, she has gone to the mall.

(She is at the mall now.)
Describes an action that started in the -I have tried to learn French, but havent succeeded.
past and continues in the present.
-I have always studied a lot in university.

Shows that an action has -Ouch! I have (just) cut my finger.
recently happened. -The road is closed. There has (just) been an accident.
- (Just is used to show that something -I have (just) finished a great book!
happened recently)

They are at home. They are going out. They have gone out.
(=They are not at home now)

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Differences between the Past Simple and the Present Perfect

Uses Examples
Past Simple I saw three movies last week.
When the time period has finished (the action has finished in a specific time
period in the past).
Present Perfect I have seen three movies this week.
When the time period has not finished (the week has not finished, so more actions in
this time period may take place).

Past Simple Martin has crashed his car last year.

To indicate old information
Present Perfect Martin crashed his car again.
When giving recent news

Past Simple I saw that movie on Thursday. (specific day)

When the time of the action is clear

Present Perfect I have already seen that movie.
When the time of action is not specific (no specific day or date of the action)

Past Simple For I lived in Victoria for five years.

For is used in the past simple
when we want to indicate the period of time that
the action occurred but has already finished.
Present Perfect I have lived in Victoria for five years.
For and since are used when we want to
indicate the period of time that the action has
been occurring, though the action has
not finished yet.

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The Present Perfect Continuous

We use the Present Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past
and has continued up until this moment in the present.

rb ing
been + ve rb ing
Structure h e y have been + ve
I/ y o u /w e /t
has
He/she/it n + v e r b ing .?
e bee g ?
I/you/they/w been + verb in
Have he/she/it
Has

Uses Examples
Describes an action that has recently -Paul is very tired. He has been working hard.
stopped and has a connection with now. -Why are your clothes so dirty? What have
you been doing?
Describes an action that has been -I have been learning English for three years.
repeated over a certain amount of time. -She has been playing basketball since she
was 6 years old.
-They have been traveling to Europe every
summer since 1995.
It is raining now. It began raining two hours ago
and it is still raining.
How long has it been raining?
It has been raining for two hours.

We often use the present perfect continuous in

this way, especially with
How long, for and sinceThe activity is still
happening (as in the example) or has just stopped.

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For / Since / Ago

For, since, ago

=
to say how long something has been happening.

Use Examples
For = a period of time two hours a week
20 minutes 50 years
five days a long time
six months ages

I have been studying English for 3 years.

Since = the start of a period 8 oclock 1977

Monday Christmas
12 May lunchtime
April they were at school

I have been studying English since 2000.

Ago = expression of time + ago six weeks ago

is usually used with the past tense a long time ago
two days ago

I studied English 5 years ago.

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Ever Never

Ever
=
at some/any time
up to now

Never
=
not ever

Structure Examples
Question Ever
Used in present simple and present perfect Do you ever play tennis?
Auxiliary + subject + ever + main verb Have you ever been to Argentina?
Affirmative Ever Shes the nicest person Ive ever met.
Used with if or superlative (superlative)
Visit the Eiffel Tower if you ever go to
Paris. (if)
Negative Negative I never drink and drive.
Never + verb in affirmative Ive never been to Argentina.

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Expressions with the Present Perfect

The Present Perfect is used to indicate unfinished past actions, past actions when
the time is not specified, and when a past action is relevant now.
Structure + Use Examples
We can use these expressions with the
present perfect:
Today
All day
This week
This year Hes been in a bad mood all day.
Already Ive visited my grandmother 2 times this week.
Just Ive just started the class.
Yet I havent studied in the last two months.
Lately I havent heard about it so far.
Recently
In the last two months
All my life
So far
Ever
Never
They refer to a period of time that is
not yet over or is recent.
We cannot use these expressions with the
present perfect:
Two months ago
One year ago
Last week
Yesterday
When I was a child
They refer to a time in the past that is over.

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The Preterit Continuous (Past Continuous)

Preterit Continuous =
to say that someone was in the middle of doing
something at a certain time.

Sarah Sarah
4 Oclock 6 Oclock

Its 6 oclock now. Sarah is at home. She is watching television.

At 4 oclock she wasnt at home. She was playing tennis.

Positive Negative Question

she/it was + verb ing I/he/she/it was not (wasnt) + verb ing Was I/he/she/it + verb ing?

We/you/they were + verb -ing We/you/they were not (werent) + verb -ing Were we/you/they + verb-ing?

It was raining. It wasnt raining. Was it raining?

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The Past Perfect

For actions that happened before related past events or times.
Structure
I/we/they/you + had (=Id etc.) + past participle (gone, seen, finished etc.)
He/she/it + had (= hed etc.) + past participle

Use Examples
1. To express an action completed I had never seen a movie before then.
before a given time in the past.
2. A state or action beginning in the past They had been friends for ten years when he left.
continuing until some later time in the past.

9
10
11 12 1
2
3
10
11 12 1
2
Half an hour later
9 3
8 4
7 6 5
Bye 8
7 6 5
4
Hello

Paul Sarah

Sarah went to a party last week. Paul went to the party too, but they
didnt see each other. Paul went home at 10:30 and Sarah arrived at 11
oclock.

So: When Sarah arrived at the party, Paul wasnt there. He had gone
home.

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The Past Perfect Continuous

The Past Perfect Continuous is used for actions

that were unfinished when another action
took place.

Structure
I/you/we/they had been + verb ing (studying, working, listening, etc.)
He/she/it had been + verb ing

I/you/we/they had not been + verb-ing (sleeping, reading, eating, etc.)

He/she/it had not been + verb-ing
Had I/you/they/we been + verb ing .? (helping, playing, talking, etc.)
he/she/it been + verb ing ?

Uses Examples
To show that something started in the past and Mary had been talking with John for 15
continued up until the moment that something minutes until Lindsey arrived.
else happened.
To show cause and effect. Jason was tired because he had been jogging.

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Used To

Structure + Use Examples

I/you/he/she/it/we/you/they + to be +
used to + verb + ing+ object.
Is used for expressing habits or things I am used to reading before going to sleep.
which you are comfortable with or
accustomed to.
For expressing a point in the process of I have gotten used to walking to work.
becoming accustomed to something.
For expressing actions that were habitual I used to eat seafood, but now I prefer meat.
in the past and implies that the action no
longer takes place. In this sense it is used
as a modal auxiliary.

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Future
The Near Future be + ing / Present Continuous for Future
The present continuous for future indicates that a specific action will be taking place
at a specific time in the future.
Structure Use Examples
To be + verb-ing for the future What are you doing
(tomorrow / next week) tomorrow evening?

I am (not) eating for fixed future I am staying at home.

You are (not) eating arrangements
He/she/it is (not) eating
We are (not) eating
They are (not) eating

Im playing tennis
tomorrow

The Future Will

We use will for the future (tomorrow / next week etc.)
Subject + will + infinitive
(without to)
Examples:
I will be at home tomorrow.
Will you be at home this evening?
I/we/you/they will (ll) be
He/she/it will not (wont) eat etc.
win
Will I/we/you/they be?
He/she/it win? etc.
eat?

We use will when we make a decision in the moment of speaking.

Its cold in here. Ill close the window
What would you like to order? Ill have the beef please.

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The Future Continuous Will be doing

Structure Use Examples
will + be + gerund This is used to say you will be in The football games at 7:30 and
the middle of doing something. ends at 9:15. At 8:15, Kevin will
be watching the game.
It is used to talk about complete Q: If you see Sally, can you ask her
actions in the future. to call me?
A: Sure, Ill be seeing her
this evening, so Ill tell her then.

The Future Will vs. To be going to

Structure Use Examples
Will + infinitive Indefinite future predictions Next year I think I will go to New York.
I, you etc.+ will + verb
(infinitive without to) When we make a decision in the Its cold in here.
I, you etc.+ will not (wont) moment of speaking. Ill close the window
+ verb (infinitive without to)

To be + going to + infinitive
I am (not) going to + verb Future plans and intention I am going to meet Jill for lunch today.
(infinitive without to) (Ive decided to do something, my
intention is to do it) He is not going to finish the project on time.

We also use to be going to

when there is evidence in
the present that something
is going to happen in the Example:
future. It is clear now that it There is a black cloud in the sky.
is sure to happen. Its going to rain.

Its going
to rain.

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The Future Perfect Will have done

Structure Use Examples
Will have + past participle To indicate that something will occur You will have perfected your
before another action in the future. English by the time you
come back from the USA.
I, you etc.+ will + have To show that something will By Monday, Susan will have had
+ past participle continue up until another action in my book for a month.
the future.

The Future with be + infinitive

Structure
To be + infinitive with to
This is used to express the idea of the future in the following situations:
Use Examples
A planned or agreed action
Present: To be (present) + infinitive with to Were to see them tomorrow.
Past: To be (past) + infinitive with to I was to become a priest. (but I didnt)
(This is a planned or agreed action that was
not done.)
An action which should be done Whats to be done?
An imposed action / a strict order Youre not to read that letter.

Instructions and directions for use The medicine is to be taken twice a day.
To be + passive infinitive

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Use
Modals
Can ability and likelihood
Structure
Can ability
Use Examples
SmartEnglish

- to be able to do something.
Example:
He can carry the bag.
Can likelihood / possibility g.
Example: 30 K
Sometimes when the weather is bad it can rain. ( It is possible that this happens.)
It cant be true. (I certainly is not true, there is no possibility that it is true.)

Structure
I / we / you / they + can + verb
he / she / it cannot (cant)

Question
Can + I / we / you / they + verb
he / she / it
Example: Can you swim?

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Can - perception and knowledge

Use
Can ability / knowledge
- to know how to do something
Example: I can play the guitar.

Can perception
- with verbs of perception such as to hear, to see, to feel.
Example: I can see Sarah coming.

Structure
I / we / you / they + can + verb
he / she / it cannot (cant)

Question
Can + I / we / you / they + verb
he / she / it

Example: Can you swim?

I can play
the piano .

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Can, Could, To be able to

The modal can has the following form

n s p e a k 5 languages.
I ca g very well.
H e c a n t s in
Can u ld p la y th e piano. s sick.
Present hild I c o use I wa
Cant W h en I was a c class yesterday beca

I c ouldnt go to
Co u ld
u t y o u r p ro blem. She
Pas t Could n t b o
A s k Catherine a help you.
to
b e a b le to m ight be able
To ith you later. ecause
Infinitive to m e e t w b
I will be ablebe able to leave early .
to t
They won finish their homewo rk
Will be able nt) be able to they have to
Future W il l n o t (w o

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Should and Ought to: advice

Use
To give advice
Should / ought to = You shouldnt
It is a good thing to do; it is the right thing to do. watch TV so much
Should not / ought not to =
It is not a good thing to do.

I, you, we, they + should (not) + infinitive without to

he, she, it
Examples:
Its a good film. You should go and see it.
Tom shouldnt go to bed so late.

I, you, we, they + ought (not) to + infinitive without to

he, she, it
Examples:
Carol ought to buy some new clothes.
You ought not to eat so much.
should or ought to + have + past participle
=
to express regret or reproach

We should have gone to the mountains.

They ought to have invited her.

Should and Ought to: probability

Structure Use Example
Should
subject + should + To show something that is The train should arrive soon.
infinitive without to desirable or probable

Ought to
subject + ought to + Implies an expectation or assumption He is intelligent. He ought to
infinitive without to pass the exam.

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Must and Have to

Must = a need or obligation to do something
Structure Example
I, you, we, they + must + infinitive without to You must wash your hands before eating.
He, she, it + must + infinitive without to

Mustnt = an obligation to NOT do something. You must not do it.

Must not
Structure Example
I, you, we, they + mustnt + infinitive without to You mustnt smoke in the elevator.
He, she, it + mustnt + infinitive without to

NO
SM
OK
ING

Have to = a need or obligation to do something.

Structure Example
I, you, we, they + have to + infinitive without to You have to finish the assignment by tomorrow.

Dont have to = NO obligation to do something. It is optional.

Doesnt have to
Structure Example
I, you, we, they + dont have to + infinitive You dont have to do the homework if you dont
without to want to.
He, she, it + doesnt have to + infinitive ( You can either do it or not; it is optional)
without to

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Using must for obligation

Must
=
a need or obligation to do something.

I, you, we, they + must + infinitive without to You must wash your hands before eating.
He, she, it + must + infinitive without to

Mustnt
=
an obligation NOT to do something.

I, you, we, they + mustnt + infinitive without to You mustnt walk on the grass.
He, she, it + mustnt + infinitive without to

Please keep
off the grass

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Strong probability using must

Must
=
strong probability or near certainty.

Structure Example
Subject + must + verb (infinitive without to) You must be Mr. Brown. My sister has told me all about you.

Negative:
Subject + cannot + verb (infinitive without to) You cant be Maggies mother; youre not old enough!
Subject + cant + verb (infinitive without to)

:
The past form is ast participle
must + have + p
s s e s n e a r c e rt ainty in the past.
It expre s t have gone out.
Exa m p le : H e m u

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Absence of necessity
To say it is not necessary to do something or it is optional you can use neednt and dont
have to. It shows an absence of necessity.

Structure Examples
Subject + neednt + infinitive without to You neednt bring your bike; its not that far.
Subject + dont / doesnt need to + infinitive without to You dont need to bring your bike.
This expresses the opinion of the speaker.

Subject + dont / doesnt have to + infinitive without to You dont have to do your homework.
This can imply the speakers opinion or not.

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May and Might

To say it is not necessary to do something or it is optional you can use neednt and dont
have to. It shows an absence of necessity.

Use Examples
May
I, you, etc. + may + verb (infinitive To say that something I may go to the cinema later.
may not without to) is about 50% possible. He may call her.

Might
I, you, etc. + might + verb (infinitive To say that something He might have a meeting.
might not without to) is less than 50% possible. He might know.

The uses of may and might above are to talk about the present or future.
These other structures are also possible.
may/might + be + verb ing to talk about present or future
I may be working at that time.
He might be having lunch.
may/might + have + past participle to talk about uncertain
events in the past
She may have been asleep.
She might have left it in the shop.

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Shall
In British English, shall can be used for will to express the future. In American English, it
is not often used.
Use shall with I/ we
I shall be late tomorrow. ( I will be late)
Shall we go to the museum later?
Do NOT use
shall with you/they/he/she/it
Tom will be late. (not Tom shall be)

Shall can express obligation.

This is stronger and more formal than other modals of obligation (must, have to).
It is used in legal texts and official rules.

Examples:
1. The insurance holder shall pay back the full amount
within three years.
2. Students shall not play loud music after 10PM.

Would like: expressing wishes

Would like expresses a wish or desire.
Would like + infinitive
Example: I would like to go to the movies.
Would like + noun or noun phrase
Example: I would like a drink.
Interrogative would like more polite form of (do) want
Example: Would you like a coffee?

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Modal Auxiliaries
A modal auxiliary is a verb used with other verbs to express mood or tense. When a
modal is used, the following verb is in the infinitive minus to form.
Modal Use Example
Can Ability He can play the piano.
Negative: cannot / cant
Past: could
Future: will be able to
Permission Can I leave the room?
Could Possible actions now or in the future. When you go to New York you could
(to make suggestions) stay with Jane.
Permission Could I open the window?
May To say that something is about I may go to the cinema later.
50% possible.
Permission May I open the window?
Might To say that something is less He might have a meeting.
than 50% possible.
Must Obligation You must go to the bank
Negative: mustnt You mustnt go to the bank.

Youve been travelling all day,
Deduction you must be tired.
Negative: cant Youve been sleeping all day,
you cant be tired.

Could + have + past participle Possibility in the past. I could have studied Architecture
Something you could have in university.
done but did not do / did
not attempt to do.
May + have + past participle To say that it is possible that Pollys very late. She may
something happened or have missed her train.
was true in the past.
Might + have + past participle To say that it is possible that You were stupid to try climbing
something happened or was up there. You might have
true in the past. killed yourself.
BUT did not happen.

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Near certainty in the past: must have / cant have

When we are unsure of occurrences in the past, we can use these expressions to
indicate an assumption of the event that probably took place in a past moment.

Structure Use
subject + must have + past participle Deduction
Near certainty in the past
Example:
John wasnt in class yesterday. He must have been sick.
Structure Use
subject + cant have + past participle A deduction about something that
didnt happen in the past.
Example:
I saw John in the pub. He cant have been sick.

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5 Questions
Questions without interrogative words
SmartEnglish

Examples
The Verb to be

To be + subject Are you married?

Is John a policeman?
Am I?
Are you?
Is he / she / it?
Are we?
Are they?

Present Simple

Do + subject + verb Does he study English?

Does Do they have television?

Do you / we / they?
Does he / she / it?

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Interrogative Words
Interrogative words are used to ask very specific questions related to the person, place,
reason, etc. that an action occurs.

Example
Interrogative word Use Who is he?
Who refers to people Who do you know?
e?
Which do you prefer tea or coffe
Which refers to people or things
when there is a choice
What sport do you play?
What refers to things
anner)
How do you spell your name? (m)
How refers to manner or means How do you go to work? (means

Why dont you like her?
Why asks about reason
Where is the museum?
Where refers to location
When does the store open?
When refers to time or date When do you leave?

Whose pen is this?
Whose refers to possession

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How long

How long
is used to ask
questions about
duration.

Structure Example
How long + to be How long + is/are + noun How long is your vacation?
How long are the books?

How long + present simple How long + do/does + How long do you take to
subject + verb eat breakfast?
How long does it take to get to work?

Beginner level should only study the two structures above.

Below are some examples of how long with other tenses.

Structure Example
How long + preterit (past simple) How long + did + subject + verb How long did you spend in Italy?

How long + present perfect How long + have / has + How long have you had that car?
subject + past participle

How long + present perfect How long + have / has + How long have you been
continuous subject + been+ gerund studying English?

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Past Interrogatives

The verb to be
Was / were + subject
I? Where was Ann yesterday?
was Was the weather good?
he?
she?
it?
we? Were they expensive?
were
you?
they?

The Preterit (Past Simple)

Did + subject + verb
I
you What did you do yesterday?
Where did he go on holiday?
he
she watch? Did it rain on Saturday?
Did
it
we
they

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Questions Tags
Question tags are mini-questions placed at the end of a sentence.
A positive sentence A negative question tag
A negative sentence A positive question tag
Examples
The verb to be Present Continuous
Youre a doctor, arent you? He is studying English, isnt he?
He is not here today, is he? Youre not meeting Jim, are you?
Present Simple Preterit/ Past Simple
They work together, dont they? He went on vacation, didnt he?
She doesnt eat meat, does she? They didnt work yesterday, did they?

Question tags can be formed for all tenses. Your teacher will give
you examples for the tenses you have learned so far.

The meaning of a question tag depends on how you say it.

If your voice -

Goes down You arent really asking a question; you are only
inviting the listener to agree with you.
Example: Its a beautiful day, isnt it?
Yes, lovely.
Its a beautiful
day, isnt it?
Yes, lovely.

You are asking a real question.

Example: You didnt see Mary, did you?
Goes up No, Im afraid not.

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Which / What

Which, What
=
both are used for choices. They are often used
interchangeably.

What - a choice between or among things. What books do you prefer?

(usually objects) What kind of services do you want?

Which a choice between or among a Which do you prefer: romance novels or

limited number of things/possibilities science fiction?
(usually objects and people) Which of these shirts is yours?

How long..(for) / Since when

Structure Examples
How long + have/has + subject + Q: How long have you been waiting for?
been + verb -ing + for? A: I have been waiting for over an hour.

We use for when we say a period of time.

(two hours, a week, 20 minutes, six months etc.)

Since when + have/has + subject + Q: Since when has it been snowing?

been+ verb ing A: It has been snowing since yesterday.

We use since when we say the start of a period of time.

(8 oclock, Monday, 12 May, 1990, lunchtime etc.)

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Short Questions
In informal everyday and professional situations, you may use short questions.

You can only use They ask for feedback,

These are questions
formed with
incomplete sentences.
them when the
context has been
clearly established.
check understanding, ask
for clarification, ask for
advice / suggestions, make
requests and verify
agreement.

Here are some examples:

Short Questions Possible complete form
Any thoughts? Do you have any thoughts on what I just said?
Suggestions? Do you have any suggestions?
Ideas? Can you give me some ideas?
Any problems? Have you been having any problems?
Objections? Does anyone have any objections to my proposal?
Anything serious? Are the problems serious?
Louder, please? Could you speak a bit louder, please?
Sorry? Sorry? I didnt hear what you said.

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Articles and Nouns

Definite and Indefinite Articles
An article is a word that is combined with a noun to indicate the type of reference being
made by the noun.
A definite article indicates that its noun is a particular one. An indefinite article indicates
that its noun is not yet a particular one.

Language Use Example

The indefinite article - one thing or person. He is a teacher.
A - a noun in a general context.

The definite article - a noun in a specific context. He is the teacher.

The

Language Use Example

The indefinite article is used before words that begin I am a man.
A with consonants.

The indefinite article is used before words that begin This is an orange.
An with vowels (a,e,i,o,u)
or vowels sounds Its an honor.

Exceptions:
an hour (h is not pronounced: an (h)our)
a university (pronounced yuniversity)
a European country (pronounced yeuropean)

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The Plural

Plural rules Examples

To make a noun plural add
s a flower two flowers
a book two books

For nouns ending in:

s / sh / ch / x es bus : buses dish : dishes
box : boxes church : churches

Also: potato : potatoes

tomato: tomatoes

For nouns ending in:

y ies baby : babies party : parties

but ay / ey / oy ys day : days monkey: monkeys

For nouns ending in:

f / fe ves shelf : shelves wife: wives

Some nouns have irregular endings man men

woman women
foot feet
child children
person people

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Names of Countries: Capitals

a university (pronounced yuniversity)
a European country (pronounced yeuropean)

Names of
countries have
capital letters.

Hes a friend from France.

They live in Spain.

I am from the United States!

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Countable and Uncountable Nouns

a university (pronounced yuniversity)
A noun can be

countable
or uncountable

Countable nouns
You can use one/two/three etc. + (a) car
countable nouns. (you can count them) (a) man
(a) house
Countable nouns can be singular or plural. (an) idea

Examples I have a car.

I have two cars.

Uncountable nouns
You cannot say one/two/three etc. water
rice
Uncountable nouns only have one form. money
You cannot use a/ an + uncountable nouns. salt
music
Uncountable nouns are always singular.
Examples I have money.
I have some money.

Exclamations with what a

What a /an (+adjective) + singular countable noun What a rude man!
What a nice dress!

What (+ adjective) + uncountable / plural noun What beautiful weather!

What lovely flowers!

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Construction of Compound Nouns

A compound noun
=
two nouns joined together.
One noun modifies the other.

Example:
tooth, paste: toothpaste

Compound nouns can be written in these ways:

There are not many rules for joining compound nouns. You must
check a dictionary for the correct form.
1. The two words are joined together.
Example: tooth + paste = toothpaste | bed + room = bedroom
2. They are joined using a hyphen.
Example: check-in
3. They appear as two separate words.
Example: full moon
Other Examples:
ski boots, alarm clock , housework, great-grandfather

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The use and omission of the

Use Examples
The We use the before plural nouns or Tom sat down on a chair.
uncountable nouns when we are (perhaps one of many chairs)
thinking of one particular thing. Tom sat on the chair nearest the door.
(a particular chair)

No the When we are talking about things or Im afraid of dogs. (not the dogs)
people in general, we do not use the. Children learn a lot from playing.
(children in general)

No the We do not use the with names of people, I visited Europe last year.
countries, continents, states, regions, (not the Europe)
islands, cities, mountains.

The But we do use the in names with I live in the USA.

Republic, Kingdom, States, oceans, She is from the Republic of Ireland.
seas, rivers and canals. The Atlantic Ocean is very big.

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Definite articles with geographical names

Use Examples
No the Singular name of a country, continent or region. France, Great Britain, Spain
Exceptions: the Sahara, the Congo, the South Pole.

The Plural name of a country. The British Isles, the West Indies,
the Philippines

The But we do use the in names with Republic, The United States, The Republic
Kingdom, States. of Ireland, The United Kingdom

The Abbreviations of countries, continents and regions. The UK, the USA, the EU

No the The names of streets, squares, monuments Carnaby Street, Hyde Park,
and parks. ( generally) Wesminister Abbey

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Nouns without singular forms

Some plural nouns have no singular forms.
Nouns referring to objects composed of Scissors, glasses, trousers, jeans, shorts,
2 symmetrical parts tights, pyjamas

When used as a countable noun, use

pair of

Some collective nouns Clothes, goods, people, cattle, police, savings

Negation of the indefinite article

The negative form of the indefinite article is expressed like this:
Structure Examples
With a singular countable noun: I havent got a pen./ I dont have a pen.
Not..a
With plural countable nouns and There arent any buses here.
uncountable nouns It doesnt require any equipment.
Notany

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Pronouns and Determiners

Subject Pronouns

s
Subject Pronoun
I
You (singular)
He
She
It
We
You (plural)
They

Object Pronouns
Object Pronouns Examples Use
(subject (object
pronoun) pronoun)
I me Ann knows me. We use:
You you Ann knows you. a verb +
He him Ann knows him. object pronoun
She her Ann knows her.
It it Ann knows it.
We us Ann knows us.
They them Ann knows them.

Its nice. Theyre nice.

I Iike it. I like them.

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Possessive Pronouns
Mine Ours Yours His Hers Theirs

(possessive We use my/your etc. + a noun

pronoun)
I my mine
you your yours
he his his
she her hers
we our ours
they their theirs
My hands are cold.
We use mine/yours etc. without a noun
Is this book mine or yours?
Possessive pronouns show possession and answer
the question whose.

Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns Use Examples
I myself
You yourself I talk to myself when I am nervous.
He himself We use reflexive pronouns
She herself when the subject and object of a We blame ourselves for the results
It itself sentence are the same person of the test.
We ourselves or non-person.
You yourselves It saw itself in the mirror.
They themselves

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No / None
No Use Examples
No + noun When we want to - We have no bread.
exclude all possibilities. - There were no problems.

None Use Examples

None When no part of - Do you have any more pie?
something is left. No, sorry, I have none.

When none exists, not even - When she returned to the

a group of people or a small amount office, none of us
of something. recognized her with her new haircut.

The Possessive
To show possession for people, countries, groups and institutions we use s
Examples:
It is Johns birthday. (not the birthday of John)
Its my mothers umbrella.
Chiles economy is doing well.

friends and friends

My house Our house

My friends house = one friend My friends house = 2 or more friends

(=his house or her house) (= their house)
(singular) (plural)

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More uses of the Possessive

s s iv e s c a n also
e
The poss h dates, durations Dates Sundays weather
be used wdit distances. Tomorrows flight
an Next years budget
s to a s in g ular noun
We add postrophe () to a Durations Three weeks vacation
and an a n, for example:
plural nou Distances A hundred miles drive

The Indefinite Possessive

Use Structure Examples
I met a friend of Lucys.

We cant usually put a possessive determiner + noun + of Have you heard this new
before another determiner and a noun. + possessive idea of your bosss?
We can say my friend but not (s)
a my friend. So we use these ( a, this = determiners)
structures.
determiner + noun + of Hows that brother of yours?
+ possessive
(mine, yours, his, hers, Peter is a cousin of mine.
ours, theirs)
( a, that = determiners)

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Use of the pronoun one

The pronoun one or ones is used after an adjective to replace:
a countable noun already expressed
a noun that hasnt been expressed

These
chocolates are nice Would you like one? =
Would you like one? Would you like a chocolate?
One = a /an (a chocolate / an apple etc.)

Which one
do you want? This one

One (singular)
Which one? = which hat?

Which one The white

do you want? ones
Ones (plural)
Which ones? = which
flowers?

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Demonstrative Pronouns: This, That, These, Those

The demonstratives this, that, these, those show where an object or person is in relation
to the speaker.

this that these those

This (singular) Refers to an object or person near the speaker

These (plural) Examples:

Is this Johns house?

This is a nice surprise!

That (singular) Refers to an object or person further away

Those (plural) Examples:

Who owns that house?

Thats nothing to do with me.

Position Examples:
a) Before a noun. This car looks cleaner than that car.

b) Before the word one. This one is more expensive.

c) Before an adjective + noun. Do you remember that wonderful day in June?

d) Alone when the noun is understood. Ill never forget this.

Here / There
Here is used for something that is near to us. Here is the money (in my hand).

There is used for something that is far from us. There is the bank, about 2 blocks away.

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Some / Any
Use some / any to describe an undetermined quantity.
Use with both countable and uncountable nouns.

Some: in positive sentences, I have got some money.

offers and requests. Would you like some water? (offer)
Can I have some bread? (request)

I have

$
some money.

Any: in negative sentences I havent got any money.

and questions Do you have any information?

I dont have
any money.

Any: to express total Feel free to ask questions at any time.

permission, possibility,
or restriction. Any of these designs are fine.
Any: to express possibility or indifference.

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A lot of, Much / Many

Use a lot of with mass and count nouns in Ann has a lot of meetings.
positive sentences, negative sentences
and questions. I have a lot of work to do.

Use much with mass nouns in negative Ann doesnt have much time to see New York.
sentences and in questions.
How much coffee did you drink?

Use many with count nouns in negative I dont have many classes today.
sentences, positive sentences and in questions.
Did many people come to the party?

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How much / How many

How much/many = to ask questions about quantity

How much + uncountable nouns How much money do you want?

How much time do you have?

How many + plural countable nouns How many friends do you have?
How many books are there?

As much as / As many as
To compare two things that are the same.
as much as Use with: Examples:

singular, uncountable nouns You have as much money as I do.

(= the same amount)

not as much as You dont have as much money as I do.

as many as plural, countable nouns There are as many parks in Santiago

as there are in Buenos Aires.
not as many as There arent as many parks in Santiago
as there are in Buenos Aires.

We can use as much as + as many as without a noun also.

Here the comparative refers to the previous clause or an implied or previously stated noun.

Its twice as much as the rent.

(=Its twice as much money as the rent)

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Some / Any: singular or plural?

Some, any, none, all, most Examples:

When they refer to a singular noun, Some of the meal was really good.
the verb is singular. None of the presentation is interesting.

When they refer to a plural noun, the Some of the books are quite funny.
verb is plural. None of the stories are interesting.

Eitheror
A negative clause must never contain more than one negation. So, we use either after a negative verb.
Either is always placed at the end of a clause. It means too / as well

Im not happy.
Im not happy either. (not Im not too) Im not Im not
happy. happy either.

I cant cook.
I cant cook either. (not I cant too)

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Either. or / Neither .nor

Use Example
Either.or A choice between 2 things I want either fruit juice or coffee.

or ? ? Either you come to class or you do the

Either
work at home.

Neither..nor To exclude 2 things I can neither read nor write French.

Shes neither nice nor helpful.
neither
(not + either)

Everybody / Nobody

Everybody (everyone) singular Everybody needs friends.

(all the people) All the people need friends.

Nobody (no one) singular Nobody is here.

(no people) No people are here.

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Everybody / Somebody / Nobody with question tags

e d b y s in g u la r verbs.
b o d y , n o b o d y a re foll o w
, th e ta g is in th e plural.
g
Everybody, soemyeare followed by a question ta
However, if th
E v e ry body needs
ry o n e ) singular fr ie n d s , d o nt they?
Everybody (eve

(all the people)
S o m e body has to goy?
e o n e ) singular s h o p p in g , dont the
Somebody (som

o n b u t w e d o n t know who)
( a pers
o
N o b o d y really knows, d
o n e ) singular they?
Nobody (n o

(no people) p le : N o b o d y li k es Mike.
rb in th e p o s it iv e form. Exam
Nobody + ve

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Each other / One another

Each other and one another can be used interchangeably.
They show a reciprocal relationship between the subjects in the sentence.

John and Paul looked at each other.

(= John looked at Paul / Paul looked at John)

Each other and one another can be used in the possessive.

They took each others hands.
We often meet at one anothers places.

Formerly, it was said that each other was used for a relationship
between two subjects whereas one another was used for a
relationship between more than two subjects. Today, however,
most do not observe this distinction.
Maria and Jorge love each other. (Two subjects)
The children are sitting opposite one another.
(More than two subjects)

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Different meanings of all

All = all of
something limited.
It is used with uncountable or
plural countable nouns.

All + noun All cities have the same problem.

All (of) + the All the children at this school are tall.
this/that/these/those (demonstrative) All these books are mine.
my/your etc. (possessive adjective) I have spent all my money.

Personal Pronouns
personal pronoun + all Have you read these books?
Ive read them all.
all of + personal pronoun Ive read all of them.

with Subject Pronouns

Subject (pronoun) + all + simple verb The girls all left.
Subject (pronoun) + modal auxiliary / to be + all We will all have some juice.
They are all ready to go.

With a singular countable noun = every

Every student in the class passed the exam.

Every country has a national flag.

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A little / A bit
A little / A bit = a small quantity

Structure Use Examples

A little Use with uncountable nouns. We want a little fresh air.
It can also replace the noun to Do you want some coffee?
avoid repetition. A little, please.

A bit of Use with uncountable nouns. We want a bit of fresh air.

A little Adverb of degree. Were a little busy today.

A little + adjective This tooth aches a little.

Verb + a little

Little Use with countable nouns. I have little time to finish the report.
(negative connotation)

A bit Often replaces a little as an adverb. Can you drive a bit slower?

A few Use with countable nouns. I have a few books I can lend you.
It can also replace the noun to avoid How many science fiction novels
repetition. do you have?
Few A few.
(negative connotation) Use with countable nouns. I am lonely. I have few friends.

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Use of both

Both = two elements

With nouns I want both books.
Both shirts are good.

With determiners
Before a noun with a determiner (the, this, I want both (of) those books.
my, your, those etc.) both and both Both (of) the books.
of are possible.

With object pronouns

(me, you, him, her, it, us, them) Both of them are my sisters.
Use both of before the pronoun. She has invited both of us.
Both can be put after object pronouns. She has invited us both.

With verbs
Both goes after auxiliaries and before We have both gone to the beach.
other verbs. We both want to go.

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There are two types of

relative clauses.
Defining Relative Clauses Non- defining Relative Clauses

The woman who lives next door is a doctor. My brother Jim, who lives in London, is a doctor.

The relative clause tells you which person or thing The relative clause does not tell you which person
the speaker means. or thing the speaker means. (We already know
which thing or person is meant.)
This is extra information about the person or thing.

We do NOT use commas. We use commas.

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That and Dependent Clauses

A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence. It is usually attached to an
independent clause.
When the main clause is in the preterit, the dependent clause (introduced by that or
a relative pronoun) is also in the preterit. If it is in the present, then the dependent
clause is in the present also.
Reported Speech
When that is used in reported speech, the dependent clause should follow the rule of agreement. (see
reported speech)

Relative Clauses (Omission of that)

That is used as a relative pronoun in relative clauses. When the relative pronoun is an object pronoun it
can be omitted in a defining relative clause*.

*see relative pronouns and adverbs for an explanation on the difference between a defining
and non-defining clauses.

Subject or Object Pronoun?

Subject Pronoun = the relative pronoun is followed by a verb.

the apple that is laying on the table

Object Pronoun = the relative pronoun is followed by a noun or pronoun.

the apple (that) George laid on the table

Examples of when that can/ cannot be omitted.

We stayed at the hotel (that) Ann recommended.
that + noun (Ann) = object pronoun. This is a defining relative clause.

This morning I met somebody (that) I hadnt met for ages.

that + pronoun (I) = object pronoun. This is a defining relative clause.

Barbara works for a company that makes washing machines.

that + verb (makes) = subject pronoun.

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When that may be left out

That may be left out in the following situations:.

Reported speech After many reporting verbs that can be James said (that) he was
left out. feeling better.
Examples: said, thought, suggested

However, that cannot be dropped after James replied that he was

certain verbs feeling better.
Examples: replied, shouted, disagreed

After adjectives In that clauses after some adjectives, Im glad (that) youre all right.
that can be left out.

Conjunctions That can be left out in an informal style Come in quietly so (that)
in some common two-word she doesnt hear you.
conjunctions such as:
I was having such a nice
so that time (that) I didnt want to
suchthat leave.
now that
providing that
provided that
supposing that
considering that
assuming that

Relative structures Leave out the relative pronoun that Look! There are the
when it is the object in a relative clause. people (that) we met in
*See that + dependent clauses Brighton

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To hope + Dependent Clause

Examples
Structuree
She hopes hell come. any problems getting home.
To hope + future I hope you wont have

all right.
mple He hopes the traffic is too cold.
To hope + present si I hope the water is not
(refers to the future)

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9 Adjectives and Adverbs
Possessive Adjectives
A possessive adjective is used with a noun to indicate possession, ownership or close
relationship.
SmartEnglish

Possessive adjectives Examples Use

(subject pronoun) We use:
I my I like my job. possessive adjective + a noun
You your You like your job. to show possession
He his He likes his job
She her She likes her job.
It its It likes its food. (The dog)
We our We like our jobs.
They their They like their jobs.

my hat our hats your hat

her hat their hats

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Too / Too much/ Too many

Too / too much / too many

=
More than you want, more than is good.
This is a negative concept.

Structure Examples
Too + adjective/adverb The music is too loud.

Too much + uncountable nouns There is too much sugar in my tea.

Too many + plural countable nouns She has too many books.

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Placement of Enough

Enough
=
sufficient, adequate
He cant reach the shelf.
Hes not tall enough.
Structure Examples
After adjectives and adverbs Im not tall enough.
You drive fast enough.

Before nouns and noun phrases There isnt enough time.

After verbs (including past participles) He doesnt work enough.

Ive eaten enough.

Also / As well / Too

Also As well Too
Before a verb and after to be At the end of a sentence At the end of a clause or for
emphasis (with commas)

I also have a dog. I have a dog as well. I have a dog too.

I, too, have a dog.

She also studies English. She studies English as well. She studies English too.
She, too, studies English.

She is also tall. She is tall as well. She is tall too.

She, too, is tall.

We are also Chinese. We are Chinese as well. We are Chinese too.

We, too, are Chinese.

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Adverbs
An adverb modifies a verb. It helps to tell how, when or where the action took place.
To make an adverb: Adjective + ly
Examples:
Accidently Quickly
Angrily Safely
Badly

Exceptions and Irregular adverbs:

These are some words that are adjectives and adverbs: hard, fast, late, early

Good (adjective) well (adverb)

Your English is very good.
You speak English very well.

Spelling Rules -If the adjective ends in /y/ add ily

Easy Easily, Heavy Heavily

-If the adjective ends in /e/, we keep /e/ before the /ly/
Polite Politely, Extreme Extremely

-If the adjective end in /le/, we do not keep the /e/ before the /ly/
Simply Simply, Terrible Terribly

Adverbs of Time / Frequency

Adverbs of time or frequency are adverbs that tell us how often we do something.
How often do you go to the mall?
I sometimes go to the mall.
never
seldom/rarely
sometimes*
often
usually
aways
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Adverb placement Examples
Before a verb I never go to the mall.
I always play basketball on the weekends.
She often practices English.

After verb to be I am always tired.

She is usually late for English class.

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The Adverb that

that as an adverb

Structure Use Example

That + adjective/ adverb To intensify the meaning Are you that afraid?
of the adjective/ adverb I had no idea I was that far from home.

Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of manner tell us how something happens or how somebody does something.
They are usually placed after the main verb or after the object.
Examples:
The train stopped suddenly.
I opened the door slowly.

Be careful with the differences between adjectives and adverbs:

Adjective Adverb
-Sue is very quiet. -Sue speaks very quietly. (Not speaks very quiet)
-It was a bad game. (Describes the game -Our team played badly. (Describes how the team played)
which is a noun)

-I am nervous. -I waited nervously.

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Yet / Not yet

Yet = until now

Bill will be Wheres Bill?

here soon. Hes very late.

Twenty minutes ago they were waiting for Bill. They are still waiting for Bill.
Bill hasnt come yet.

Use Examples
Yet Use in negative sentences and questions Where is Diane?
She isnt here yet.

Yet is usually at the end of a sentence. Are you ready to go yet?

No, not yet..

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Still / Yet
Still
=
something is the same as before

THE RAIN HASNT STOPPED

An hour ago it was raining. It is still raining now.

Example: I had a lot to eat but Im still hungry. (= I was hungry before and Im hungry now)

Yet
=
until now

Bill will be Wheres Bill.

here soon. Hes very late.

Twenty minutes ago they were waiting for Bill. They are still waiting for Bill.
Bill hasnt come yet.
Use Examples
Yet Use in negative sentences and questions Where is Diane?
She isnt here yet.

Yet is usually at the end of a sentence. Are you ready to go yet?

Not yet.

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Compound Adjectives

A compound adjective is formed when two or

more adjectives work together to modify
the same noun.
The second part of the compound adjective may be:
An adjective ice-cold
A present participle heartbreaking
A past participle well-deserved
HEART BREAKING
A noun + ed old-fashioned
Irregular
(Do not follow the second-hand
structures above)

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Adjectives ending in ing and ed

Ending in ing Use Examples
Subject + verb to be + When the adjective ends I hate snakes. Theyre terrifying.
adjective + ing in ing, it means that the
particular person or thing
causes a particular effect.

Ending in ed Use Examples

Subject + verb to be + When the adjective ends in Snakes terrify me. I am always
adjective + ed ed, it means that the terrified when I see one.
particular person or thing
experiences a particular effect.

Adjectives ending in ing

Some adjectives are made by adding ing to the verb.

Examples:

Disgust disgusting
Bore boring
Interest interesting
Depress depressing
Surprise surprising

Adjectives ending in ing Adjectives ending in ed

Tells you about the situation Tells you how somebody feels.

Examples: Examples:
My job is boring. Im bored with my job.
The news was shocking. We were shocked when we heard the news.
It was surprising that he passed the Everyone was surprised that he passed the
exam. exam.

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The past participle as an adjective

Some past participles can be used as adjectives.
Regular Verbs add ed or d
Examples: worked, finished, boiled
Irregular Verbs No general rules

Some common irregular past participles

break broken drive driven
write written eat eaten
fall fallen forget forgotten
give given see seen
take taken know known
fly flown drink drunk
swim swum throw thrown

Examples:
That is a broken cup.
We are visiting the forgotten city of the Incas.

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Adverbs of Degree
Describe the strength or intensity of something that happens.
Many adverbs are gradable, which means we can intensify them.
They answer these questions: How much ..? or How little...?
Highest Intensity ++ Lowest Intensity
totally somewhat hardly
completely somehow scarcely
entirely fairly barely
thoroughly rather
absolutely kind of
definitely
positively

+++ +
almost slightly
very a bit
extremely a little
really
quite
practically

Use / Structure Example

Place the adverb before the adjective or The water was extremely cold.
adverb they are modifying

Place the adverb before the main verb She has almost finished.

Examples:
Im really enjoying working on this project.
The exam was fairly easy.
He has barely worked this year.

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Adverbs and Adjectives

Adverbs are used to modify nouns, verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. This way we
can indicate how things are done. Refer to the chart below for examples:

Other uses
Adjective
Adverb well
good with difficulty )
difficult publicly deeply (feelingn)
public deep (place) directly (=soo m)
deep direct hardly (=seldove)
direct hard highly (figuratitly)
hard high (place) lately (=recen lly)
high late mostly (=usuast)
late most nearly (=almo
most near prettily )
near pretty (=rather)
shortly (=soon
pretty short r, fa s t, h o u rl y , little,
arly, fa
short d aily, enougho,nethly, much, straight,
o w in g a d je c ti ves are lo n g , low, m
The foll as adverbs w e e k ly , yearly,
also used dification)
(without mo g iv e e x tr a in formation
o used to
adverbs are tiavlses (or other adverbs).
about adjec

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Uses of so

Structure + Examples
So + adjective or adverb = an exclamation
Youre so kind!
Dont be so sensitive!

that clauses sothat

It was so cold that we stopped playing. (not It was very cold that we stopped playing)
He was driving so fast that he went through a red light.

Substitute word
So can be used in some structures instead of repeating an adjective or adverb.
The weather is stormy and will remain so over the weekend.
We thank you for flying with us and hope youll do so again.

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The placement of even

Use
We use even to say that something is surprising or unusual.

Example
Tina loves watching television. She has a TV set in every room of the house, even the bathroom.

Use
We can use even + a comparative (cheaper / more expensive)

Example
I got up very early, but John got up even earlier.

Position of even
Even + nominal group* / pronoun + verb
Even my sister will be there.
Even you can come.

Auxiliary + even + verb

I dont even know you.
I have even invited John.

*A nominal group typically comprises a noun surrounded by other words that all in some way
characterize that noun.

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Even though / Even if

Even if and even though mean basically the same thing: although. They have the
following distinct meanings:
Structure Use Examples
Even though Concession. Even though youre my
Describes a reality that friend, I cant trust you.
seems to contradict main clause.
Even though she tried her
best, she fell twice.

Even if Something hypothetical or theoretical. Even if you were my friend,

A contradiction of some hypotheses. I wouldnt trust you.
All conditional forms can be used.
He wont transfer to Africa,
even if they double his salary.

Quite / Quite a few

Use Examples
Quite = less than very but more than a little Its quite cold. Youd better put a coat on.

Quite goes before a/an Quite a nice day. (not a quite nice day)

Quite a few = modifies plural nouns to indicate large quantities.

Example: I have quite a few letters for you.

Quite also means completely.

Example: Are you sure? Yes, quite sure. (= completely sure)

With theses adjectives, quite means completely:

sure right true clear different incredible amazing certain wrong safe obvious
unnecessary extraordinary impossible

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Comparatives and Superlatives

Comparing equals using asas

Structure
as + adjective / adverb + as

Use
To compare two people or things according to a common trait.

Examples
My brother is as tall as my dad.
Im as old as you are.

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Regular and Irregular Comparatives S

Im 93.
Im 92.

40 50
KG
KG
old older heavy heavier
Comparatives are used to compare two things. You can use sentences
with than, or you can use a conjunction like but.

1 syllable adjectives add -er My brother is older than my sister.

old older

2 syllable adjectives ending in y add -ier English is easier than Russian.

easy easier

2 or more syllables add more (before the adjective) Helen is more beautiful than Jane.
beautiful more beautiful

Spelling Rules
Words with one syllable ending with a vowel and a consonant at the end. (Double the consonant.)

Example:
hot hotter big bigger fat fatter
Irregular Comparatives
good better
bad worse
far farther/further
much/many more
little less

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Regular and Irregular Superlatives

Box A is bigger than Box B.

Box A is bigger than all the other boxes.
Box A is the biggest box.
Superlatives are used to compare more than two things. Superlative sentences usually use
the, because there is only one superlative.

1 syllable adjectives add the -est My brother is the oldest of my siblings.

old the oldest

2 syllable adjectives ending in y add the -iest English is the easiest language to learn.

easy the easiest

2 or more syllables add the most Helen is the most beautiful in her family.
(before the adjective)
beautiful the most beautiful

Spelling Rules
Words with one syllable ending with a vowel and a consonant at the end double the consonant.

Example:
hot hottest big biggest fat fattest

Irregular Superlatives
good the best
bad the worst
far the farthest/ the furthest
much/many the most
little the least

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The more . . . the more

Structure
the + comparative..............., the + comparative

Parallel progression: we use comparatives with the....the.... to say things change or vary together.

Examples
The younger you are, the easier it is to learn a language.
The more I learn, the more I know.
The older I get, the happier I am.

A use of the comparative

Structure Examples
the + comparative The younger generation
(as opposed to the older generation)

Use
Sometimes a comparative may express an This class is for the more intelligent students
opposition between 2 elements without actually (as opposed to the slower students)
stating both elements (the second element is implied)

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Prepositions of Time
Prepositions
A preposition of time connects words in a sentence showing the relationship of a noun
and the moment/day/time/date of the action.
Preposition Use Example
At Time I start work at 9 oclock.
I go to bed at midnight.
The shops close at 5.30.

On Days of the week I have class on Tuesdays.

Specific dates My birthday is on May 25th.
New Years Day etc. I go home on Christmas Day.

In Months My birthday is in June.

MT W TFSS Seasons I take vacation in the summer.
1
8
2
9
3
10
4
11
5
12
6
13
7
14
Years I was born in 1980.
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 May
23 24 25 26 27 28
29 30 31

By To show ending date or period. I need to finish the report by Friday.

It will be ready by the summer.

Fixed expressions:
in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening
But
on Monday morning, on Tuesday afternoon etc.

At the weekend (British) / On the weekend (American)

At night
At the moment

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Prepositions of Place
A preposition of place connects words in a sentence showing the relationship of a
noun and the location/area/position/surface of an object.

At In On
General location Inside of a place Surface
Precise point in larger Country, city, district
space something is located in

at the corner in the garden on the wall

at the bus stop in London on the ceiling
at the door in France on the door
at the front desk in a car on a page

Here are some prepositions of place.

on above over in front of

beside behind under below

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Final Preposition
A final preposition is a word which comes after the verb and requests the results between
the action performed and the subject or object of the sentence.
Verb + preposition
Some verbs are commonly followed by a preposition in order to indicate a common action.

Examples:
Listen to
Look at
Look for (search for, try to find)
Look after (take care of)
Talk about
Talk to
Worry about
Pay for
Depend on
Complain about
Go to
Go for
Go on
Go in
In some structures we put the preposition at the end of the sentence:
Interrogative questions What are you looking at?
(when the question word is the object of the What kind of music do you like to listen to?
preposition)

Relative clauses This is the house that I am talking about.

(when the relative pronoun is the object of Thats what Im worried about.
the preposition)

Ive got lots of music to listen to.

Infinitive clauses She has nothing to complain about.

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Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word that joins the words in a sentence to each other in order to send a
logical message. It literally connects parts of a sentence.
SmartEnglish

Frequently Used Conjunctions: Examples:

And
- To suggest that one idea is chronologically Karen sent in her applications and
sequential to another. waited by the phone for a response.

-To suggest that one idea is the result of Kevin heard the weather report and
another. packed his camping gear.

- To suggest that one idea is in contrast to Juan is brilliant, and Sandra has a
another. pleasant personality.

-To suggest an element of surprise. Melipilla is a beautiful town and suffers

from severe pollution.

-To suggest that one clause is dependent Use your credit cards frequently, and
upon another, conditionally. youll soon find yourself deep in debt.

-To suggest a kind of comment on the My lazy friend Charlie failed the math test
first clause. and that didnt surprise anyone.

Yet
-To suggest addition, more of something. She is a simple, yet very intelligent woman.

-Despite, even though The story is unbelievable, yet supposedly its all true.

-To indicate that something can eventually occur. They may yet win the game.

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Nor
-Used with neither for negative sentences. He is neither young nor ambitious.

-Used with other negative expressions. That is not what I meant, nor should you
misinterpret my statement.

But
- To suggest a contrast that is unexpected based Joey lost his job last year, but he still
on the first clause. seems able to live quite comfortably.

- To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first The students never studied for the test,
part of the sentence implied in a negative way. but used their notes to work on the
assignment in class.

- To use with the meaning of with Everybody but Mark is trying out for the team.
the exception of.

Or
- To suggest that only one possibility can be You can study hard for this exam or you
achieved, excluding one or the other. can fail. (= only one of these things can happen)

- To suggest the inclusive combination We can broil chicken on the grill tonight,
of alternatives. or we can eat hamburgers.

- To suggest a refinement of the first Smart English is the best language center in the
clause. country, or so it seems to most students at the UAI.

- To suggest a restatement or correction There are no rattlesnakes in this canyon,

of the first part of the sentence. or so our guide tells us.

- To suggest a negative condition. Either you participate in class or get a 1.0 grade for
class participation.

- To suggest a negative alternative without They must like her style or they wouldnt keep asking
the use of an imperative. her to design the uniforms each year.

For
Though used as a preposition, we can use for John thought he had a good chance to
as a conjunctive when we introduce the reason for get the job, for his father was on the
the preceding clause. companys board of trustees.

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So
- To connect two independent clauses together Steve has always been nervous in large
with a comma. gatherings, so it is no surprise that he
avoids crowds when he is at the beach.

- To indicate as well or in addition. John is not the only Olympic athlete in his
family, so are his uncle, sister, and his
aunt Sally.

- At the beginning of a sentence, so will act as a So, the sheriff promptly removed the child
kind of summing up device or transition, and when it from the custody of his parents.
does, it is often set off from the rest of the sentence
with a comma.

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Use of so to express a goal

Examples:
Im saving money so I can travel in the summer.
She gave him more time so he could finish the assignment.

So that + may or can

Objectives are expressed using so that followed by:
Structure Example

Present simple Hell take a taxi so that he arrives on time.

May / might can / could He stayed after school so that he could help me
with my homework.

Will / would I wrote it in my daily planner so that I wouldnt forget.

In an informal style, that is often dropped.

Example:
Ive come early so I can talk to you.

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Similarity: like and as

Use
We can use like or as to say that things are similar.

Structure Example
Like
- is similar to a preposition
Like + noun / pronoun You look like your sister.
He ran like the wind.

We can use like to give examples Shes good at scientific subjects, like chemistry.

As
- is a conjunction
As + clause (subject + verb) They did as they promised.

As comes before nouns designating He worked as a taxi driver.

tittles and functions

s but have different meanings.

Like and as can both be used as preposition
Like = similar to
As = in the position of, in the form of
Compare: pany. As the manager, she has to make ma
ny
As Brenda Casey is the manager of a com
important decisions. nager)
(As the manager = in her position as the ma
the ass ista nt ma nag er. Like the ma nag er (Brenda Casey), she also has to
Like Mary Stone is
make important decisions.
(Like the manager = similar to the manager)

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Gerunds and Infinitives

Gerunds and Infinitives
The infinitive (to + verb) is used:
To say why you do something
I go to the gym to get some exercise.

To say why something exists

Heres an example to help you.

After too and enough

Its too cold to go swimming.

The gerund (verb ending in ing) is used:

After prepositions (see below)
Hes made a lot of friends by joining the tennis club.

As non-count nouns
Climbing is safer than it looks

PREPOSITIONS: after before by for on despite without since

If verbs are followed by another verb, that verb is either in the infinitive or the gerund form.

Verbs Followed by an Infinitive

She agreed to speak before the game.

agree consent hope prepare try

aim continue hurry proceed use
appear dare intend promise wait
arrange decide leap propose want
ask deserve leave refuse wish
attempt expect long remember
be able fail mean say
beg forget neglect shoot
begin get offer stop
bother happen ought strive
care have plan swear
choose hesitate prefer threaten

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Verbs Followed by an Object and an Infinitive

Everyone expected her to win.
advise choose have order send
allow command hire pay teach
ask dare instruct permit tell
beg direct invite persuade urge
bring encourage lead prepare want
build expect leave promise warn
buy forbid let remind
challenge force motivate require
Note: Some of these verbs are included in the list above and may be used without an object.

Verbs Followed by a Gerund

They enjoyed working on the boat.
admit delay get through practice risk
advise deny have quit spend (time)
appreciate enjoy imagine recall suggest
avoid escape mind report tolerate
cant help excuse miss resent waste (time)
complete finish permit resist
consider forbid postpone resume

Verbs Followed by a Preposition and a Gerund

We concentrated on doing well.
admit to depend on prevent (someone) from
approve of disapprove of refrain from
argue about discourage from succeed in
believe in dream about talk about
care about feel like think about
complain about forget about worry about
concentrate on insist on
confess to plan on

Expressions followed by the gerund

Its no good Its not worth Its no use
Its a waste of time Cant stand Cant bear
Cant help

Verbs followed by either an infinitive or a gerund

begin love dislike prefer
continue like hate start

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Get used to
We use get used to to say that an action or situation becomes less strange or new. We can use the
expression in present simple, interrogative and present continuous forms.

Structure:
get used to + noun or gerund

It took them a long time to get used Have you got used to driving She is getting used to waking up
to the new office. on the left side of the road yet? early for her new job.

Be used to
We use the expression be used to to say that we have already become familiar with something/someone which
was in the past new or strange. We can use the expression in the present simple, negative and affirmative
sentences, in question form and when the object involves a verb, we use the gerund form.

Structure:
subject + be + used to + object.

Mary is used to horses. Are you used to horses? We are used to taking the bus.
Kurt is not used to horses.

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Verbs: Reactions and Preferences

Some verbs that express reactions and preferences are followed by a verb in the gerund
(verb ending in ing). Some are followed by a verb in the infinitive (to + verb) or a gerund.

Followed by the gerund To enjoy

To mind
To resent
To object to
To miss
Cannot stand

They enjoy dancing very much.

I miss going to my English class.

Followed by gerund
or infinitive To like
To love
To dislike
To hate
To loathe
To prefer
Cannot bear

I love eating.
I love to eat.

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Verb + Infinitive Clause

Verbs that express a command, wish, preference and prohibition follow this structure.
Verbs: allow, command, forbid, hate, instruct, like, love, need, oblige, recommend, want
verb + object + infinitive
Examples:
He wants John to rent a car.
They dont allow people to smoke.

Many of these verbs can also be used in

the passive structure.

Subject + passive verb + infinitive

Examples:
We were advised to come early.
We were instructed to put down our pens.

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Verbs expressing a wish to act

Verbs expressing a wish to act may be followed by infinitives (to + verb) or gerunds (verbs
ending in ing).

To intend Infinitive or gerund* He intends to go to New York.

*A gerund with this verb He intends going to new York.*
is only used in British English.
To propose Infinitive or gerund What did he propose doing?
What did he propose to do?

To try Infinitive I am trying to do this exercise.

(attempt to do, make
an effort to )

To try Gerund I wouldnt try rafting; it is very

(do something as an dangerous.
experiment or test)

To agree Infinitive He agreed to help her.

To consent Infinitive She consented to go with her.

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Verb + Preposition at / to
Verb + at Verb + to
Look / have a look / stare / glance AT. Talk / speak TO
Laugh / smile AT Listen TO
Aim / point AT Write TO
Invite (somebody) TO
-Why are you looking at me? Explain (something) TO (someone)
-I was laughing at his joke. Apologize TO (someone)

-Can I speak to Jane please?

-I invited 200 people to my wedding.
-I need to apologize to my friend because
I shouted at her yesterday.

Some verbs can be followed by at or to, but there is a difference in meaning.

Shout AT somebody when you are angry

Shout TO somebody so that they can hear you

Throw something AT somebody/something in order to hit them

Throw something TO somebody for somebody to catch

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14 Conditionals
Conditionals
Zero, First, and Second Conditionals (Sequence of tenses with if)*
* For construction of the present conditional, see second in table below.
SmartEnglish

For sequence of tenses with if see zero, first, second and third below.
Conditionals are used to talk about possibility.
Conditional Structure Uses
Examples
Zero If + subject + present simple , subject + Used to describe something that is
present simple generally or always true.

If water boils, it reaches 100 degrees.

First If + subject+ present simple, subject + will Used to describe a situation that is likely.
+ infinitive without to

If the weather is good, I will go to the beach.

Second If + subject + past simple, subject + Used to describe a situation that

(present) would + infinitive without to is not likely.

If I won a million pounds, I would buy a house. Describes a hypothetical situation

in the present.

Third If + subject + past perfect, subject + Used to describe a

(perfect) would + have + past participle hypothetical situation in the past.
It describes a situation that is
If I had won the lottery, I would have impossible.
bought a car.

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The Perfect Conditional / Third Conditional

If + subject + past perfect, subject + would + have + past participle

If I had seen you, I would have said hello.

Describes hypothetical situations in the past. These situations are in the past and therefore they are impossible
and never happened.

Example:
Last month Gary was in hospital for an operation. Liz didnt know this, so she didnt go to visit him. They met a
few days ago. Liz said:

If I had known you were in hospital, I would have gone to visit you.

What Liz said is hypothetical because the real situation is that she didnt know he was in hospital.

The Perfect Conditional using should

Structure
Should + have + past participle

Use Example
Regret or reproach (to blame someone) I should have studied harder. (regret)

You should have gotten up earlier. (reproach)

(unfulfilled) expectation or assumption You should have received my e-mail.

regarding the past I sent it half an hour ago.

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15 Subjunctive and Wishes
Present Subjunctive
FORM
Use the simple form of the verb. The simple form is the infinitive without the to. The
SmartEnglish

simple form of the verb to go is go. The Subjunctive is only noticeable in certain forms
and tenses.
USE
The Subjunctive is used to emphasize urgency or importance. It is used after certain
expressions (see below).
Examples:
I suggest that he study.
Is it essential that we be there?
Don recommended that you join the committee.
NOTICE:
The Subjunctive is only noticeable in certain forms and tenses. In the examples below, the
Subjunctive is not noticeable in the you-form of the verb, but it is noticeable in the he/she-
form of the verb.

Examples:
YOU-FORM OF TRY: HE-FORM OF TRY:
You try to study often. He tries to study often.

SUBJUNCTIVE FORM OF TRY LOOKS THE SAME: SUBJUNCTIVE FORM OF TRY IS NOTICEABLE:
It is important that you try to study often. It is important that he try to study often.

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Verbs Followed by the Subjunctive

The Subjunctive is used after the following verbs:
to advise (that)
to ask (that)
to command (that)
to demand (that)
to desire (that)
to insist (that)
to propose (that)
to recommend (that)
to request (that)
to suggest (that)
to urge (that)

Examples
Dr. Smith asked that Mark submit his research paper before the end of the month.
Donna requested Frank come to the party.
The teacher insists that her students be on time.

Expressions Followed by the Subjunctive

The Subjunctive is used after the following expressions:
It is best (that)
It is crucial (that)
It is desirable (that)
It is essential (that)
It is imperative (that)
It is important (that)
It is recommended (that)
It is urgent (that)
It is vital (that)
It is a good idea (that)
It is a bad idea (that)

Examples
It is crucial that you be there before Tom arrives.
It is important she attend the meeting.
It is recommended that he take a gallon of water with him if he wants to hike to the bottom of the
Grand Canyon.

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Negative Forms of Subjunctive

The Subjunctive can be used in negative, continuous and passive forms.
Examples:
The boss insisted that Sam not be at the meeting.
The company asked that employees not accept personal phone calls during business hours.
I suggest that you not take the job without renegotiating the salary.

The Past Subjunctive

Past Forms of the Subjunctive
The past tense of the subjunctive has the same forms as the indicative.

Present: The President requests that they stop the invasion.

Past: The President requested that they stop the invasion.

However, we usually use the subjunctive were instead of was after if and other words with similar meanings.
(was is often used informally in speech)

Examples
He wishes he were a better student.
If I were seven feet tall, Id be a great basketball player.*
*This is also a second conditional. See below.

The past subjunctive is commonly used with these expressions if only, I wish, suppose, as if.
Examples
If only I had more money.
I wish I were thinner.
Suppose she were married.
Its not as if I were ugly.

Note: Some sentences combine a past subjunctive with a conditional. In this example, part 1 is a subjunctive
and part 2 a conditional.

If only I had more money, I would buy a new car.

1 2

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Wishes and Regrets

Wish Regret
= =
To show you want a To feel sorrow or
situation to be different remorse for something
you did/did not do.

Wishes in the present

To make wishes about the present, use the past tense.
For the verb to be, use were.

Situation: My sister is untidy.

Wish: I wish she were tidier.

Wishes in the past (regret)

To make wishes about the past, use the past perfect.

Situation: I didnt go on a vacation this year.

Wish: I wish I had gone on a vacation this year.

Wishes about ability

To make wishes about ability use could.

Situation: I cant play a musical instrument.

Wish: I wish I could play a musical instrument.

Wishes about habit and free will

To make wishes about habit and free will use would.

Situation: He sings in the office.

Wish: I wish he wouldnt sing in the office.
(In this sentence you are stressing the fact he wants to sing and makes a habit of it.)

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16 Passives
The Passive Voice
Passive Voice = To be + past participle
SmartEnglish

The passive exists in every tense.

We use an active verb to say what the subject does.

We use a passive verb to say what happens to the subject.

When we use the passive, who or what causes the action is often unknown or unimportant.

If we want to say who does or what causes the action, we use by

Tense Active Passive

Present Simple He cleans the room. The room is cleaned by him.
Present Continuous He is cleaning the room. The room is being cleaned by him.
Past Simple He cleaned the room. The room was cleaned by him.
Past Continuous He was cleaning the room. The room was being cleaned by him.
Future simple will He will clean the room The room will be cleaned by him.
To be going to future He is going to clean the room. The room is going to be cleaned by him.
Present Perfect He has cleaned the room. The room has been cleaned by him.
Past Perfect He had cleaned the room. The room had been cleaned by him.

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The Impersonal Structure

An impersonal structure is used to talk about people in general. Here are some different
ways to form an impersonal structure.

Passive form without the agent We are expected at 7pm.

(Somebody expects us)

The personal pronouns we, you, they We drive on the left side of the road.
(the speaker is included in the group of people
in question)

You drink a lot of tea in Britain.

(the listener is included)

They are very friendly in Ireland.

(neither the speaker nor listener is included)

People (plural meaning) People in Ireland are very friendly.

Somebody/someone (singular meaning) Someone is on the phone for you.

Other Impersonal Structures:

gerund + object + to be conjugated + Reading English newspapers is often difficult.
(adverb of frequency) + adjective
Playing tennis is excellent exercise.

It + to be conjugated + It is sometimes exciting to walk in the

(adverb of frequency) + adjective pouring rain.
+ infinitive
It was strange to say that Russian is
easier than English.

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17 Reported Speech
The Sequence of Tenses / Reported Speech
Reported Speech is used to communicate what someone else said, but without using the
exact words.
SmartEnglish

Im feeling ill.

You want to tell someone else what Tom said. There are 2 ways of doing this:
1. You can repeat Toms words (direct speech)
Tom said, Im feeling ill

2. You can use reported speech.

Tom said that he was feeling ill.

Reported speech:
-The main sentence of the verb is usually in the past tense. (said, told)
-The rest of the sentence is usually in a past tense too. (each tense goes a step back in time)
-That is optional.

Here are the changes in tense (sequence of tenses) in reported speech:

Direct speech Reported speech

She said I watch TV every day. She said (that) she watched TV every day.
She said I am watching. She said she was watching TV.
She said I watched TV. She said she had watched TV.
She said I have watched TV. She said she had watched TV.
She said I will watch TV. She said she would watch TV.
She said I am going to watch TV. She said she was going to watch TV.
She said I can watch TV. She said she could watch TV.
She said I may watch TV. She said she might watch TV.
She said I must watch TV. She said she had to watch TV.
She said I should watch TV. She said she should watch TV.
She said I ought to watch TV. She said she ought to watch TV.
She said Watch TV. She told someone to watch TV. *

*The imperative changes to the infinitive. Tell is usually used instead of say.

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General Guidelines for Reported Speech

1. This formal sequence of tenses is used both in speaking and writing.

2. However, sometimes in spoken English no change is made if the speaker is reporting something
immediately after it was said.

Immediate Reporting: What did the teacher just say?

He said he wants us to read Chapter Six.

Later Reporting: I didnt go to the class yesterday. Did Mr. Jones give any
assignments?
He said he wanted us to read Chapter Six.

3. If the sentence is a general truth, sometimes the present tense is retained.

She said that Alaska is the largest state in the USA.

4. The past simple can stay the same in reported speech or you can change it to the past perfect.

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18 Phrasal Verbs
The Main Postpositions / Common Phrasal Verbs
A phrasal verb consists of a verb and a preposition or adverb that modifies or changes the
meaning.
SmartEnglish

Here are some common phrasal verbs in English.

Preposition Use Example
Away Estrangement: to go away All evidence of the crime was swept away.
Disappearance: to sweep away

Back Backward movement: to stand back The student answered back to the teacher.
Return to point of departure: to bring back
Reply: to answer back

Down Downward movement: to go down Please turn down the radio; it is very loud.
Writing: to write down
Decrease: to turn down

In Inward movement: to get in I will drop in later and see how you are doing.
Visit: to drop in

Off Averting: to put off I have put off my dental appointment.

Departure: to go off / to take off because I have a class.

On Start: to turn on / switch on Can you turn on the fan please?

Continuation: to go on

Out Outward movement: to move out I always eat out on Fridays.

Outside: to eat out
Distribution: to give out

Over Repetition: to say over I will have to think over your offer carefully.
Action done with care: to think over

Up Upward movement: to climb up Speak up, I cant hear you.

Increased volume: to speak up

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Phrasal Verbs

A phrasal verb is a verb plus a preposition or adverb which creates a meaning different from the
original verb.
Example:
I ran into my teacher at the movies last night. RUN + INTO = MEET
He ran away when he was 15. RUN + AWAY = LEAVE HOME

Some phrasal verbs are intransitive. An intransitive verb cannot be

followed by an object.
Example:
He suddenly showed up. SHOW UP cannot take an object.

Some phrasal verbs are transitive. A transitive verb can be followed by an

object.
Example:
I made up the story. Story is the object of made up.

Some transitive phrasal verbs are separable. The object is placed between
the verb and the preposition.
Example:
I talked my mother into letting me borrow the car. TALK INTO = PERSUADE

Some transitive phrasal verbs are inseparable. The object is placed after the
preposition.
Example:
I ran into an old friend yesterday. RUN INTO = MEET BY CHANCE

Some transitive phrasal verbs can take an object in both places.

Example:
I looked the number up in the phone book.
I looked up the number in the phone book.

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WARNING!
Although many phrasal verbs can take an object in both
places, you must put the object between the verb and the
preposition if the object is a pronoun.
Example:
I looked the number up in the phone book. CORRECT
I looked up the number in the phone book. CORRECT
I looked it up in the phone book. CORRECT
I looked up it in the phone book. INCORRECT

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Expressions
To get + Adjective
The verb to get has many different To get + adjective :
meanings such as: to become, show a change of state
Some adjectives used with get

To obtain get hungry

To receive Examples: get thirsty
To buy It gets dark early in winter. get tired
To reach Im getting tired of working get ready
To arrive (at a place) such long hours. get serious
To become It is getting warmer. get wet
get better
get prepared
get dressed
get bigger

Get dressed

To look forward to
To look forward to = To think of a future event with anticipation

Structure
Verb to be + look forward to + noun

Example:
I am looking forward to the vacation.

Structure
Verb to be + look forward to + gerund

Examples:
I look forward to hearing from you.
He is looking forward to seeing you.

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Kind of followed by a noun

kind of (a/an) + noun

When you ask for a more precise definition What kind of (a) problem are you having?*
or description of something. What kind of experience do you have?

* It is more informal to include a

To describe something in an approximate way, Shes kind of rude.

not precise. Its a kind of telephone but plays music as well.

Kind of like (/a/an) + noun

To compare one thing to another in an It looks kind of like an earring, but is much
bigger.
approximate or partial way.

Kind of = sort of / type of What sort/type of computer is that? =

What kind of computer is that?

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To be likely

To be likely
=
high probability of something happening.

Present
To be likely + infinitive He is likely to pass the exam.
The meeting is likely to be very long.

Past
To be (was/were) likely + infinitive The meeting was likely to be very long.

Negative
To be unlikely + infinitive He is unlikely to come.

Related expression
It is likely that Its likely that it will rain.
Its unlikely that it is very cold there.

To be likely + to have + past participle He is likely to have forgotten about the appointment.
= an opinion about a past event. They are likely to have finished early.

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To be left / To have left

To be left /to have left = remaining, not used, still there
Structure Example
to be left This is a passive structure.

Subject + be left The weather was bad. Few people were left on the streets.

to have left This is an active structure.

Subject + have + direct object + left Do you have any rooms left?
Yes, we have some rooms left.

For the sake of

For the sake of = in the interests of
Structure Examples
For + noun / noun phrase + -s sake For Johns sake
For the childrens sake

For + possessive adjective + sake For his sake

For their sake

For the sake of + noun / noun phrase / gerund For the sake of the children
For the sake of saving

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Expressions with to have

Use Examples
Here are some fixed expressions with the
verb to have
To have a bath Did you have a bath yesterday?
To have lunch We will have lunch later.
To have a rest Id like to have a rest before going out.
To have a look Have a look at this!

To have reason to + infinitive We have reason to hope for continued success.

( to analyze causes and consequences)
To have to do with something The report has to do with our financial
( to say what the topic is) results for the last quarter.

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Baseball Expressions
Baseball is an important part of American culture. Its influence is so strong that it
has become the source of many expressions that are used in informal and busi-
ness contexts.
Expression Example
Touch base Its good to touch base with clients regularly.

Playing field Now that more companies have made offers,

were dealing with a bigger playing field.

On the ball Our new attorney seems to be on the ball.

Ballpark figure I can only give you a ballpark figure.

In the ballpark The offer isnt in the ballpark yet.

Big league Well move into the big league if we secure this deal.

To cover ones bases This is a complicated transaction; make

sure to cover your bases.

Home run Jenny hit a home run with that deal.

Play hard ball Were going to have to play hard ball if we want to
get this deal.

Right off the bat Dan started criticizing right off the bat.

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To be at stake
Structure Use Example
To be + at stake To be threatened or endangered. If we dont respond to this
This may be used to talk about threats crisis now, our financial
to someone or somethings well-being stability will be at stake.
or reputation.
The firms reputation is at
stake following the recall of
its latest product.

These expressions are similar in meaning to be at stake:

to be in jeopardy, to be on the line, to be at risk

Expressions of Increase
There are several different words and expressions to describe increase.
Use Expression Example
To describe increase in a To rise Share values rose steadily last quarter.
general way. To climb
Next year, productivity
should climb sharply.

To talk about slow or To creep up Stocks crept up last quarter.

gradual increase. To edge up
To inch up Prices are inching up due to inflation.

To describe sharp and To take off The company is only two years old,
sudden increase. To skyrocket but it has really taken off.
To shoot up
To soar Stocks are skyrocketing following
To go through the roof economic recovery.

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20 Other
There is / There are
SmartEnglish

Affirmative Negative Question

Singular: There is There is not Is there.?
There isnt
Theres not

Plural: There are There are not Are there..?

There arent

Examples:

STATION

Theres a man on the roof. Theres a train in the station.

MT W TFSS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 May
23 24 25 26 27 28
29 30 31

There are seven days in a week.

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Dates

First 1st, Second 2nd, Third 3rd

Ordinal Numbers Fourth 4th, Fifth 5th, Sixth 6th, Seventh 7th, Eighth 8th,
Ninth 9th, Tenth 10th

20th, 21st, 22nd, 23rd .

30th, 31st, 32nd, 33rd.

Weekly Calendar
Days Week of_______________
Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday

Years
Up until the year 2000,
years are pronounced 1998 = nineteen ninety-eight
in two parts:
2010 = two thousand (and) ten (twenty ten is also becoming popular)
1925 = 19part1 25part2 =
Nineteen1 twenty-five2

1: American format = July 2, 2010

month / day / year = 07/02/2010
Date (written form)
2: British format = 2 July 2010
day / month / year = 02/07/2010

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Time

What time? = what time of day?

What time is it?
What time do you get up?

Oclock
The time + oclock = indicates an exact hour.
Its six oclock.

British English
To express a time after the hour we use past.

12 1
11 12 12 1
2 11 1 11
10
10 2 10 2
9 3
9 3 9 3
8 4
8 4 8 4
7 5
6 7 5 7 5
6 6

Its twenty past four. Its quarter past three Its half past twelve.

To express a time after the half hour and before the hour we use to.

12 1 12 1
11 11
10 2 10 2

9 3 9 3

8 4 8 4
7 5 7 5
6 6

Its ten to two. Its quarter to five.

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American English
To express a time after the hour we use after. (except for the half hour)

12 12 12 1
11 1 11 1 11
10 2 10 2 10 2

9 3 9 3 9 3

8 4 8 4 8 4
7 5 7 5 7 5
6 6 6

Its twenty after four. Its quarter after three. Its twelve thirty.

To express a time after the half hour and before the hour we use to.

12 1 12 1
11 11
10 2 10 2

9 3 9 3

8 4 8 4
7 5 7 5
6 6

Its ten to two. Its quarter to five.

In both British and American English

You can also tell the time by reading the hour and then the minutes.
6:05 Its six o five.
6:10 Its six ten.
6:15 Its six fifteen.
6:20 Its six twenty.
6:30 Its six thirty.
6:45 Its six forty-five.
6:55 Its six fifty-five.

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Have or Make without to

Use Structure Example

To cause someone to to have or make + I had him service my car.
do something direct object + infinitive without to He made me laugh so much.

To cause something to have + direct object + He had his car repaired.

to be done past participle She had her hair cut.

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To Let

Let means the same as to allow or to permit

but is more informal.

Let + object + infinitive without to

Example:
Please allow me to buy you a drink.
Please let me buy you a drink.

Example:
My parents dont allow me to go out at night.
My parents dont let me go out at night.

Remember, in the third person present we use lets but in

the past simple we use let.

Conjugation of to let
The present The past simple

I let I let
You let You let
He/She/It lets He/She/It let
We let We let
They let They let

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When / While + present

With conjunctions of time, like when and while, we use the present tense.
Structure
Will + verb, conjunction of time + present simple

Examples:
They will eat when they arrive.
While I am in Santiago, Ill call you.

Conjunctions
of time
after
as soon as once
as long as until
as much as when
before whenever
while wherever

How + Adjective or Adverb

Structure Use Examples
How + adjective or Forms an open question. How tall are you?
adverb (you cant answer yes or no) I am very tall. / Im 1.60m

How high is Mt Everest?

It is extremely high. /
Its 8848m

How often do you go to the cinema?

I hardly ever go.

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Had better / Would rather

Structure Use Examples
Had better
Subject + had better + infinitive -A firm suggestion You had better tell her the
without to bad news.
Subject + had better + not -An order You had better not finish the cake!
+ infinitive without to

Would rather
Subject + would rather + -To show preference I would rather go for a swim.
infinitive without to

Subject + would rather + not I would rather not go for a swim.

+ infinitive without to

Would + subject + rather Would you rather go for a swim?

+ infinitive without to

Expression of Preference
These expressions are used to talk about preference.

Structure Examples
Would prefer Id prefer to talk to someone else.
Would you prefer to stay at home?
Subject + would prefer + infinitive with to
(d)

Would rather Hed rather be on the beach.

Subject + would rather + infinitive without to Would you rather stay here or go away?
(d)

Used mainly in speech.

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Words ending in ever

The words whoever, whatever, whichever, however, whenever, wherever mean it
doesnt matter who/ what / which etc.
(any person who, any thing that etc. or the unknown person who, the unknown
thing that)

Word ending in
ever Examples
Whoever Whoever comes to the door, tell them Im out.

Whatever Whatever you do, Ill always love you.

Whichever Choose whichever book you like.

However However you travel, it will take you at least 3 days.

Whenever Whenever I go to London, I try to see Vicky.

Wherever Wherever you go, youll find Coca- Cola.

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Whether
Whether
=
to talk about choices or
alternatives. Like if it
expresses uncertainty.

The differences between whether and if:

If Whether
For situations with only one condition. To discuss two or more alternatives.
You can have dessert if you eat your I dont know whether we should invest right now or not.
vegetables.
(the son having dessert depends on
consumption of dessert, so this is conditional)

Use whether after prepositions.
I am uncertain whether we should go to the dinner party.

Use whether with infinitives that come after to.

Jenny doesnt know whether to study for her test or
go to a movie with friends.

Answer yes or no questions with whether or if.

Sally asks: Can you go shopping with me tonight?
Im not sure if I can go shopping with you tonight. OR
Im not sure whether I can go shopping with you tonight.

Its becoming increasingly popular to use whether and if interchangeably in certain situations. Although this
might be acceptable in casual conversation, it is not considered grammatically correct to interchange them.

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Emphatic do
For emphasis we can put do in an affirmative clause.
Use Examples
Insistence on speakers point of view. She does look pretty.

Confirmation of what precedes. He said it would rain and it did rain.

Contradiction He didnt come to the party yesterday.

He did come, but he didnt stay long.

Persuasion using the imperative I cant do it! Its too difficult!

Do try again!

Verbs expressing impressions and feelings

Verbs that express impressions and feelings are: to look, to sound, to smell, to taste,
to feel etc.
They may be followed by:
Structure Examples
the preposition like He looks like his father.

It sounds like youre angry.

as if / as though You look as if you dont understand me.

It sounds as though you arent listening to me.

an adjective He looks happy.

This ice cream tastes good.

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I am told

The present sometimes stands in for the present perfect, as in:

Structure Examples
I am told (= I understand ) I am told that you are in charge of the
Instead of Ive been told sales department.

I forget (= I cant remember) What time is the match tonight?

Instead of Ive forgotten I forget.

I hear
Instead of Ive heard I hear you have been promoted.

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