Biology Reviewer
transmission through a set of lenses
Cell Theory
1. All living things are structurally made up of cells. (Matthias Scheliden, Theodor
Schwann)
2. The cell is the fundamental unit of life. (Henry Dutrochet)
3. Cells come from the division of pre-existing cells. (Rudolf Virchow)
Robert Hooke- coined the term cell; English Father of Microscopy
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek- discovered bacteria and other microscopic organisms in
rainwater; studied structure of plant and animal cells; Father of Microscopy
Francesco Redi and Lazzaro Spallanzani- disproved Theory of Spontaneous
Generation
Robert Brown- discovered nuclei within cells
Felix Dujardin- noted that all living things contain a thick jelly fluid (sarcode)
Matthias Schleiden (botanist) and Theodor Schwann (zoologist)- all plants and
animals are made up of cells
Johannes Purkinje- coined the term protoplasm, the living matter of the cell
Rudolf Virchow- omnia cellula e cellula or cells come from pre-existing cells
Louis Pasteur- proof of Virchows Theory of Biogenesis
Zaccharias Janssen- first compound microscope
Microscopy
Light Microscope- image is formed by absorption of light in the specimen and its
a. Bright-field- bright, lighted microscopic field
b. Dark-field- bright image of the specimen against a dark field
of view at an oblique angle
c. Phase-contrast- enhances the density differences in the
organelles causing certain structures to appear brighter or
darker than the others; for observing living cells in their
natural condition
d. Differential-interference-contrast- contrasting brighter or
darker appearance of various organelles through technical
optical methods
e. Immuno-fluorescent- certain type of protein can be
determined
f. Confocal- use laser beams and special optics for optical
sectioning; 3D
Electron Microscope- uses a beam of electrons and magnetic or electrostatic
fields as lenses
a. Transmission electron microscope- a beam of electrons is
aimed through a very thin specimen; magnetic fields bend
the beam of electrons
b. Scanning electron microscope- specimen is thinly coated by a
metal and then bombarded with electrons
Fractionation- takes cells to separate major organelles for the study of their individual
functions
Homogenization- disruptions of cells
Cellular Structure
Three Major Parts:
Cytoplasm- main metabolic life activities; largely water; reservoir for the entry
and exit of materials in the cell; consists of:
a. A thick, semifluid aggregate of chemical compounds (cytosol)
b. Internal membrane (cytomembrane)
Protein- most abundant among the organic components of the
cytoplasm; provides materials for the growth and development of the
cell
Cell membrane- outer boundary of the cell; consists of a double layer of fats or
lipid (phospolipid or glycolipid) with scattered proteins; differentially permeable;
has three major functions:
a. Separates the contents of the cell from the external
environment
b. Regulates the passage of materials into and out of the cell
c. Allows communication with other cells
Nucleus- control center of the cell; regulates and coordinates all the activities of
the cell; consists of:
a. Nucleoplasm- semifluid medium separated from the
cytoplasm by nuclear membrane; consists of nucleoproteins,
granules and fibrils
b. Nuclear membrane- a double membrane, each a
phospholipid bilayer, with nuclear pores
c. Nuclear pores- pathways for the exchange of materials
between the nucleus and the cytoplasm
d. Nucleolus- suspended in the nucleoplasm; composed of RNA
and protein molecules; site where the subunits of ribosomes
are formed
e. Chromatin- composed of DNA; coils and becomes condensed
into chromosomes
Organelles in the Cytoplasm:
Mitochondria- largest organelle in cell; powerhouse of eukaryotic cells; sites of
cellular respiration; made up of:
a. Cristae- folds; provide more surface area for greater cellular
respiratory productivity
b. Matrix- inner cavity into which the cristae project
c. Intermembrane space- narrow region between the inner and
outer membranes
Ribosomes- sites of protein synthesis; of two types:
a. Bound- attached to the endoplasmic reticulum; make
secretory proteins
 b. Free- suspended in the cytosol; produce proteins that are
localized in the cytosol
Different kinds of protein:
a. Channel Protein- allows a particular molecule/ion to cross
the cell membrane freely as it enters/exits the cell
Ex. Cystic fibrosis
b. Carrier Protein- selectively interacts with a specific
molecule/ion so that it can cross the cell membrane to
enter/exit the cell; transports sodium ions and potassium
ions across the cell membrane; requires ATP energy
c. Cell Recognition Protein- a glycoprotein that identifies the
cell
Ex. MHC (major histocompability complex)
d. Receptor Protein- a protein that is shaped in such a way that
a specific molecule can bind to it
Ex. Pygmies are short not because they do not produce
growth hormones but because their cell membrane growth
hormone receptions are faulty and cannot interact with
growth hormone.
e. Enzymatic Protein- a protein that catalyzes a specific reaction
Ex. Adenylate cyclase that is involved in metabolism
mRNA copies code of DNA nucleus cytoplasm tRNA translates message
ribosomesamino acids protein
Cytomembrane System- network of pathways through which materials flow to
the different parts of the cytoplasm; passage for the entry and exit of certain
substances in the cell
Endoplasmic Reticulum- transport of lipids and membrane proteins; has
two kinds:
a. Rough ER- protein synthesis
b. Smooth ER- fat metabolism; forms vesicles for transporting
large molecules to other cell parts
Golgi Apparatus- named after Camillo Golgi; modifying, sorting and
packaging macromolecules for secretion or for delivery to other
organelles
Lysosomes- produced by the Golgi apparatus; digestive sacs; destruction
or repair of defective parts of the cell
Peroxisomes- contain oxidative enzymes; convert fatty acids into sugar in
seed germination
Vacuoles- large membranos storage sacs in cells (smaller ones are called
vesicles); storage of water or food; excretion of waste materials;
intracellular digestion; space filling, cell turgor
Cell Cycle Stages
Mitosis- division of nucleus; 2 diploid cells in one division (46 chromosomes)
Prophase- no pairing of chromosomes; nuclei and nuclear membrane disappear;
spindle fibers are formed; homologous chromosomes (synapsis)
Metaphase- diploid number of dyads; alignment; tetrads at equator
 Anaphase- sister chromatids separate; migration Cell Reproduction

Telophase- 2 diploid daughter cells; reverse prophase Reproduction- ability of an organism to increase in number and produce their own kind;
process in which living things can perpetuate their species
Interphase- stage between two successive divisions
Sexual Reproduction- involves union of gametes
Gap 1 or G1 phase- cells increase in size; RNA synthesis
Asexual Reproduction- offspring is genetically identical with its single parent;
Synthesis or S phase- DNA synthesis; chromosomes are replicated (sister results in the formation of clones
chromatids)
Budding- buds or outgrowths from the parent cell/body grow into new
Gap 2 or G2 phase- continuation of RNA synthesis and protein synthesis; increase individuals
in size
Ex. Yeast, Hydra
Meiosis- 2 haploid daughter cells (23 chromosomes); for male gonads to produce sperm
cell Spore Formation- spores (haploid) germinate into new individuals
without fertilization
Meiosis I
Ex. Bread molds, mosses and ferns
Prophase- pairing of homologous chromosomes; formation of tetrads
Fission- single-celled organisms
Metaphase- tetrads at equator
Ex. Bacteria, some protozoans
Anaphase- homologous chromosomes separate
Fragmentation- parent body breaks up into several pieces that develop
Telophase- haploid daughter cells into new organisms
Meiosis II Ex. Sponges, flatworms
Prophase- dyads are present (one dyad per homologous chromosome) Regeneration- growth of lost body part of an animal
Metaphase- dyads at equator (haploid number) Ex. Sea star
Anaphase- sister chromatids separate (chromosomes) Skeletal System
Telophase- four daughter cells Skeleton
Functions of Bones: 9 fused vertebraesacrum (5 vertebrae fused into one),
coccyx (4 vertebrae fused into one)
a) Support
Rib cage- protects the heart and lungs
b) Protection
Appendicular Skeleton
c) Calcium storage
Bones of the forelimb
d) Blood cell production
Shoulder girdle
e) Serves as body framework
Bones of the hind limbs
Shapes of Bones:
Pelvic girdle
a) Flat- red marrow; scapula, skull, ribs
Joints
b) Irregular- vertebra
1. Immovable- no movement, ex. suture
c) Long- yellow marrow (fatty substances)
2. Slightly/Partially movable- ex. Cervical vertebrae
d) Short
3. Movable
The human body has 260 bones:
a) Ball and socket- one bone is cup-like and the other is rounded;
Axial Skeleton rotation
Skull- protects the brain Ex. Shoulder, hips
Backbone- or vertebral column; protects the spinal cord; gently b) Hinge- forward and backward movement
curved like a double S; consists of:
Ex. Elbow, knee
24 movable vertebrae7 cervical vertebrae (neck
region), 12 thoracic vertebrae (chest region), 5 lumbar c) Pivot- rotate 180
vertebrae
Ex. Atlas, axis

d) Gliding- bones slide with one another

 Ex. Wrist and ankle
Bone Tissue
1. Periosteum- tough membrane covering of a bone
2. Epiphysis- spongy end part of long bones
3. Compact bones- hard outer part of long bones; gives bone resiliency
Calcium phosphate- gives hardness and strength of bones
4. Diaphysis- the shaft
5. Spongy bone- or cancellous; softer part of the bone containing small spaces;
makes up most of the volume of bone; contains bone marrow
2 Types of Bone Marrow:
a) Red bone marrow- fat and blood-producing cells;
produce RBC
All the bone marrow during infancy is red.
b) Yellow bone marrow- fatty tissue; produce WBC
6. Joint- point where two bones meet
7. Haversian system- circular-patterned units in the cross-section of the bone
8. Lamellae- rings within the Haverian system
9. Lacunae- small cavities between adjacent lamellae
10. Canaliculi- small branching canals interconnected to lacunae
11. Haversian canal- interconnecting channels containing nerves and blood
vessels that supply the body cells
12. Synovial fluid- lubricant secreted by a connective tissue membrane
surrounding a joint
13. Bursae- sacs of fluid that cushion a joint against shock
14. Osteocytes- mature bone cells that secrete the hard bony matrix
15. Osteoblasts- bone-forming cells (secrete protein matrix of bone)
16. Osteoclasts- bone-absorbing cells (removing bony substances)
Bone Growth and Development
Bone development consists of change in number of bones, growth in bone size and
change of composition.
Osteogenesis or Ossification- process of bone formation
1. Intramembranous Ossification- mainly occurs during formation of the flat
bones of the skull; bone is formed from mesenchyma tissue
Steps:
a) Development of ossification center
b) Calcification
c) Formation of trabeculae
d) Development of periosteum
2. Endochondral Ossification- occurs in long bones, e.g., limbs; bone formed
from cartilage
 Steps: Presence of Striated Few striations or Striated
striations none
a) Development of cartilage model
Cell shape Cylindrical Spindle Branching
b) Growth of cartilage model
Movement Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary
c) Development of primary ossification center

d) Development of secondary ossification center

Structures of Muscles
e) Formation of articular cartilage and epiphyseal plate
1. Sarcolemma- muscle cell membrane; acts as cover
Ossification- hardening of bones is mainly postnatal, beginning in the first year
and ending during puberty; begins at the ossification center; dependent upon 2. Sarcoplasm- muscle cytoplasm; holds organelles
secretion of a hormone from the thyroid glands
3. Sarcoplasmic reticulum- muscle endoplasmic reticulum; transport unit
Importance of Ossification:
4. Myofibrils- muscle filaments; muscle cell contractile subunit
a) Because the bones of babies are soft, they can easily be deformed
a) Actin- thin filaments with troponin and tropomyosin for muscle
b) Bones in childhood are less subject to fracture or breaks than they contraction
will be after ossification
b) Myosin- thick filament; crosses bridges/heads that holds actin
Change in the Number of Bones: At birth the human body has about 350 bones, filament during muscle contraction
but by the time adulthood rolls around, some of our bones have fused together
5. Sarcomere- functional unit of myofibril
to give us a total of 206 bones
sarco- jelly-like
Muscular System
myo- muscle
Types of Muscles:
Digestive System- for energy production
Skeletal Smooth Cardiac
Ingestion
Number of Multinucleated One One or two
nuclei/cell Two Phases of Ingestion
 1. Mechanical- physical change in food Sphincter- cardiac/esophoseal bulb at the end of the esophagus; regulates entry and exit

2. Chemical- enzymes (organic catalysts that speed up chemical Stomach- contains strongest acid- HCl acid; contains gastric acids
reaction) act on food
Pepsin enzyme + HCl = peptide bond
Absorption
Three Layers:
Elimination or defecation
1. Longitudinal
Mouth
2. Circular
Teeth (32)
3. Angled/Oblique
Tongue- smooth muscle; contains taste buds (detects chemical)

Salivary glands

Mucus membrane
Circulatory System- process in which blood is delivered to the capillaries where
Nasal cavity exchange of molecules take place

Palade Importance: transport of

Uvula 1. Food nutrients

Esophagus 2. Respiratory gases

Epidymis 3. Cellular wastes

Dymis Organs of Circulatory System:

Peristalsis- rhythmic movement A. Heart- double pumping organ/machine; right side pumps deoxygenated blood
and left side pumps oxygenated blood
Bolus
Pericardium- outer covering
Mastecation- constant grinding of food
Septum- structure that separates right side to left side
 Layers of Heart Wall

1. Epicardium- protects the barriers of the heart .40 seconds D D

2. Myocardium- muscle contraction and propulsion of blood

3. Endocardium- lines the chambers of the heart where blood passes through S- Systole

Trabeculae- fiber in muscles found in endocardium D- Diastole

Visceral pericardium- a cavity filled with fluid that avoids friction due to Heart contracts by 70x/min. or heartbeat lasts about .85seconds.
contraction
Heart Sounds:
Pericarditis- disease where there is water in the heart
1. Lub- vibration of heart when atrioventricular valves closes
B. Valves
2. Dupp- vibrations of the heart when the semilunar valves closes
1. Antrioventricular valves- between atria and ventricles
Cardiac Conduction System
a. Tricuspid- has three cups/flaps at the right side of the heart
Nodal Tissue- has muscular and nervous characteristics which causes heart to
b. Bicuspid (or mitral)- has two flaps at the left side of the heart beat independently of any nervous stimulation

2. Semilunar valves 1. Sinoatrial node (SA)- initiates heartbeat and automatically send out
an excitation impulse every .85 seconds to cause atria to contract. It
a. Pulmonary semilunar valve- between right ventricle to pulmonary is called as the pacemaker because it keeps heartbeat regular.
arteries
2. Antrioventricular node (AV)- signals ventricles to contract by way of
b. Aortic semilunar valve- between left ventricle to aorta a special fiber, Purkinje fiber

Cardiac Cycle (lasts .85 seconds) Purkinje fiber causes ventricles to contract.

Time Atria Ventricle Electrocardiogram- electrical recording device to study heartbeat by recording voltage
changes occurring during heart contraction
.15 seconds S D
ECG- record results; has waves:
.30 seconds D S
 1. P wave- excitation and contraction of atria
2. QRS wave- ventricular excitation and contraction
3. T wave- recovery of ventricles from contraction
a. Sinus tachycardia- fast heartbeat due to fast pacemaker
b. Ventricular fibrillation- irregular heartbeat due to irregular stimulation of
ventricles
c. Mitral stenosis- mitral/bicuspid obstructed
The very muscular wall with many elastic fibers allows
the artery to withstand and maintain a high blood
pressure.
Pocket valves close to prevent back flow of blood.
This is essential to get blood back to heart.
As capillary is one cell thick, it is very leaky as
substances like oxygen and glucose can pass out
and carbon dioxide move in.
Respiratory System- complete process of getting oxygen to body cells for cellular
respiration and the reverse process of ridding the body of carbon dioxide by the cells
Air passages:
1. Nose- has two nasal cavities separated by a septum; ciliated cells at the upper
portion as odor receptors lacrimal (tear gland) duct and communicates with
cranial sinuses during cold or allergic reactions causing inflammation, mucus
accumulation and sinus headache. As air entered, it is filtered by cilia, warmed
by heat given off by blood vessels lying close to surface lining of air passages,
and moistened by wet surface of the passages. Its air moves out, if loses
moisture.
Nasopharynx- passage of air from nose through throat
2. Pharynx- connection point of air and food passages found at the back of the
throat
Glottis- a slitlike opening between the vocal cords (elastic ligaments) at the top
of the larynx and is covered by a flap of tissue (epiglottis) to prevent the passing
of food
3. Larynx (voice box)- sound is produced. Pitch of voice depends upon the length,
thickness, degree of elasticity of vocal cords and the tension at which they are
held. Voice growth of larynx is much rapid and accentuated in males producing
Adams apple. Their voice breaks due to inability to control vocal cords.
4. Trachea (wind pipe)- has C-shaped cartilaginous rings and ciliated mucus
membrane. If an object blocked this passage, a tube is inserted in an incision on
the throat as an artificial air intake and exhaust duct through the operation
called tracheoctomy
5. Bronchi- two divided tubes from the trachea that are branched into bronchioles
6. Bronchioles- smaller brances with thinner walls and terminates in alveoli
7. Alveoli- air packets/sacs (300M, with total cross-sectional area of 50-70m 2)
where gasses are exchanged in its one layered squamous epithelium surrounded
by blood capillaries and lipoprotein lining that lowers lung surface tension that
 prevents them from closing. Premature babies die when lipoprotein is not
present in their lungs (Infant respiratory distress syndrome).
Lungs- coneshaped organ lying on both sides of the heart within thoracic cavity
(ribs, sternum and muscles) above the dome-shaped horizontal muscle, diaphragm
and are enclosed by the pleural membranes (outer and inner). Normally,
intrapleural pressure is less than atmospheric pressure that causes air to enter.
Lung capacities:
1. Tidal volume- amount of air moved in and out of the lungs (500 ml) that can be
increased by deep breathing
2. Vital capacity- total volume of air that can be moved in and out during a single
breath. It is the total sum of tidal, inspiratory reserve and expiratory reserve
volumes
3. Inspiratory reserve volume- increased inspiration (3,100 ml) by contrasting the
thoracic muscles.
4. Expiratory reserve volume- increased expiration by 1, 400 ml of air
5. Residual volume- remain air in the lungs that is no longer useful for gas
exchange purposes
Factors Affecting Lung Capacity:
1. Activity
2. Health condition
3. Higher altitude
4. Gender
Dead space- air passages that are filled with air that never reaches the lungs.
Breathing through a tube increases the amount of dead space beyond maximal
inhaling capacity that can cause death to the individual because the air inhaled
never reaches the alveoli.
Components of Respiration:
A. Breathing- entrance and exit of air in and out of lungs
Importance: To supply the body with oxygen and the metabolic end product
carbon dioxide must also be eliminated by breathing process
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6H2O + 6CO2
Normal breathing is 14-20x/min. Person at rest utilizes 250ml of O 2/min. and
500ml/min. with mild exercise.
Mechanism of Breathing:
When breathing, there is a continuous column of air from the pharynx to the
alveoli of the lungs because air passages are open.
1. Inspiration- active phase of breathing; induced by:
a. Concentrated CO2 and H+ ions in the blood causing the respiratory center
in the medulla oblongata to be stimulated, and
b. Chemoreceptors in the carotid bodies (in carotid arteries) and aortic
bodies (in aorta) to respond to H+ ion concentration, CO2 and O2 in blood
c. Nerve impulses causes diaphragm to contract and lowers, rib cage
muscles contract and move upward and outward increasing the size of
the thoracic cavity and lungs to expand. As the lungs expand, air pressure
within enlarged alveoli lowers.
 2. Expiration- happens when:
a. The expanded lungs with stretched alveoli stimulate special receptors in
the alveolar walls to initiate nerve impulses to travel to the breathing
center.
b. Medulla oblongata inhibits and stops sending signals to the diaphragm
and the rib cage causing it to relax and resume its shape. The abdominal
organs press up against the diaphragm, rib cage moves down and inward
and the lungs recoil as air is pushed out.
B. External Respiration- exchange of gases between air in the alveoli and blood in
the pulmonary capillaries through diffusion determined by the pressure or
tension gradient carried as bicarbonate ion (HCO3).
H+ + HCO-3 H2CO3 H2O + CO2 (CO2 leaves the body) D. Cellular respiration- production of ATP in cells
The enzyme carbonic anhydrase present in the RBC speeds up the reaction. The
respiratory pigment hemoglobin gives up the H ions it has been carrying causing
HHb to be Hb (hemoglobin). Hemoglobin more readily takes up O 2 and becomes
oxyhemoglobin (HbO2).
Hb + O2 HbO2 (O2 is entering the body)
Hemoglobin takes up O2 more readily at the warmer and more acidic pH f the
tissues.
C. Internal Respiration- exchange of gases between blood in systematic capillaries
and tissue fluid by reducing hemoglobin from oxyhemoglobin as oxygen diffuses
out of blood into the tissues.
HbO2 Hb + O2
Diffusion of O2 out of blood into the tissues occur because the O2 concentration of
tissue fluid is low (the cells continuously use up O2 in the cellular respiration).
Diffusion of CO2 into blood from the tissues occur because CO2 concentration of
tissue fluid is high. CO2 enters the blood taken by haemoglobin forming
carbominohemoglobin (HbCO2) which disassociates to H+ ions and bicarbonate
ions (HCO3-).
Carbonic Anhydrase speeds up the reaction.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-
The globin portion Hb combines with excess H+ ions produced by the reaction,
and Hb becomes HHb making blood pH fairly constant. The bicarbonate ion
diffuses out of the RBC cells and is carried in the plasma.
External Respiration Process: alveoli to blood
1. H+ HCO3- H2CO3 H2O + CO2
2. HbCO2 Hb + CO2
3. Hb + O2 HbO2
Internal Respiration Process: blood to cells/tissues
1. HbO2 Hb + O2
2. Hb + CO2 HbCO2
3. HbCO2 H2CO3 H+ + HCO-3
Mechanism of Breathing
 Inspiration
1. Medulla sends stimulatory
messages to the diaphragm
and rib muscles.
2. Diaphragm contracts and
flattens.
3. Rib cage moves up and out.
4. Lungs expand.
5. Negative pressure builds in
lungs (air does not force the
lungs open because lungs are
pulled open as air comes in).
6. Air is pulled in.
Components of Air Inspired Air (% volume)
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Carbon Dioxide
Five Types of Circulation:
1. Pulmonary- lungs
2. Coronary- heart
3. Ephatic portal- pancreas, stomach, digestive system
Expiration 4. Renal- kidney
1. Stretch receptors in lungs send 5. Systemic- intarbody
inhibitory messages in
medulla. Respiratory Infections and Diseases
2. Diaphragm relaxes and 1. Common cold- viral infection; scratchy throat, watery mucus discharge from
resumes a dome position. nasal cavities
3. Rib cage moves down and in. 2. Influenza (flu)- viral infection; fever, aches and pains in the joints
4. Lungs recoil. 3. Bronchitis- viral infection from nasal cavities to sinuses (sinusitis), to middle
ears (otitis media), to the larynx (laryngitis), and bronchi. Acute bronchitis is
5. Positive pressure builds up in
caused by secondary bacterial infection with heavy mucus discharge and
lungs.
coughing and responds to antibiotic therapy. Chronic bronchitis is caused by
constant irritation of bronchi lining resulting to loss of cilia and normal
cleansing action; caused by smoking
4. Strep throat- bacterium streptococcus pyogenes infection; difficulty swallowing
and fever; can lead to rheumatic fever if not treated with antibiotics
Expired Air (% volume) 5. Pneumonia- bacterial/viral infection; lobes of lungs are filled with mucus and
pus
79.00 79.60
6. Tuberculosis- tubercle bacillus infection
20.96 16.02
7. Emphysema- caused by smoking that leads to the destruction of lung tissue with
0.04 4.38
ballooning/inflation of the lungs due to the trapped air. The bronchioles collapse
causing cutting off of renewed oxygen supply in alveoli. The trapped air makes
alveolar walls to rupture, thus exchange of gases are reduced and insufficient
amount of oxygen reaches the heart and the brain.
 8. Pulmonary fibrosis- caused by inhalation of silica (sand), coal dust and asbestos
leading to building of fibrous connective tissues in the lungs that enables
breathing capacity to be seriously impaired.
Excretory System- involves the ridding off of unwanted substances such as the end
product of metabolism
1. Ammonia (NH3) amino acid metabolism excreted by kidneys
2. Urea ammonia metabolism excreted by kidneys and skin
3. Uric acid nucleotide metabolism created by the kidneys. Excess uric acid
precipitates out of the plasma. Gout is a painful ailment caused by crystals of
uric acid collected in joints.
4. Creatinine creatine phosphate metabolism excreted by the kidneys
5. Bile pigment haemoglobin metabolism excreted by the liver. Jaundice is a skin
discolour condition caused by bile pills from a blocked bile duct
6. Carbon dioxide bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) excreted by the kidneys as end
product of cellular respiration
7. Ions important to the pH, the osmotic pressure, and the electrolyte balance of
blood. The balance of potassium and sodium ions is important to nerve
conduction, calcium ions to muscle contraction, iron ions in haemoglobin
metabolism excreted by the large intestine, magnesium ions help many enzymes
to function properly.
8. Water excreted by the kidneys
Organs of excretion:
1. Kidneys primary excretory organ and consistently rid the body of urea. It has
regulatory functions:
1. For the adjustment of blood pH and ion balance (excretion of hydrogen
ions (H+) and ammonia (NH3) and reabsorption of sodium ions and
bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) if blood is acidic. If blood is basic only, few
hydrogen ions are excreted and few sodium ions and bicarbonate ions
are reabsorbed); thus making ions balance
2. Maintains blood volume under the control of hormones ADH (increases
the permeability of collecting duct to absorb water)
Diuresis increased amount of urine, less ADH secretion
Antidiuresis decreased amount of urine, more ADH secretion
And aldosterone (maintains Na+ and K+; increases Na+ in blood causes water to
reabsorb that leads to increase blood volume and blood pressure)
2. Skin has sweat glands to excrete sweat (water, salt and urea) to keep body
temperature within normal range
3. Liver excretes bile pigments
4. Lungs excrete carbon dioxide and water (moisture by blowing onto cool mirror)
5. Large Intestine excrete salts, iron and calcium directly into its cavity by the
epithelial cells lining it
Urinary System (Path):
1. Kidneys 2 bean-shaped reddish brown organ at fist size that forms urine
compound of metabolic waste products. Its external structure features a
depression where renal blood vessels and ureters enter. Internal structure
involves:
o Cortex outer granulated layer which dips down in between
o Medulla radially striated or lined layer that contains conical masses of
tissue called renal pyramids. At the tip of each pyramid there is a tube
that joins with others to form the renal pelvis.
o Renal pelvis inner space/cavity that is continuous with the ureter
Nephron known as the renal/kidney tubules. It is made up of:
Bowmans capsule double-walled cup of specialized cells that allow easy
passage of molecules located at the cortex that contains a capillary tuft called
glomerulus.
Proximal convoluted tubule highly coiled region of nephrons cortex with cells
that are cuboidal with many mitochondria and inner brush border
Loop of Henle cells are flat and tubes become narrow making a U-turn located
at the medulla
Problems with kidney functions:
Distal convoluted tubule cells are cuboidal, with mitochondria but no brush
border at the cortex
Collecting duct a tube that receives urine from several distal convoluted tubule
are located at the medulla
2. Ureters muscular tubes that convey urine from the kidneys toward the bladder by
peristaltic action
3. Urinary bladder hollow, muscular organ that holds 600 mL of urine. In males, it lies
ventral to the rectum, the seminal vesicles, and the vas deferens. In females, it is ventral
to the uterus and the upper vagina
4. Urethra extends from urinary bladder to the external opening. In males, its length
averages 15 cm when penis is relaxed. In females, it is only about 2.5 cm long making
bacterial invasion possible
Kidney failure replacement/remedies
Steps in Urine formation
1. Pressure filtration blood pressure forces small molecules (water, glucose,
amino acids, salts, urea, uric acid, creatine) form the glomerulus into Bowmans
capsule
2. Selective absorption diffusion and active transport return molecules (water,
glucose, amino acids, salts) to blood at proximal convoluted tubule
3. Tubular excretion active transport moves molecules (uric acid, creatine,
hydrogen ions, ammonia, penicillin) from blood into the distal convoluted tubule
4. Reabsorption of water along the length of the nephron and notably at loop of
Henle and collecting duct, water returns by osmosis following active
reabsoprtion of salt
5. Excretion urine formation rids body of metabolic wastes (water, salts, urea,
uric acid, ammonia, creatinine)
1. Urethritis infection of the urethra
2. Cystisis infection of the urinary bladder
3. Pyelonephritis infection of the kidney
4. Glomerulus damage glomerulus blockage no fluid moves into the tubules, or
glomerulus are more permeable even blood cells and albumin is present in urine
5. Uremia extensive glomerulus damage and waste substances are accumulated
in blood
6. Edema fluid concentration in body tissues due to retention of water and salts
7. Loss of consciousness and heart failure imbalance of ionic composition in body
fluids
1. Kidney transplant survival rate from a relative is 97% and 95% from a non-
relative
2. Dialysis utilizing a kidney machine / CAPD (continuous ambulatory
peritoneal/abdominal dialysis) which diffuses dissolved molecules through a
semipermeable membrane. A fresh amount of dialysate is introduces directly
into the abdominal cavity from a bag attached to a permanently implanted
plastic tube. Wastes and water molecules pass into the dialysate from the
 surrounding organs before the fluid is collected 4 or 8 hours later. Individuals a2. Thalamus- sorts out all information from the sense
can go about his/her normal activities during CAPD organs as well as the other parts of the brain before
relaying them to the cerebrum (sends information
3. Hemodialysis patients blood is passed through a semipermeable membranous
tube that is in contact with a balanced salt (dialysis) solution (dialysate). In a 6hr towards cerebrum)
hemodialysis, 50-250g of urea are removed from a patient, which greatly
exceeds the urea clearance of normal kidneys. Patient needs to undergo a3. Hypothalamus- controls the secretion of many
treatment only about twice a week and cannot do any activities during the hormones; regulates blood pressure, body temperature,
treatment. and responses to satisfy physiological needs; controls
emotions
Nervous System- accountable for quick reaction to external and internal stimuli
b. Midbrain- connected to sensory nerves of eyes
Functions:
c. Hindbrain
1. Sensory Input- sends signals through sensory receptors to the central
nervous system (CNS) c1. Pons and medulla oblongata

2. Integration- CNS integrates and formulates appropriate reaction from c2. Cerebellum- balance, coordination of movement
the sensory input
c3. Brain stem
3. Motor Output- facilitates the action in the efferent nerves (muscles and
B. Spinal Cord- pathway towards the brain
glands)
II. Peripheral Nervous System or PNS- nerves that project from CNS
Parts of the Nervous System
1. Somatic Nervous System- sensory and motor neurons
I. Central Nervous System- the bodys main control center
2. Automatic Nervous System- motor neurons only; involves
A. Brain- control center of the nervous system; responsible for
the:
behaviour
b1. Sympathetic Nervous System- controls the internal
Parts of the Brain:
organs during stressful situations and increased activity
a. Forebrain- where major processing centers are found
b2. Parasympathetic Nervous System- controls the
a1. Cerebrum- most anterior or most dorsal region of the internal organs during routine conditions
nervous system (memory and intelligence)
The Twelve Cranial Nerves:
1. Olfactory (smell)
2. Optic (vision)
3. Oculomotor (eye movements)
4. Trochlear (eye movements)
5. Trigeminal (facial sensation and jaw movements)
6. Abducent (eye movements)
7. Facial (facial expression and taste)
8. Acoustic or Vestibulocochlear (hearing and balance)
9. Glossopharyngeal (taste and throat sensation)
10. Vagus (breathing, circulation and digestion)
11. Spinal Accessory (movement of neck and back muscles)
12. Hypoglossal (tongue movement)
Drugs and the Nervous System:
1. Stimulants- drugs that exert their action through excitation of the CNS; used to
enhance mental alertness and reduce drowsiness and fatigue
a. Coffee- If the dosage of caffeine is increased above 200g
(about two cups of coffee), it does not increase mental
performance but may increase nervousness, irritability,
tremors and headaches
b. Amphetamines- lose weight; increase alertness; elevate
mood, reduce feelings of fatigue and hunger, facilitate
powers of concentration , and increase the desire and
capacity to carry out work; induce exhilarating feelings of
power, strength, energy, self-assertion, focus and
enhanced motivation; need to sleep or eat is diminished
c. Cocaine- in nucleus accumbens; local anesthetics
2. Sedative- induce sleep
a. Barbiturates- depress the reticular formation (thus
promoting sleep) and in high doses =, the medulla
oblongata (thus stopping breathing)
3. Opiates- effective painkillers; control coughing, breathing and intestinal motility;
exceedingly addictive, quickly producing tolerance and dependence
a. Morphine- used as painkiller
b. Codeine- used as painkiller and in cough medicine
c. Heroin- more effective as a painkiller than morphine and
codeine; so highly addictive that its use is illegal
4. Marijuana- drowsiness, dulling of pain, perception distorting effects of the
psychedelics
Endocrine System- utilizes chemical messengers that bring about the coordination of
body parts.
Hormones- chemical messengers that influence the metabolism of the receiving cell
Categories of Chemical messengers:
1. Pheromones - act a distance between individuals b) Anterior - "master gland"; controls secretion of other endocrine glands;
produces hypothalamic-releasing & inhibiting hormones
2. Traditional Endocrine Hormones & Secretions of Neurosecretory cells - act a distance
within the individual. Growth Hormone/Somatotropin (GH)- cell division, protein synthesis,
bone growth
3. Prostaglandin & Neurotransmitter substances - local messengers
Lactogenic Hormone/Prolactin (LTH)- mammary gland development;
Types of Hormones milk production

1. Peptide/Polypeptide/Protein/Amino acid hormones- coded by genes & synthesized at Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
the ribosomes; activates exciting enzyme in the cell (combines with receptors, produces
cAMP, activates a certain cell and so on); acts on the target cell with a lesser period of Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)- stimulates thyroid gland
effect
Adrenocottinocotropic Hormone (ACTH)- stimulates adrenal (cortisol)
2. Steroid Hormones- produced by adrenal cortex, testes, ovaries (combines with
receptors, enters the nucleus, binds with chromatin, activates a particular gene and Gonodotropic Hormones- stimulates the gonads
synthesis of certain enzymes), ex. Anabolic/Synthetic Steroids (1930); prevents muscle
atrophy to burn victims and surgery patients; prolonged use leads to stunted growth, Lutinizing Hormone
high blood cholesterol, liver cancer and mood swings. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone

Endocrine Glands and Hormones 3. Thyroid Gland - iodine is actively transported

1. Hypothalamus - regulates internal environment (water level, temperature, blood Thyroxin- increases metabolic rate
pressure, etc.)
Calcitonin- regulates the calcium level in the blood and opposes the
2. Pituitary Gland- connected to hypothalamus action of the parathyroid hormone.

a) Posterior 4. Parathyroid Gland

Antidiuretic Hormone/Vasopressin (ADH)- promotes H2O Parathyroid Hormone/Parathormone (PTH)-increases calcium level
reabsorption in the kidney and decreases phosphate level in blood

Oxytocin- uterine contraction; artificially induce labor; produce milk in 5. Adrenal gland
mammary glands
a) Cortex
 Glucocorticoids/Cortisol- Amino acid to glucose; raises blood glucose 8. Thymus - active and largest during childhood.
level
Thymosin- aids in the differentiation of T cells and stimulates immune
Mineralocorticoids/Aldosterone- regulates level of sodium & cells
potassium
9. Pineal Gland - receives nerve impulses via eyes (optic tract)
Sex hormones
Melatonin- Circadian rhythms in sleep cycle
b) Medulla
10. Other glands
Norepinephrine- responses associated with fight or flight response;
blood glucose level and metabolic rate increases. a) Heart

Epinephrine- responses associated with fight or flight response; blood Atrial Natriuretic Hormone
glucose level and metabolic rate increases.
b) Stomach
6. Pancreas - Islets of Langerhans produces & secretes hormones
Gastric juice (HCL & Pepsin )
Insulin- secreted when there is a high level of glucose in the blood
c) Small Intestine
Glucagon- stimulates breakdown of stored nutrients; causes blood level
to rise Intestinal Juices

7. Gonads - determines sexual characteristic Diseases Related to the Endocrine System

a) Testes - male Diabetes Insipidus - inability to produce ADH

Androgen (Testosterone)- develops and maintains male sex Giantism - associated with GH (too much)
characteristics
Dwarfism - associated with GH (too little)
b) Ovaries - female
Acromegaly - associated with GH (abnormal growths in the body)
Estrogen- development and maintains female sex characteristics
Hypothyroidism - low level of thyroxin in the blood
Progesterone- stimulate growth of uterine lining
 Hyperthyroidism - high level of thyroxin in blood
Simple Goiter - lack of thyroxin
Cretinism - extreme hypothyroidism during infancy/childhood
Myxedema - lethargy, weight gain
Exopathalmic goiter - too much thyroxin
Tetany - drop in calcium level
Addison's disease - inability to maintain glucose level in the blood
Cushing's Syndrome - high-level hormone secretion
Diabetes Melitus - high level of cortisol, deficiency of insulin
Acidosis - buildup of acids in blood
Feedback Mechanism- regulates the activities of most endocrine glands in the secretion
of hormones
a) Negative Feedback Homeostasis; last step is against the first step
b) Positive Feedback - last step stimulates the first step
Types of Diabetes
1. Type I (Juvenile-Onset Diabetes)- not producing insulin
2. Type II (Maturity-Onset Diabetes)- produces insulin but cells don't respond due to
faulty receptor or lack of glucose
Renin - enzyme from the kidney that converts:
a) Angiostensinogen to Angiostenin I
b) Angiostenin I to Angiostenin II
- releases Aldosterone to raise Blood Pressure by constricting arteries and absorbing
sodium and H2O
Reproductive System
Importance
1. Production and development of egg cell for possible fertilization
2. Preparation of the uterus for implantation of embryo
3. Production of progesterone and estrogen
Parts
1. Ovary- main organ; there are two ovaries; contains hundreds of thousands of
follicles, as a girl; puberty is when the first meiotic division occurs; coitus-
second meiotic division
2. Oviduct- of fallopian tube (2); has finger-like projections at the end (fimbrae)
that sweeps the egg cell towards the fallopian tube; sight for fertilization; where
egg cell and sperm cell meets
*Ectopic Pregnancy-fertilization occurs outside the fallopian tube; development
of fetus on abdomen; cuts off nourishment of fetus
*2 egg cell + 2 sperm cell= fraternal twins
3. Uterus- where the embryo develops; most glandular and most vascular organ can no longer hold no fertilization occurs;
due to number of blood vessels; mostly made up of tissue and muscles
mature egg cell 3-6 months in mother

Menstruation- uterine lining (endometrium) thickens with estrogen and

progesterone; without fertilization, it sheds

4. Cervix- vaginal canal; elastic; opens so that the baby may go out

5. Vagina- birth canal; receives the sperm cell; site of ovulation; exit of menstrual
flow

6. Vulva- external structure of female Meiosis I Meiosis II

7. Labia Majora
Folds with pubic hair;
8. Labia Minora protection from dirt 10. Mons Pubis- fatty prominence underlying the pubic hair

9. Vestibule- cleft between labia minora which contains the urethra and the vaginal 11. Clitoris- has erectile tissue homologous to penis and is capped by a pea-shaped
opening glans; has sensitive receptors (sexually sensitive organ)

*Hymen- ring of tissue that partially closes the vagina; indication of virginity; can be Regulations of Hormone Levels
destroyed during childhood 1. Ovarian Cycle

a. Follicular Phase (1-13 days)- FSH promotes the development of

the follicle and it secretes estrogen

b. Ovulation (day 14)- mature egg cell is released followed by

menstruation
Primary Follicles Secondary Follicles Graafian Follicles Corpus Luteum

Primary Oocytes Secondary Oocytes -contains mature -produces progesterone c. Lutheal Phase (15-28 days)- LH promotes the development of the
corpus luteum as it secretes progesterone until it regenerates
2,000,000 before puberty, mature egg cell; that thickens lining of and menstruation occurs again
300,000- 400,000 will burst when it uterus; disintegrates if
2. Uterine Cycle- FSH starts to increase production for maturation of follicle
 a. Menstruation (1-5 days)- uterine lining disintegrates and blood 1st pair- auditory cavity 3rd pair- thymus
vessel rupture 2nd pair- tonsils 4th pair- parathyroids

b. Proliferative phase (6-13 days)- increased production of estrogen Developmental Stages

to thicken the endometrium and become vascular and glandular
A. Embryonic Development
c. Ovulation (day 14)
1st Week- early developmental stages
d. Secretory phase (15-28 days)- increased production of
progesterone by corpus luteum for endometrium thickness and 1. Cleavage- cell division w/o growth (from fallopian tubes to uterus)
uterine glands to mature producing a thick mucoid secretion. If
2. Morula- solid ball of cells (embryo reacts at 3rd day)
pregnancy does not occur, corpus luteum disintegrates
3. Blastula- (5th day) cavity is formed called blastocysts having 2 main parts:
*Within five days, fertilized egg must be in fallopian tube.
tropoblasts (outer and becomes the chorion) and inner mass (becomes the fetus)
* Females have four hormones: estrogen, progesterone, LH and FSH
4. Gastrula- (2nd week) implantation of the embryo at the uterine wall due to the
*Androphose- diminish of progesterone enzyme secreted by the tropoblast that digest away some of the tissue and blood vessels
of the uterine wall & secretion of HCG (Human Chorion Gonadotropin) as basis for
pregnancy test that appears in the urine & maintains the corpus luteum in secreting
Fetal Stages
estrogen and progesterone that lasts for 3 mos.
At 5 mos. the placenta begins to secrete estrogen and progesterone in greater amount as
Development- concerns with the events and processes that occurs as a single cell
corpus luteum degenerates, formation of the 3 embryonic layers- ectoderm, mesoderm
becomes a complex organism.
and endoderm
Processes of Development
5. Neurula
- (3rd Week) appearance of the nerve cord and heart; development of the Nervous
1. Growth- cell divides gets larger and divides again
System
2. Differentiation- when cells become specialized in structure & function
- (4th-5th weeks) formation of the 4th extraembryonic embrane (allantois) that later
3. Morphogenesis- when body parts are shaped and patterned into a certain form
becomes the umbilical cord connecting the developing embryo to the placenta; human
features appear (head, arms, legs)
"Ontogeny Recapitulate Phylogeny"- Latin saying which means the development of the
- (6th-8th weeks) brain development; neck formation; NS development for reflex
embryo retraces the evolution of its species.
actions; all organ systems are established; placenta is mature and fully functioning; 1
1/2 inches long and weighs like an aspirin tablet
Example:
Gill Clefts are developed pharyngeal pouches in advanced vertebration. B. Fetal Development
 Causes of Aging:
2-4 mos.
- large head, flat nose, eyes apart and ears distinctively present, sex are determined;
heart beat is felt; skeleton ossified; 6 1/2 inches long and 1/2 lb
5-7 mos.
- movement, eye lids open, pink-colored skin, have lanugs covered with greasy cheese
like substance (vernix caseosa) for protection from amniotic fluid, 12 inches long and 3
lbs.
8-9 mos.
- fetus rotates so head is towards the cervix- 21 inches long and 7lbs
Gestation- period of pregnancy, normally lasts for 38 weeks (266 days)
Parturition- labor and expulsion of the fetus; contraction of the uterine wall every 15-20
minutes for every 20-30 seconds or 15 minutes for 40 seconds or more.
Stages of Labor:
1.) Dilation of the cervix- expulsion of the mucus plug from the cervical canal which
prevents bacteria and sperm from entering the uterus during pregnancy
2.) Expulsion of the baby- epinotony is done or incision to enlarge the vaginal opening;
stitched later then healed
3.) Expulsion of afterbirth- placenta is expelled after 15 minutes of delivery; (uterus)
uterine muscles contract and uterus shrinks
Human Development After Birth
Infancy Childhood Adulthood Aging
Gerontology- study of aging
1. Genetic in Origin: life span in species is specific (humans, 110 years). Children of
long-lived parents tend to live longer than those of short-lived parents. The
number of times a cell divides is specific (50x). Mutation can lead to the
production of non-functional protein thus contributes to the aging process.
2. Whole Body Process: decline in hormonal system as the cell lack receptors that
enable them to respond.
Example: Reproductive System and Immune System.
Reason: Protein collagen become increasingly cross-linked as people age causing
stiffening and loss of elasticity of organs. Researchers now have found that
glucose has the tendency to attach to any type of protein that is the first step in
cross-linking process and ends with the formation of Advanced Glycosylation
End products (AGEs). This explains why cataracts develop, artherosclerosis,
diabetes, etc.
Solution: Researchers presently are experimenting a drug aminoguanidine
which can prevent development of AGEs.
3. Extrinsic Factors: due to poor health habits; diet and exercise, cigarette smoking,
alcohol, inadequate calcium intake
Menopause- sex hormones declined/fall in amount; uterus and cervix reduced in
size; walls of oviducts and vagina become thin; external genitals become less
pronounced
Andropause- in males, androgen falls gradually at 50-90 years but sperm production
continues
*Females have longer lives than males because estrogen offers protection against
circulatory disorders like heart disease and stroke in males at 40s but females only
after menopause.
 Birth Defect Detections
1. Amniocentesis- fetus is tested by getting amniotic fluid in a syringe centrifuge
cell culture for biochem studies and chromosome analysis
2. Chorionic Villi Sampling- embryo is tested by getting cells from chorionic villi
(placenta) using a suction tube and ultrasound scanner
3. Laparoscopy- obtaining eggs for screening for IVF usinf laparoscope (telescope)
and aspirator for biochem studies and chromosome analysis
Molecular Genetics
Mendelian Genetics
Mutations
Types of Mutations:
b. Point Mutation- change in very small segment of DNA (single
nucleotide/pair)
c. Gene Mutation- change in chemical nature of DNA
d. Chromosomal Mutation- change in the structure/number of
chromosome
Cell Type Mutation:
13. Somatic Cell Mutation- produces a mutant phenotype in only a part of
the organism; not a heritable trait
14. Germ Cell Mutation- producing a heritable change
A. Chromosomal Aberrations
1. Cri-du-chat (deletion 5)-cry of the cat; intellectual disability and delayed
development, destructive facial features, small head size (microcephaly), low
birth weight, weak muscle tone (hypotonia), in infancy, most common in
female (1:20,000-50,000)
2. Patau Syndrome (trisomy 13)- disrupts normal development and can result
to heart and kidney defects, motor and mental retardation, extra digits,
microcephaly, low-set ears, failure of forebrain to divide properly, eye
defects, cleft palate, spinal defects, abnormal genitalia
3. Edwards Syndrome (trisomy 18)- growth deficiency, abnormal skull shape
and facial features, clenched hands, Rocker bottom feet and cardio and renal
abnormalities
4. Philadelphian Sydrome (translocation 9 & 22)- chromosomal abnormality
associated with chronic mycelogenous leukemia (CML leukemia and
unregulated growth of predominantly myeloid cells in the bone marrow and
accumulation of these cells in the blood
5. Down Syndrome (trisomy 21)- has mental retardation and other conditions,
low muscle tone which makes difficulty in gross motor and fine motor skills
along with articulating speech
B. Sex Aberration
1. Turner Syndrome (XO)- monosomy 45X, short stature, underdevelop sexual
features, mental retardation
2. Klinefelters Syndrome (XXY)- 47XY, tall male with normal stature but small
testes, sterile, trisomy 23
3. Metafemale (XXX)- trisomy 23, 47X, super female with short stature, mental
retardation and underdevelop reproductive structures; sterile
Forms of Chromosomal Aberration: Incomplete Dominance- alleles that lack dominance relationships and result in
heterozygous that have an intermediate phenotype that is distinct from either
1. Duplication homozygous parent
2. Deletion Codominance- alleles that lack dominant and recessive relationships and are
3. Inversion both observed phenotypically; the phenotypic effect of each allele is observable
in the heterozygous condition
4. Translocation- non-homologous chromosomes
Sex-Related Inheritance
Gene Disorder Detection:
Sex-linked traits- genes located on the x chromosome only (x-linked genes);
1. Amniocentesis- involves the insertion of a needle through the abdominal wall recessive trait, ex. colorblindness, hemophilia
and uterus of mother and into the amniotic fluid surrounding the fetus
Sex-influenced traits- trait that is dominant in one sex and recessive in the other,
2. Ultrasomography- involves the use of high-frequency sound waves to produce ex. baldness
the image of a fetus on a monitor
Sex-limited traits- trait that develops only in the presence of sex chromosomes,
3. Fetoscopy- an instrument, endoscope, is used to view fetus inside the uterus ex. Plumages, skin color of animals

DNA Technology

Non-Mendelian Patterns of Heredity Evidences of Evolution

Multiple Alleles- involves more than two alleles are identified at a gene locus. Evolution- the process of change by which new species develop from pre-existing
Dominant hierarchy should be defined: species

Dominant: capital letter Types:

Recessive: lowercase letter 1. Convergent evolution- there is an increase in similarities among species
derived from different ancestors and resulting from similar adaptations
Alleles between two extremes: lowercase letter with suitable superscript to similar environments
Polygenes- several genes are involved in a given trait, ex. eye color, strand of hair 2. Divergent evolution- there is an increase in the differences among
trait descendants of a single ancestral species as time passes
Evidences of Evolution:
e. Fossils- remains and traces of organisms that once lived; imprints of
animal and plant parts mostly found in sedimentary rocks (strata). Age is
determined by using radioactive dating. The time in which half the
radioactive atoms of a certain kind in rocks or fossils will break down
into atoms of another element is called the half-life.
f. Comparative anatomy- similarities and differences in structures of living
things.
Homologous structures- parts of different organisms that are similar in
structure but serve different functions. It shows evolutionary descent
from a common ancestor.
Vestigial organs- parts of many animals that serve little or no function at
all. Believed as remnants of organs that were once functional in an
ancestral form.
Analogous structures- parts that are similar in function but differ in
internal structure. This does not suggest evolution from a common
ancestor.
g. Comparative embryology- vertebral embryo have notochord and gill
puches at some time. Embryological development suggests that
organisms have descended from a common ancestor.
h. Comparative biochemistry- similarities in the sequences of bases in DNA
result in similarities in the proteins made. The greater the biochemical
similarities among different groups of organisms, the closer is the
evolutionary relationships.
Types of Evolution:
15. Jean-Baptiste Lamarcks
a) Theory of Need- production of new body part results from a
need.
b) Theory of Use and Disuse- organs remain active and strong as
long as they are used but disappear gradually with disuse.
c) Theory of Inheritance and Acquired Characteristics- all that has
been acquired or changed in structure of individuals during their
life is transmitted by heredity to the next generation.
16. Charles Darwins Natural Selection Theory- involves
Overproduction- favourable conditions allow a
population to increase in size and pressures can limit the
number that can survive.
Variation- organisms differ in size, behaviour and other
features.
Competition- due to pressures, organisms compete to
survive.
Survival of the fittest- best adapted organism to the
environment survive.
Reproduction- survivors reproduce and pass their traits
to their offspring.
Speciation- population changes when some traits are not
passed on and differs enough from the original
population and new species arise. This is brought about
by:
 a) Geographic isolation- a situation in which
interbreeding between two populations of a
species is prevented by a physical barrier.

b) Reproductive isolation- a situation in which

two populations can no longer interbreed and
produce fertile offspring.

Adaptive radiation- a branching out of a population through variation and adaptation to

occupy many environments.

Artificial Selection- changes of organisms with mans intervention (artificial breeding).

Example: use of tissue culture and genetic engineering processes.

Evolution of Man:

Australophitecus africanus- discovered in 1934 and named by Dr. Dart in Africa

Homo habilis- 1964 by Dr. Leaky Pithecanthropus erectus- 1937 in Java
Homo neanderthalensis Homo sapiens (Cro-Magnon man) Homo sapiens
(modern man)

Mechanism of Evolution