11.

Open Channel Flow Contd

11.5 Hydraulic Jump
A hydraulic jump occurs when water in an open channel is flowing supercritical and is
slowed by a deepening of the channel or obstruction in the channel. The slowing causes the
water to suddenly jump to the other specific energy state (slow, deep flow). One example of
the formation of a hydraulic jump is at the downstream of a dam spillway (See figure below).

Figure 11.4: Hydraulic jump at the bottom of a dam spillway

For a hydraulic jump to occur the flow before the jump must be super-critical (fast and
thin). That is, in the figure above y1 must be less than the critical depth yc and the Froude
Number must be greater than 1 (Fr > 1).
The downstream depth after the jump can be calculated by the following equation:
y
[ ]
y 2 = 1 (1 + 8Fr12 ) 1 .....Eq(11.6)
2

The energy loss in the jump is dependent on the two depths y1 and y2
(y y1 ) 3
E1 E 2 = E = 2 ...........Eq(11.7)
4y1 y 2
The figure below illustrates what happens in a hydraulic jump using a Specific Energy
curve. The flow enters the jump at the super-critical depth of y1 and specific energy E1. In
the jump the depth increases abruptly. If there is no energy loss the depth after the jump
would have been y2 as this is the alternate depth for the Energy E1. However, there is
energy dissipation at the jump. Because of this energy loss E, the actual depth
corresponds to y2 with an energy level of E2 which is less than E1.

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This surge/jump can move up or downstream of the channel at a velocity given by
1
gy y 2
Speed of the surge = 1 (1 + 1 ) ...........Eq(11.8)
2 y2
If the speed of this surge = Upstream velocity, the jump is stationary. Conversely it may
travel up- or down-stream if the surge speed is less than or greater than the upstream
velocity.

y1 and y2 are known as the conjugate depths for the hydraulic jump.

Example 11.3: Water is discharged under a sluice gate from a reservoir into a
horizontal rectangular channel at a rate of 18m/s. The channel is 3m wide and is made of
unfinished formed concrete. A hydraulic jump is formed at a point where the water depth
is 1m. Determine (a) The velocity before the jump (b) the depth after the jump (c) the
velocity after the jump (d) the energy dissipated in the jump.

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11.6 Open Channel flow measurement
Two widely used devices used to measure flow in open channels are Weirs and Flumes.
In each case the cross section of the flow is changed at the structure which in turn causes
a change in the water level. This water level relative to a point on the structure is then
used to relate to the flow rate in the channel.

11.6.1 Weirs
A weir is a barrier that is placed across the open channel so that the water flows as a free
jet into the channel beyond the barrier. The typical design of a weir has a sharp edge on
the upstream side and allows the flow to spring away as a free jet called nappe with good
aeration below the nappe. A well-designed weir flow is shown in the figure below. The
head H above the weir crest drives the flow and the flow rate is expressed as a function of
this head. This relationship is known as the rating equation and plot of Head Vs.
Discharge is known as a rating curve. By measuring the head for any given flow, one is
able to estimate the flow rate over the weir using the rating curve/equation. Conversely,
the head required to provide a given flow rate too could be read off the rating curve.

Figure 11.5: Flow over a well-designed weir

Various notch shapes are used in weirs. Some of the common cross sections are shown
in the figure below.

Rectangular weir Contracted weir Cipoletti weir V notch weir

Rectangular weir: This is also known as a suppressed weir. The crest width L extends to
full width of the channel in which it is installed.

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Contracted weir: This has sides extended inward from the sides of the channel. The
water must contract as it flows around the sides of the weir thereby decreasing the
effective length of the weir. Weir length is thus adjusted in the equation (see table
below).
Cipoletti weir: Although this is also contracted from the sides of the channel, the opening
edges slope outward thus negating the contraction seen in the rectangular weir. Weir
length in the equation need not be adjusted.
V notch weir: Angles from 35 to 120 are acceptable.

The table below gives the Rating Equations for the various weir shapes.

Table 11.1: Rating equations for weirs

Weir Equation Notes
Rectangular 2 3 C = Coefficient of discharge
Q = C D L 2g H 2
3
Rectangular 3 n=0 fully suppressed, n=1 one side
Q = 1.84( L = 01.nH ) H 2
Contracted contraction, n=2 fully contracted.
Cipoletti 3
Q = 1.84L H 2
V notch 5 C = Coefficient of discharge
Q = 4.28C tan H 2
2

11.6.2 Flumes
Flumes make use of the relationship between the flow rate and critical flow depth to
estimate the flow in a channel. Flumes are contractions placed in the flow channels to
achieve its critical depth within this structure. For some pictures of flumes see the power
point presentation material for this lecture.

Critical Flow flumes use the unique relationship between discharge and flow depth when
critical flow occurs. The flumes are designed to cause the flow to achieve its critical
depth within the flume structure.

Flumes and orifices are seldom used these days to measure flow rates. Instead, current
meters, ultrasonic flow meters, magnetic flow meters are the more commonly used
advanced approaches for measuring flow.

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11.7 Slope classification

An important derivation from the specific energy equation (refer to Eqn 11.4 and Fig
11.3) is that at minimum Specific energy Ec, the flow depth is the critical depth yc and the
relationship between flow rate and depth at this state can be expressed as (for a
rectangular cross section only)
1 1
Q2 3 q2 3
y c = 2 = ...........................Eq(11.9)
B g g

Where Q :Discharge (m/s); B: Width of channel (m); q: Discharge per unit width of
channel(m/s).

Proof:

2
The associated Specific energy is Emin = yc
3

Steep slope: When the normal depth < Critical depth
Yn < yc
Steep slope
Mild slope: When the normal depth > Critical depth
Yn > yc
Mild slope
Critical slope: When the normal depth=Critical depth
Yn= yc
Critical slope

Example 11.4: A rectangular channel 4m wide and at a slope of 1:1500 carries water at a
flow rate of 4.9m/s. The Mannings n for the channel bed is 0.021. Determine the
following:
(i) Normal depth of flow (Hint: Use Mannings Equation)
(ii) Critical depth for this flow rate (Hint : Use Eqn 11.9)
(iii) The type of slope of this channel (Hint: Use criteria above)
(iv) Froude Number of the flow (Hint : Fr = V/(gh))
(v) What type of flow is this? (Hint: Table 11.1)

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