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UNIT I
AIR CYCLES
1. Define Thermodynamic cycles.
Thermodynamic cycle is defined as the series of processes
performed on the system, so
that the system attains to its original state.
2. Compare Internal combustion (I.C.) Engines and steam
and other types of engines.
l.C. Engines are more compact and can be started quickly and
also operate at higher
speeds. The efficiency of l.C. Engines is higher compared to
steam engines. l.C.' Engines are
extensively used in all types of transportation - road, rail, air and
marine applications.
3. What are the types of l.C. Engines?
a. Spark ignition (SI) engines operating on Otto cycle, also
called petrol engines
b. Compression ignition (Cl) engines operating on Diesel cycle,
also called diesel engines.
c. Gas turbine engines operating on Brayton cycle
4. Compare reciprocating and rotary type engines
Reciprocating type l.C. engines are suitable for small and
medium sizes. These run at
lower speeds but are more efficient compared to gas turbines.
Vibration, wear and tear are
more. Turbine engines are suitable for higher capacities. These
are very light and compact
for such sizes. (engine weight 0.1 kg I kW compared to 1 kg I
kW for reciprocating type)
5. Compare SI and Cl engines.
SI engines use lower compress.ion ratio (8 -10) and so are less
efficient, but are lower in
weight and more compact as these run at higher speeds .
Combustion is smoother and hence
vibration is less. These are used in cars and two wheelers and
small emergency electrical
generators.
CI engines use higher compression ratios (16 -18) and so are
more efficient but
weight/KW is more. The speed of Cl engines is limited to almost
3000 rpm due to combustion
problems. These are extensively used in all road, rail and marine
transport applications and also
for standby and emergency electrical generation.
6. Compare two stroke cycle and four stroke cycle engine
operation.
Four stroke cycle operation requires 2 revolutions per cycle as
compared one revolution
required for 2 stroke cycle operation. Hence two stroke cycle
operation will give more power for
a given displacement volume and so will be more compact for a
given power. Two stroke cycle
engines need fewer components and are lighter. However these
are less efficient at part load
operation. Hence these are extensively used only in smaller sizes
as in two wheelers and very
large sizes as in marine applications, whereas 4 stroke cycle
engines are exclusively used in the
middle power ranges.
7. What is the chemically correct air fuel ratio for SI engine
fuel? Can this ratio be used at all
conditions of engine operation?
The correct air fuel ratio in the case of petroleum fuels is in the
range 15-16.
In the case of SI engines a mixture is to be formed betore
starting combustion. As all the
components of the fuel do not evaporate as the same temperature
a fuel rich mixture is
required at cold starting. For complete fuel utilisation or
economy a lean mixture (1:16) is used
when maximum power is not required. Maximum power can be
produced when all the air is
utilised, and hence rich mixtures in the range 12:1 are used for
maximum power. Such varying
mixture requirements are met very well by modern carburators.
Injection systems are
now.becoming more popular.
8. What are the factors which contribute to knocking in SI
engines?
a. Low self ignition temperature of the fuel and chemical bonds
of the fuel controlling
delay period.
b. High compression ratio and high inlet temperature
c. Poor shape of the combustion chamber and low turbulence.
d. High speed of the operation.
9. Explain what is meant by delay period of fuel?
In IC engine combustion chamber during mixing, the fuel should
first evaporate to form a
combustible mixture. The time taken for evaporation and mixing
is called physical delay. Fuel
molecules are complex, Intermediate reactions are necessary
before the fuel burns to form C02
and H20. The time interval between ignition and start of final
reactions is called chemical delay.
Chemical delay is important in SI engines. It should be longer to
prevent self ignition. In Cl
engines total delay should be short to prevent accumulation for
fuel.in the chamber before
ignition.
10. How does the shape of the combustion chamber affect
the knock characteristics of SI engines?
The length of flame travel should be shorter. Otherwise self
ignition of the last portion
of mixture is likely to occur. The volume at the last portion
should be low so that even if self
ignition occurs its effect will be minimal (a wedge shape is an
example, see fig.) turbulence in
the chamber will speed up flame travel and this is an important
characteristics of the C.C.
11. What is meant by Octane rating of SI engine fuel?
Higher compression ratio provides a more efficient operation.
However fuel knocking
characteristics limit the compression ratio that can be used
(Called HUCR - highest useful
compression ratio).
Isooctane is found to have the best knock limiting characteristics
and n heptane the
poorest in this regard.
The percentage ratio of Isooctane and n -heptane in a mixture
which has the same
knock characteristics as the given fuel is determined and the fuel
is rated by the percentage of
isooctane in the test. Normal fuel octane rating is in the range
70-80. Higher octane fuels can be
used at higher compression ratios without knocking, leading to
higher efficiency: ( Costlier )
12. What is meant by normal and abnormal combustion in
SI engines?
In SI engines air fuel mixture is compressed and at the end of
compression a spark is
produced to ignite the fuel. A flame front from the point of
ignition travels uniformly all around
consuming the mixture. The pressure rise due to such
compression will be smooth. "This is
called normal combustion.
As the flame travels through the combustion chamber pressure
and temperature of the
mixture increase. Under certain conditions all the remaining
mixture in the chamber wil! ignite
(self ignition) and will cause a sudden and steep pressure rise.
This is called knocking
combustion and this will damage the components and also
reduce efficiency. Vibration and
noise will be another problem.
Pre ignition due to hot spots or glowing carbon deposits can also
produce abnormal
combustion.
13. Define cycle.
It is defined as a series of state changes such that the final state
is identical with the
initial state.
14. Define the term compression ratio.
Compression ratio is the ratio between total cylinder volume to
clearance volume. It is
denoted by the letter r
15. What is the range of compression ratio for SI and diesel
engine?
For petrol of SI engine 6 to 8
For diesel engine 12 to 18
16. Which cycle is more efficient for the same compression
ratio and heat input, Otto cycle or
Diesel cycle?
Otto cycle is more efficient than diesel cycle
17. Write the expression for efficiency of the otto cycle?
1
Efficiency n =1 - ---------
(r)r-1
18. Which device is used to control the Air fuel ratio in the
petrol engine?
Carburettor
19. Which device is used to control the Air fuel ratio in the
diesel engine?
Injection nozzle
20. The efficiency of the diesel cycle approaches the otto
cycle efficiency when the cut off ratio is
______
Ans: Reduced
21. The speed of a four stroke I.C. engine is 1500rpm. What
will be the speed of the cam shaft?
750 rpm.
22. All the four operations in two stroke engine are
performed in ________ number of revolution
of crank shaft.
Ans: One
23. All the four operations in four stroke engine are
performed in _______ number of operations?
Ans: Two
24. In otto cycle the compression ratio is _______ to
expansion ratio.
Ans: Equal
25. In diesel engine, the compression ratio is __________
than expansion ratio?
Ans: Greater
26. What is meant by cutoff ratio?
Cutoff ratio is defined as the ratio of volume after the heat
addition to before the heat
addition. It is denoted by the letter p
27. What are the assumptions made for air standard cycle
a. Air is the working substance.
b. Throughout the cycle, air behaves as a perfect gas and obeys
all the gas laws.
c. No chemical reaction takes place in the cylinder
d. Both expansion and compression are strictly isentropic
e. The values of specific heats of the air remain constant
throughout the cycle.
28. Define Mean effective pressure of an I.C. engine.
Mean effective pressure is defined as the constant pressure
acting on the piston during
the working stroke. It is also defined as the ratio of work done to
the stroke volume or piston
displacement volume.
29. What is the other name given to otto cycle?
Constant volume cycle.
30. What is meant by air standard efficiency of the cycle?
It is defined as the ratio of work done by the cycle to the heat
supplied to the cycle.
Work done
Efficiency n = --------------
Heat supplied
31. What will be the effect of compression ratio on efficiency
of the diesel cycle?
Efficiency increases with the increase in compression ratio and
vice versa.
32. What will be the effect of cut off ratio on efficiency of the
diesel cycle?
Efficiency decreases with the increase of cut off ratio and vice
versa.
33. Define: Specific fuel consumption.
SFC is defined as the amount of fuel consumed per brake power
hour of work.
34. What is the difference between otto and Diesel cycle.
Otto Cycle Diesel Cycle
1. Otto cycle consist of two adiabatic and two
constant volume process.
1. It consists of two adiabatic, one constant
volume and one constant pressure processes.
2. Compression ratio is equal to expansion
ratio
2. Compression ratio is greater than expansion
ratio.
3. Heat addition takes place at constant
volume.
3. Heat addition takes place at constant pressure
4. Compression ratio is less. It is varies from 6
to 8.
4. Compression ratio is more. It varies from 12
to 18.
35. The thermal efficiency of a two stroke cycle engine is
_______ than the four stroke cycle
engine.
Lesser
36. What is meant by calorific value of a fuel?
Calorific value of a fuel is defined as the amount of heat
liberated by the compete
combustion of unit quantity of a fuel.
37. The efficiency of the Dual cycle is _______ than the diesel
cycle and ______ than the otto cycle
for the same compression ratio.
greater, less.
38. What are the factors influencing of the Dual cycle?
a. Compression ratio
b. Cut off ratio
c. Pressure ratio
d. Heat supplied at constant volume and constant pressure.
39. The Brayton cycle is mainly used in _______
Gas turbine power plant.
40. Mention the various processes in diesel cycle and dual
cycle.
Diesel cycle:
Isentropic compression and expansion, constant volume heat
rejection and constant
pressure heat addition.
Dual cycle:
Isentropic compression and expansion, partially heat supplied at
constant volume and
remaining at constant pressure and constant volume heat
rejection.
41. Give the expression for efficiency of the Dual cycle.
1 Kpr - 1
Efficiency n = 1 - ------- -----------------
(r)r-1 (K-1) + yK(p-1)
where,
r Compression ratio
k pressure or Expassion ratio
p cut off ratio and
y adiabatic index
42. Plot the P-V and T-S diagram of Otto cycle.
PT
3
2
4
adiabatic Constant volume
processes
QR
43. Give the expression for efficiency of the Brayton cycle.
Efficiency n = 1 - ----------
(Rp)y-1
Where,
Rp pressure ratio.
44. Write any four differences between Otto and Diesel
cycle?
Sl.No Otto Cycle Diesel Cycle
1 Otto cycle consist of Two isentropic
and two constant volume processes
Diesel cycle consist of two adiabatic,
one constant volume and one constant
pressure processes
2 Heat addition takes place in constant
volume process
Heat addition takes place in constant
pressure process
3 Efficiency is more than diesel cycle for
the same compression ratio
Efficiency is less than Otto cycle for the
same compression ratio
4 Compression ratio is equal to
expansion ratio
Compression ratio is greater than
expansion ratio
45. The two stroke cycle engine gives ______ the number of
power strokes as compared to the
four stroke cycle engine, at the same engine speed.
Ans: Double
46. What are the processes involved in Dual cycle
a. Adiabatic compression
b. Constant volume heat addition
c. Constant pressure heat addition
d. Adiabatic expansion
e. Constant volume heat rejection
47. In petrol engine, the charge is ignited with the help of
________
Ans: Spark plug
48. Define the following terms in the Air Standard cycle
a. Air standard efficiency
b. Specific work transfer
c. Specific air consumption and
d. Work ratio.
Air standard efficiency:
Air standard efficiency is defined as the ratio of network transfer
during the cycle to the
net heat transfer to the cycle.
Specific work transfer:
Specific work transfer is the work transfer per unit mass of
working substance.
Specific air consumption:
Specific air consumption is the quantity of working substance
required for doing work
transfer or the flow ratio of working substance for unit power.
Work ratio:
Work ratio= Net work transfer in a cycle/possible work transfer
in cycle
49. The diesel engine draws the mixture of diesel and air
during suction stroke (True / False)
Ans: False
50. What is the effect of air standard efficiency of Diesel
cycle with compression ratio and cut off
ratio?
Efficiency increases with the increase in compression ratio and
vice-versa. The efficiency
decreases with the increase in cut off ratio and vice-versa.
51. Name the various gas power cycles
Carnot cycle, Otto cycle, Diesel cycle, Dual cycle, Brayton
cycle, Atkinson cycle, Stirling
cycle,
52. Define mean effective pressure as applied to gas power
cycles.
Mean effective pressure is defined as the constant pressure
acting on the piston during
the working stroke. It is also defined as the ratio of work done to
the stroke volume of piston
displacement volume.
53. What are the effects of introducing regenerator in the
basic gas turbine cycle?
a. The fuel economy is improved. The quality of fuel required
per unit mass of air is less
b. The work output from turbine, the work required to the
compressor will not change.
c. Pressure drop will occur during regeneration
d. It increased thermal efficiency when the turbine operates at
low-pressure ratio.
54. When will the inter cooler is provided between two
compressors? What are the effects of
providing intercooler in gas turbine?
When pressure ratio is very high, then the intercooler is
provided between compressors.
Due to intercooler, heat supply is increased and work ratio
will be increased and the
specific volume of air is also reduced.
55. When the reheater is employed in the gas turbine cycle?
When air fuel ratio is high, the combustion products after
expansion in the highpressure
turbine contain more oxygen. This can be utilised in the reheater
and the gas is further
expanded in the low-pressure turbine.
56. Define isentropic efficiency of turbine and compressor in
a Joule cycle.
hturbine = Actual internal work / Work of isentropic expansion
hcompressor = Work of isentropic compression / Actual internal
work
57. Compare the Diesel and Brayton cycles
Diesel cycle Brayton cycle
1. It consist of two isentropic, one constant 1. It consist of two
isentropic, one constant
volume and one constant pressure processes pressure processes
2. Heat is rejected at constant volume 2. Heat is rejected at
constant pressure
3. Used in Diesel engines 3. Used in gas turbines
58. Why Brayton cycle is used in gas turbine?
Inside the turbine the gas is continuously flowing in the
processes are flow processes.
Since all the processes involved in Brayton cycle is flow
process, it has been used as the cycle for
gas turbine.
59. What is the fuel injector?
Fuel injector is used in diesel engine to inject and atomize the
diesel at the end of the
compression stroke.
60. What is meant by SI engine? Why it is called so?
SI engine means spark ignition engine. In SI engine air fuel
mixture is ignited by spark
plug hence it is called spark ignition engine. It is also called as
petrol engine.
61. Give four major differences between two stroke and four
stroke IC engine.
No Two stroke cycle engine Four Stroke cycle engine
1 One cycle is completed in two stroke of the
piston or one revolution of the crank shaft.
One cycle is completed in four stroke of
the piston or two revolution of the
crank shaft.
2 For the same speed, twice the number of
power strokes is produced than 4 stroke
engine.
For the same speed, half of the number
of power strokes is produced than 2
stroke engine.
3 Turning moment is more uniform and hence
lighter flywheel is used.
Turning moment is not uniform and
hence bigger flywheel is used.
4 It contains ports which are operated by the
piston movement.
It contains valves which are operated
by valve mechanism.
62. What is meant by CI Engine? Why it is called so?
CI engine means compression ignition engine. In CI engine the
fuel is injected by a fuel
injector in atomized form because of high compressed air it gets
ignited automatically. Hence it
is called as compression ignition engine.
63. What is a two stroke engine?
A two stroke engine is an engine in which one cycle of operation
is completed in two
stroke of the piston or one revolution of the crank shaft.
64. What is a four stroke engine?
A four stroke engine is an engine in which one cycle of
operation is completed in four
stroke of the piston or two revolution of the crank shaft.
65. Name the four strokes of an IC engine?
Suction, compression, power and exhaust stroke
66. What is a Gas turbine? How do you classify.
Gas turbine is an axial flow rotary turbine in which working
medium is gas.
Classification of gas turbine
1. According to the cycle of operation
a. Open cycle
b. Closed cycle and
c. Semi closed cycle.
2. According to the process
a. Constant volume and
b. Constant pressure process.
67. Differentiate petrol and Diesel engines.
Petrol or SI engines Diesel or CI engine
1. Combustion of air fuel mixture takes place
by spark produced by sparkplug.
1. Combustion takes place by high compressed
air.
2. Carburetor is used to mix the air fuel 2. Fuel injector is used
to inject the fuel in
mixture. atomized form.
3. Compression ratio varies from 6 to 8. 3. Compression ratio
varies from 12 to 18.
4.It works on Otto cycle. 4. It works on Diesel or Dual cycle.
68. What is meant by closed cycle gas turbine?
In closed cycle gas turbine, the same working fluid is
recirculated again and again.
69. What is meant by open cycle gas turbine?
In open cycle gas turbine, the exhaust gas form turbine is
exhausted to the atmosphere
and fresh air is taken in compressor for every cycle.
70. Gas turbine is working on ----------- cycle
Brayton or Jules cycle.
71. How can we increase the efficiency of the gas turbine?
By providing inter cooler, re-heater along with heat exchanges.
72. What is the function of intercooler in gas turbines?
Where it is placed?
The intercooler is placed between L.P. and H.P. compressors. It
is used to cool the gas
coming from L.P. compressor to its original temperature.
73. What is meant by single acting compressor?
In single acting compressor, the suction, compression and
delivery of air take place on
one side of the piston.
74. Differentiate open and closed cycle gas turbines.
Open cycle gas turbine Closed cycle gas turbine
1. Working substance is exhausted to the
atmosphere after one cycle.
1. The same working substance is recirculated
again and again.
2. Pre-cooler is not required 2. Pre-cooler is required to cool the
exhaust
gas to the original temperature.
3. High quality fuels are used 3. Low quality fuels are used
4. For the same power developed size and
weight of the plant is small
4. Size and weight are bigger.
75. Why re-heater is necessary in gas turbine? What are its
effects?
The expansion process is very often performed in two sperate
turbine stages. The re-heater
is placed between the H.P. and L.P. turbines to increase the
enthalpy of the exhaust gas coming
from H.P. turbine.
Effects:
Turbine output is increased for the same compression ratio
Thermal efficiency is less.
76. What is the function of regenerator in gas turbine?
The main function of heat regenerator is to exchange the heat
from exhaust gas to the
compressed air for preheating before combustion chamber. It
increases fuel economy and
increase thermal efficiency.
77. What are the assumptions made on air standard
efficiency?
Air is the working fluid and it obeys the perfect gas laws.
The engine operates in a closed cycle. The cylinder is filled
with constant amount of
working substance and the same fluid is used repeatedly and
hence mass remains
constant.
The working fluid is homogeneous throughout at all times and
no chemical reaction
takes place, inside the cylinder.
The compression and expansion processes are assumed to be
adiabatic.
The values of specific heat (Cp and Cv) of the working fluid
remains constant.
All processes are internally reversible and no mechanical or
frictional losses to occur
throughout the process.
Combustion is replaced by heat addition process and exhaust
is replaced by heat
rejection process.
Heat Transfer
1. Define thermal conductivity of a material?
The amount of energy conducted through a body of unit area
and unit thickness in unit time when the difference in
temperature between the faces causing heat flow is unit
temperature difference.
2. Write down the Fourier conduction equation:
(2T / X2) + (2T /Y2) + (2T /Z2) = (1/) ((t /)
2T = (1/) ((t /)
3. Define overall heat transfer coefficient :
The overall heat transfer coefficient in the heat transmitted per
unit area per unit time per degree temp difference between the
bulk fluids on each side of the metal. It is denoted by U.
4. Give an expression for conduction heat transfer through a
furnace wall of three Layers:
Soln:
5. What are the factors affecting the thermal conductivity?
i. Material structure
ii. Moisture content
iii. Density of the material
iv. Pressure and temperature.
6. Define thermal diffusivity?
It is the ratio of its thermal conductivity k to the thermal storage
capacity c.
= (k/c).
It indicates the rate at which heat is distributed in the material.
7. Define thermal Resistance:
Heat transfer may be analogy with the flow of electricity in an
electrical resistance.
As the flow of electric current in the electrical resistance is
directly proportional to the potential difference heat flow is
directly proportional to temp diff (dt), the driving force for heat
conduction through a medium
As per ohms law current (I) = Potential difference (dv)/
electrical resistance.
As per Fourier equation heat flow rate Q = temp diff (dt)/
(dx/KA)
Comparing to (1) & (2) I is analogous to Q , dv is analogous to
dt , R is analogous to (dx/KA).
The Quantity (dx/KA) is called the thermal conduction
resistance.
8. Draw the diagram of electrical analogy for the composite
layer of three concentric
Cylinders indicating the values of their thermal resistance.
where Ka , Kb , Kc , are the thermal conductivities of 3
cylinders respectively.
9. State fouriers law of heat conduction.
The rate of flow of heat through a simple homogeneous solid is
directly proportional
to the area of the section at right angles to the direction of heat
flow and to change of
temperature with respect to the length of the heat flow.
Q A. (dt/dx)
Q = -K.A (dt/dx)
10. Define and distinguish between steady state , unsteady state
and transient state of heat
transfer .
Steady State:
It refers to the condition which prevails in a heat conducting
medium where
temperature at fixed points do not change with time.
Unsteady State:
It designates a phenomenon which is time dependent .
Conduction of heat in
unsteady refers to the transient conditions where in the heat flow
and the temp distribution at
any point of the system vary continuously with time
11. Give the example of heat generation application?
Fuel rods nuclear reactor
Electrical conductors
Chemical and combustion processes
Drying and setting of concrete.
12. Write down the formula used for finding heat loss through a
sphere by conduction?
Q= 4kr1r2(t1-t2)/(r2-r1)
13. Discuss on thermal conductivity of insulators?
In insulating materials the thermal conductivity may vary from
sample to sample
due to variations in structure , composition , density , and
porosity.
14. What is critical thickness of insulation?
The thickness up to which heat flow increase and after which
heat flow decreases
is termed as critical thickness.
Critical thickness or radius = (k/h0) = rc
15. In the case of liquids and gases heat transfer takes place
according to?
Convection
16. Unit for thermal conductivity is?
17. Materials having different values of thermal conductivities
are known as?
Non isotropic material.
18. Draw the electrical analogy diagram for the composite layers
of sphere indicating the values of
their thermal resistance..
19. Give the reasons for low and high thermal conductivity in
insulating and conducting material?
Reason:
K may vary from sample to sample due to variations in
structure, composition and
porosity.
Conducting Materials:
In metals the molecules are closely packed. Molecular activity is
rather small and so
thermal conductivity is substantially due to the flow of free
electrons.
20. How conduction and convective heat transfer occurs in
solids and liquids respectively?
Conduction:
It is the transfer of heat from one part of a substance to another
part of the same
substance or from one substance to another in physical contact
with it, without displacement
of molecules forming the substance.
In solids conduction takes place by
Lattice vibration
Transport of free electrons.
Convection:
It is the transfer of heat within the fluid by mixing of one portion
of the fluid with
another.
21. When heat transferred by molecular collision it is referred to
as heat transfer by?
Conduction.
22. Write the equation for calculating the heat transfer through a
hollow cylinder with variable
thermal conductivity.
Q = - K0(1+t).(2rL(dt/dr))
23. Write the electrical analogy circuit for a composite plane
wall having 4 layers of different
material.
24. Material in which thermal conductivity do not vary with
respect to axis is called?
Isotropic material.
25. Write down the general heat conduction equation for an
unsteady state 3-D heat flow through
a plane wall.
(2T / X2) + (2T /Y2) + (2T /Z2)+(q/k) = (1/) ((t /)
26. What are the three ways in which heat may be transferred?
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
27. Write steady state conduction equation for variable thermal
conductivity.
Q = - K0(1+t).(dt/dx).A
28. Give the expression for temperature distribution across a
plane wall for one dimensional
steady state conduction.
(2T /X2)+(q/k) =0.
29. Define log mean area for a cylinder and a sphere:
Cylinder:
It is an expression for the heat flow through a hollow cylinder of
the same form as
that for a plane wall .Then thickness will be equal to (r2-r1) and
the area A will be an
equivalent area Am.
Am = (A0 Ai)/(ln(A0/Ai)
= 2L(r2-r1)/(ln(r2/r1)).
Sphere:
Am
2 = Ai*A0
Am = (Ai*A0)0.5
= 4r1r2
rm = (r1r2)0.5
30. Give the general expression for heat flow in three
dimensions in cylindrical coordinates.
(2t / r2) +(1/r) (t /r) + (1/r2)(__________2t /2)+ (2t /
x2) +(q/k) = (1/) ((t /)
31. Cork is a good (insulator) because it has porous body.
32. Derive the unit of thermal conductivity:
33. Define efficiency of fin
fin=Actual heat transferred by the fin[Q fin]
maximum head that would be transferred if whole surface of the
fin is maintained
at the base temp[Qmax]
34. Define effectiveness of fin
Effectiveness of fin is the ratio of the fin heat transfer to the heat
transfer rate that would
exist without a fin
fin=Q with fin
Q without fin
35. What is the advantage of insulating the fin at its end.
If the tip of the fin is insulated there is no heat loss from the end
of the fin.
36. Name some good conductors of heat.
Silver, copper, aluminium and cast iron.
37. Mention four application of fin.
Finned surface are used in
I. Economizers for steam power plants
II. Radiators of automobiles
III. Air cooled engine cylinder heads
IV. Transformer and electronic components etc.
38. Define Newtonian heating or cooling?
The process in which the internal resistance is assumed
negligible in comparison with its surface resistance is called the
Newtonian heating or cooling process.
39. Define lumped system?
In lumped system the whole solid, whole energy at any time is a
function of its temperature and total heat capacity is treated as
one lump. The temperature in this process is considered to be
uniform at a given time.
40. What is mean by unsteady heat conduction?
If there is an abrupt change in its surface temperature, the body
attains an equilibrium temperature or a steady state after some
period. During this period the temperature varies with time and
the body is said to be in an unsteady or transient state.
41. Define error function and its significance?
erf [ ] is known as Gaussian error function. It is defined by
erf [ ] = (2/).0z e-n2 dn. With erf (0)=0,erf()=1.
42. What is the shape of steady state conduction in cylindrical
wall?
Shape Factor S = (2L)/(ln(r0/r1)
43. Define conduction shape factor?
In order to solve the problem in 2-D,3-D conduction heat
transfer we need to construct a potential field consisting of
curvilinear squares and thereafter count the number of
temperature increment and heat flow lanes.
44. Define Biot Number and what are its significance?
Bi = (hlc)/k
Where,
h= convective heat transfer coefficient
lc = characteristic length.
Significance:
It gives an indication of the ratio of internal resistance to
surface resistance.
When Bi is small it indicates that the system has a small
internal (conduction)
resistance.
45. Define periodic variation in transient state?
In periodic transient state temperatures under go periodic
changes which are either
regular or irregular but definitely cyclic.
Example:
The temperature variations in
Cylinder of an IC engine
Building during a period of 24 hours.
46. Name any numerical methods in the solution of transient
heat conduction in solids.
Relaxation method
Newton raphson method.
47. Define semi-infinite solid and infinite solids.
Infinite Solid:
A solid which extends itself infinitely in all directions of space
is termed as an
infinite solid.
Semi-infinite Solid:
If an infinite solid is split in the middle by a plane , each half is
known as semiinfinite
solid.
48. Define fourier number.
Fourier number F0 = ( )/ Lc
2
It signifies the degree of penetration of heating or cooling effect
through a solid.
49. Define time constant for a thermocouple.
The quantity ( Vc / h As) (which has units of time) is called
time constant and is
denoted by .
= ( Vc)/(h As)
= (k/h) (V/As)
50. Define response of a thermocouple.
It is defined as the time required for the thermocouple to attain
the source
temperature.
1. What is meant by Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids?
The fluids which obey the Newton's law of viscosity are called
Newtonian fluids and those which
do not obey are called non-Newtonian fluids.
2. What is meant by laminar flow and turbulent flow?
Laminar flow: Laminar flow is sometimes called stream line
flow. In this type of flow, the fluid moves in layers and each
fluid particle follows a smooth continuous path. The fluid
particles in each layer remain in an orderly sequence without
mixing with each other.
Turbulent flow: In addition to the laminar type of flow, a distinct
irregular flow is frequently observed in nature. This type of flow
is called turbulent flow. The path of any individual particle is
zig-zag and irregular. Fig. shows the instantaneous velocity in
laminar and turbulent flow.
3. What is hydrodynamic boundary layer?
In hydrodynamic boundary layer, velocity of the fluid is less
than 99% of free stream velocity.
4. What is thermal boundary layer?
In thermal boundary layer, temperature of the fluid is less than
99% of free stream temperature.
5 . Define convection.
Convection is a process of heat transfer that will occur between
solid surface and a fluid medium when they are at different
temperatures.
6. State Newton's law of convection.
Heat transfer from the moving fluid to solid surface is given by
the equation
Q = h A (Tw - T) this equation is referred to as Newton's law
of cooling.
Where h - Local heat transfer coefficient in W/m2 K
A - Surface area in m2
Tw - Surface (or) wall temperature in K
T - Temperature of fluid in K
7. What is meant by free or natural convection?
If the fluid motion is produced due to change in density resulting
from temperature gradients, the mode of heat transfer is said to
be free or natural convection.
Turbulent flow
Laminar flow
Velocity
Time
8. What is forced convection?
If the fluid motion is artificially created by means of any
external force like a blower or
fan, that type of heat transfer is known as forced convection.
9. According to Newton's law of cooling the amount of heat
transfer from a solid surface of
area A at a temperature Tw , a fluid at a temperature T is
given by _____________
Q = hA (Tw - T)
10. Indicate the concept or significance of boundary layer.
In the boundary layer concept the flow field over a body is
divided into two regions:
A thin region near the body called the boundary layer where
the velocity and the temperature gradients are large.
The region outside the boundary layer where the velocity and
the temperature gradients are very nearly equal to their free
stream values.
1 . What is meant by pool boiling?
If heat is added to a liquid from a submerged solid surface, the
boiling process is referred to as pool boiling. In this case the
liquid above the hot surface is essentially stagnant and its
motion near the surface is due to free convection and mixing
induced by bubble growth and detachment.
2. What is mean t by Film wise condensation?
The liquid condensate wets the solid surface, spreads out and
forms a continuous film over the entire surface is known as film
wise condensation
3. What is meant by Drop wise condensation?
In drop wise condensation, the vapour condenses into small
liquid droplets of various sizes which
fall down the surface in a random fashion.
4. What is heat exchanger?
A heat exchanger is defined as equipment which transfers the
heat from a hot fluid to a
cold fluid.
5. What are the types of heat exchangers?
The types of heat exchangers are as follows
1. Direct contact heat exchangers
2. Indirect contact heat exchangers
3. Surface heat exchangers
4. Parallel flow heat exchangers
5. Counter flow heat exchangers
6. Cross flow heat exchangers
7. Shell and tube heat exchangers
8. Compact heat exchangers
6. What is meant by parallel flow heat exchanger?
In this type of heat exchanger, hot and cold fluids move in the
same direction.
7. What is meant by counter flow heat exchanger?
In this type of heat exchanger, hot and cold fluids move in
parallel but opposite directions.
8. What is meant by compact heat exchangers?
There are many special purpose heat exchangers called compact
heat exchangers. They are
generally employed when convective heat transfer co-efficient
associated with one of the fluids is much
smaller than that associated with the other fluid.
9. What is meant by Fouling Factor?
We know, the surfaces of heat exchangers do not remain clean
after it has been in use for some
time. The surfaces become fouled with scaling or deposits. Tube
effect of these deposits affecting the value
of overall heat transfer co-efficient. This effect is taken care of
by introducing an additional thermal
resistance called the fouling resistance.
10. What is meant by Effectiveness?
The heat exchanger effectiveness is defined as the ratio of actual
heat transfer to the maximum
possible heat transfer.
Effectiveness = __________________________
Actual heat transfer
Maximum possible heat transfer
1. D efine Radiation.
The heat transfer from one body to another without any
transmitting medium is known as radiation. It is an
electromagnetic wave phenomenon.
2. Define emissive power
The emissive power is defined as the total amount of radiation
emitted by a body per unit timeand unit area.It is expressed in
W/m2
3. Define monochromatic emissive power Eb
The energy emitted by the surface at a given length per unit time
per unit area in alldirections is known as Monochromatiemissive
power.
4. What is meant by absorptivity
Absorptivity is defined as the ratio between radiation absorbed
and incident radiation.
Absorbitivity, =_______________________________
5. What is meant by reflectivity?
Reflectivity is defined as the ratio of radiation reflected to the
incident radiation
Reflectivity, p =
6. What is Black body?
Black body is an ideal surface having the following properties.
I. A black body absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of
wave length and direction.
2. For a prescribed temperature and wave length, no surface can
emit more energy than black
body.
7 . State Wien's displacement law.
The Wien's law gives the relationship between temperature and
wave length corresponding to the maximum spectral emissive
power of the black body at that temperature.
Amax T = c3
Where c3=2.9 x 10-3 mK
8. Define Emissivity.
It is defined as the ability of the surface of a body to radiate
heat. It is also defined as the ratio of emissive power of any
body to the emissive power of a black body of equal
Radiation absorbed
Incident radiation
Radiation reflected
Incident radiation
temperature.
Emissivity,s=
9. What is meant by gray body?
If a body absorbs a definite percentage of incident radiation
irrespective of their wave length, the body is known as gray
body. The emissive power of a gray body is always
less than that of the black body.
10. Define irradiation (G).
It is defined as the total radiation incident upon a surface per
unit time per unit area. It is expressed in W/m2.
E
Eb