Contents

Manual for K-Notes ................................................................................. 2

Transmission Lines .................................................................................. 3
Underground Cables ............................................................................. 14
Overhead Insulators .............................................................................. 16
Distribution Systems ............................................................................. 16
Per Unit System .................................................................................... 17
Load Flow Study .................................................................................... 18
Economic Power Generation ................................................................ 20
Fault Analysis ........................................................................................ 21
Power System Stability.......................................................................... 29
Power System Protection ...................................................................... 33

2014 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

1
 Manual for K-Notes

Why K-Notes?

Towards the end of preparation, a student has lost the time to revise all the chapters from his /
her class notes / standard text books. This is the reason why K-Notes is specifically intended for
Quick Revision and should not be considered as comprehensive study material.

What are K-Notes?

A 40 page or less notebook for each subject which contains all concepts covered in GATE
Curriculum in a concise manner to aid a student in final stages of his/her preparation. It is highly
useful for both the students as well as working professionals who are preparing for GATE as it
comes handy while traveling long distances.

When do I start using K-Notes?

It is highly recommended to use K-Notes in the last 2 months before GATE Exam
(November end onwards).

How do I use K-Notes?

Once you finish the entire K-Notes for a particular subject, you should practice the respective
Subject Test / Mixed Question Bag containing questions from all the Chapters to make best use
of it.

2014 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

2
Transmission Lines
Skin Effect

It is tendency of AC current to be concentrated on the surface of conductor.

Cause: Non-uniform distribution of magnitude flux linkages Due to skin effect, the effective
area of cross section of conductor decrease and hence resistances increases.
In case of DC, There is no skin effect so
RDC R AC
With increase in frequency, skin effect increases.
With increase in r , skin effect increases.
Inductance of a Transmission line

Single Conductor
0 r
Internal inductance
8
External inductance from distance d1 to d2
0r d2
Lex ln
2 d1
0 r 0 r d2
Total inductance ln
8 2 r
d d
0 r ln 1 0 r ln
2 re 4 2 r
r 0.7788r = Geometric mean radius (GMR)

Single phase 2 wire line

0 rd
Inductance of single wire ln
2 r
Total inductance = L1 L2
0 d
Lsys ln
r
If radius of both wire is not same, assume radius of 1st wire ra & that of second wire is rb

0 d

Lsys ln
r r
a b
ra 0.7788ra & rb 0.7788rb

If instead of a single conductor per phase we use multiple conductor, then GMR is
replaced by self GND (Geometric Mean Distance) and d by mutual GMD.

3
Self GMD

1
self GMDfwd D11 D12 ........D1n D21 D22 .........D2n ....... Dn1 Dn2 ........Dnn n2

Where Dii ri 0.7788ri

1
Self GMDbwd Di 1 ' '
Di' 2' ........Di'm' .............. Dml' ' ................Dmm
' '
m2

Where Dii ri 0.7788ri

Mutual GMD
1
Mutual GMD D11' D12' ...........D1m' ................. Dn1' Dn2' .................Dnm'
mn

Now, with these terms all the inductance expressions change to

0 d
Single wire : ln
2 self GMD

0 mutual GMD
1 , 2 wire: ln
2 Self GMD

Three phase Transmission line

Symmetrical configuration

0r D
Lph ln
2 r

r 0.7788r

4
Asymmetrical configurations

If conductors are placed horizontally or vertically.

1
Deq Dab Dbc Dca 3

0r Deq
Lph ln
2 r

In case of bundled conductor, more than one conductor per phase

We replace Dab Dabeq = mutual GMD between a phase & b phase

Similarly, Dbc Dbceq

Dca Dcaeq

In place of GMR, Self GMD is used

1

Self GMD Self GMD

Self GMD= Self GMD
3
a b c

Example: Calculate inductance per phase of following circuit?

Between successive conductors, distance = 3m , Radius of each conductor = 1m

Solution
1
Dab eq Da1b1 . Da1b2 . Da2b1 . Da2b2 4

1
3 12 12 3 4
6m
1
Dbc eq 3 6 6 3 4 4.24m
1
Dca eq 6 9 9 6 4 7.348m

Deq = mutual GMD

1
Dab.eq Dbc.eq Dca.eq 3

= 5.71m

5
 1
Self GMD r D
a a1a2
Da2a1 r 4

0.7788 0.012 152

1
4

= 0.341m
1
Self GMD r D
b b1b2
Db2b1 r 4

= 0.2467m
1
Self GMD r D
c c1c2
Dc2c1 r 4

= 0.1528m
1
Self GMD Self GMD a Self GMD b Self GMD c 3

= 0.2398m
0 GMD
L ln
2 GMD Self

5.71
2 10 7 ln 0.634mH / km
0.2398
Remember, Inductance calculated using these formulas is per unit length.

Transposition of Transmission line

The position of different lines are changed after regular intervals to reduce radio interference in
neighboring communication lines.

Capacitance
Single Phase 2 Wire System
0 r
Cab
D
ln
rr
12
Line to neutral capacitance

6
 20 r 20 r
Can , Cbn
D D
ln ln
r1 r2
Three phase single conductor system
20 r
Cph
GMD
ln
r
For bundled conductors
20 0
Cph
GMD
ln
Self GMD
In capacitance calculations, it must always be remembered that there is no concept of r, we
simply use radius in calculating self GMD.
Performance of Transmission line
Classification of lines based on length

1) Short Line
l < 80 km or l*f < 4000 , Where f = frequency

2) Medium Line
80 km < l < 200 km
4000 < l*f < 10000

3) Long Line
l > 200 km
l*f > 10000

Modeling of transmission lines

Transmission lines are modeled as 2 port network

Vs AVR BIR
Is CVR DIR

Under no load
Vs
IR 0 , Vs AVR , VR
A

7
 Vs
No Load Voltage and IR 0 , Is CVR
A

Vs
VR
A
Voltage Regulation 100%
VR
This current is called as line charging current and is responsible for as effect is called as Ferranti
Effect.

Ferranti Effect
Under no-load or light load conditions receiving end voltage becomes more than sending end
voltage due to presence of line charging current.

Short transmission line

Vs VR IR R jwL

VR IR Z

Vs 1 z VR
I 0 1 I
s R

A = D (symmetrical)

AD BC = 1 (reciprocal)

Approximate Voltage Regulation

For lagging pf
IR
VR=
VR
R cos R
X sin R

load pf=cosR

For leading pf
IR
VR R cos R X sin R
VR

8
Medium Transmission Line

Normal T Model

YZ YZ
1 Z 1
Vs 2 4 VR

Is YZ IR
Y 1
2

Here all problems are in actual values & not per unit length.

Nominal--Model

YZ
1 Z
Vs 2 V
R
Is Y 1 YZ 1 YZ IR
4 2

Long transmission Line

Vx VR cosh X IR Z c sinh x
VR
IR IR cosh x sinh x
Zc
Where Vx & I x are voltage and current at distance x from receiving end.

R jL
Zc = surge impedance
G jC

In case of long transmission line, we use all promoters per-unit length.

For loss less line, R=G=0
L
Zc
C
For distribution less line, RC = LG
For sending end, x = l
Vs VR cosh l IR Z c sinh l

VR
Is IR coshl+ sinh l
Zc

9
 cosh l Z c sinh l
Vs VR
1
Is Z cosh l IR
c


A = D (symmetric)
AD - BC = 1 (reciprocal)
Power Transfer Equation

Vs Vr A
cos Vr cos
2
Pr
B B

Vs Vr A
sin Vr sin
2
Qr
B B

For Short TL

B Z B Z ;

A 10 A A 1, =0
2
Vs Vr Vr
Pr cos cos
Z Z
2
Vs Vr Vr
Qr sin sin
Z Z

If resistance of line is neglected

Z jX X and 900

2
Vs Vr Vs Vr Vr
Pr sin ; QR = cos
X X X

Remember, the last expression can be applied between any two bases in a power system as long
as transmission line connecting them is loss less.

Wave Propagation

Due to continuous energy transfer between L & C elements of a transmission line we consider
energy propagation from sending to receiving end & hence wave propagation.
Z c = Surge impedance or characteristic impedance.

10
 = Propagation constant.

R jL G jC
For loss less line
R=G=O

j LC
j

= attenuation constant
= phase constant

In case of loss less line 0 (no attenuation)

LC
1
Velocity of wave , Where L & C are per unit length
LC
2 2
Wavelength
LC

Surge Impedance Loading

When load impedance = surge impedance

Vr(L
2
L)
PL = Surge Impedance Loading
ZC

If ZL ZC
VR IR Z C

According to long line

VX VR coshx+VR sinhx 2VRex

So no term containing e yx & hence no reflected wave & hence whenever surge impedance is
connected at load, there is no reflection.

11
Surge Traversal

Theremin equivalent circuit

When surge voltage V is induced on the line & line can be represented as Theremin
equivalent circuit shown.
ZC = Characteristic impedance of line

ZL = load impedance or characteristics impedance of second

line connected in series to first.

ZL
Transmitted voltage V2 2V potential divider
ZL Z C
Incident Voltage V1 V

Reflected voltage V
V V V2 [Voltage continuity]

Z ZC
V V L
ZL Z C
V V V
Reflected current , Refracted current 2 , Incident current
ZC ZL ZC

V ZL Z C
Reflection coefficient:
V ZL Z C

V2 2ZL
Refraction coefficient:
V ZL Z C

Voltage Control

Usually in case of lagging loads, the voltage at receiving end falls below sending end voltage
and to boost the receiving end voltage we connect a shunt capacitor at receiving end.
Similarly, in case of leading loads, receiving end voltage is higher than sending end voltage
so we connect a shunt reactor to avoid over-voltage.
Usually in GATE, we need to calculate rating of capacitor for voltage control & it is illustrated
through a question shown below:

12
Example: A three phase overhead lines has a resistance & reactance of 5 & 20 respectively.
The load at receiving end is 30MW, 0.85 pf lagging at 33kv & we connect a compensating
equipment at receiving end to maintain voltage at each end equal to 33 Kv. Find rating of
compensating equipment?
Solution:
Assuming base (MVA) = 30 MVA
Base voltage = 33 kv
30Mw
pu power = 1pu
30MVA
V2
Base impedance = 36.3
S
5 j20
pu impedance = 0.56875.960
36.3
2
VS VR VR
PR
Z
cos
Z
cos Z 0.568 ; =75.96 0
11 12
1 cos 75.96 cos75.96 cos 75.96 0.81
0.568 0.568

40.110

VS VR VR 1 1 12
QR sin sin sin 75.96 40.11 sin75.96
Z Z 0.568 0.568

QR = - 0.645 pu

QL PL tan 1 tan cos1 0.85

QL = 0.6197 pu

QR QL QC QC 1.2647pu

QC 1.2647 30 = 37.9 MVAR

So, we can observe the steps involved

Step 1 : Calculate from PL as capacitor does not consume any real power.

Step-2 : Calculate QR using calculated above

Step-3 : QR QL QC than Calculate QC

13
Power Factor Correction

Usually, to improve the supply side power factor we connect a capacitor device like capacitor
bank or synchronous condenser (synchronous motor under over excited condition).
Suppose, initially a load of real power P1 & lagging pf cos 1 is connected & we want to
improve pf to cos 2 lagging 2 1 & we connect a capacitive device which consumes real
power PC & thus net real power after connection.

P2 P1 PC

Q2 P2 tan 2 ; Q1 P1 tan 1

QC P1 tan 1 P2 tan 2

In case of capacitor bank, PC 0 P1 P2

If we wish to calculate capacitance per phase

(in both voltage control & pf correction )
QC
QC 3CVph
2
C
3Vph
2

Underground Cables
Insulation resistance
R
R ln
2l r

L = length of cable
R = Outer radius (sheath radius)
R = conductor radius

Capacitance Model

CC : Core capacitance
CS : Core to sheath capacitance

14
Capacitance per phase
Cph CS 3CC

Calculating CS & CC

1) Any of two cores or conductors are connected to

sheath & capacitance is measured between remaining
core & sheath.

C1 CS 2CC

2) All three cores are connected together & capacitance is

measured between any core & sheath.
C2 3CS
C2
CS
3
C2
2CC C1
3
C C
CC 1 2
2 6

3C1 C2
Cph CS 3CC
2 6

3) Any one of core is connected to sheath & capacitance is

measured between remaining 2 cores.

3CC CS
C3
2 2

Cph 2C3

15
Dielectric loss in a UG cable

P 3Cph Vph
2
tan

where tan loss tangent

1
tan
cphR

R = Insulation resistance

Overhead Insulators
For suspension type string insulator, the model for 3-discs looks like as shown.
C
Let m m
CS
V2 V1 1 m
V3 V1 1 m2 3m
The voltage of disc nearest to the conductor is highest.
string voltage
String efficiency
No. of discs voltage across bottom disc

V
1
V2 V3 100%
3 V3

Distribution Systems
Sources fed from both ends
1) Assume I A from VA
2) Calculate I A from
VA VB I A I1 r1 I A I1 I2 r2 I A I1 I2 I3 r3
3) Substitute I A in I A I1 , I A I1 I2 & I A I1 I2 I3 & check for sign change.
4) Node for minimum potential = Node for sign change
5) Calculate minimum potential by KVL
Example: Refer Kuestion power systems for that.

16
Per Unit System
In pu system, energy quantity is expressed as a ratio of some based value.

Absolute value or Actual value

pu value=
Base value
Percentage value = pu value x 100%
Base value
1 - System
Sbase , Vbase , Ibase , Zbase
Out of these, 2 value must be known, to convert entire system into pu system.
Sbase Vbase Ibase
Sbase Vbase Vbase
2

Ibase , Z base
Vbase Ibase Sbase
Usually, we assume Sbase & Vbase as known.

3 - System

Sbase & Vbase are assumed

Sbase
Ibase
3 Vbase
Vbase = line to line voltage
Sbase = 3 phase power
For start connection
V ph Vbase / 3 Vbase 2
Z base base
Ibase ph Ibase Sbase
For delta connection
V ph Vbase 3V 2
Z base base base
Ibase ph Ibase / 3 Sbase

In per unit system, equivalent impedance of transformer referred to primary or

secondary in same.

17
Change of base

If base of system is changed from Vbase old , Sbase old to Vbase new ,Sbase new

2
V old Sbase new
Zpu new Zpu old base
Vbase new Sbase old

Load Flow Study

Power System Matrices

YBUS matrix

y10 y12 y12 0

YBUS y12 y 20 y12 y 23 y 23
0 y 23 y 23 y 30

OBSERVATIONS

1) The diagonal elements are sum of all admittance connected to that particular bus.
2) The off-diagonal elements are negative of admittance connected between two buses.
3) If two buses are not connected to each other than that elements is zero.
4) YBUS Matrix is a symmetrical matrix.
5) Most of the elements are zero & hence it is a sparse matrix.
Total number of zero elements
% sparsity =
Total number of elements

ZBUS matrix

ZBUS YBUS
1

ZBUS matrix used in fault analysis.

Suppose a 3 phase SC fault occurs on bus k then fault current
Vprefault ,k
If
Zkk Z f
Vprefault , k Pr e fault voltage at bus 'k'
Zkk = elements of ZBUS matrix.
Z f = fault impedance
Due to fault voltage at other buses are also affected.

18
 V1 I1
0
. .
. . 0
.
Vk Ik
.
. Z . V ZBUS
BUS BUS I
. . f
.
Vn In
.
0

Vk If Zkk
Vf
If Z 0
Zkk f

Vj Z jk I"f
Z jk
Vj Vf
Zkk

Post fault voltage at bus j

Z jk
Vjf Vj V
Zkk f
If there is generator connected to bus j then current supplied by generator.
Eg Vjf
I
jX"d

Classification of buses
At each bus, there are 4 parameter: V , ,P,Q .
At any bus, out of these 4 quantities any 2 are specified.

1) Slack Bus / Swing Bus/Reference Bus

V , are know quantities.

P, Q are unknown quantities.
Any extra power needed by the system is supplied by slack bus.
2) Generator Bus / PV Bus
P, V is specified
Q, are unspecified

19
 3) Load Bus / PQ Bus
P & Q are constant as specified
V & are unknown
Generally, newton Raphson method is used for load flow solution and we form Jacobian
matrix, & the order of Jacobian matrix is
2n m 2 2n m 2
N = no. of total buses
M = no. of pv buses

Economic Power Generation

Incremental cost
If is cost required to generate an additional unit of energy.
IC i = Incremental cost of ith generator
Ci
IC i
PGi
PGi = Power generated by ith generator
Ci = cost of ith generator

Transmission Loss
m m
PL PP
i jBij
i 1 j 1

Pi , Pj : Real power injection at i & j buses

th th

B ij = loss coefficient
m : no. of generator units

Penalty Factor

1
Li
P
1 L
PGi

For economic power sharing

IC i Li cons tant
Constant is called as incremental cost of system.
IC i = incremental cost ith unit
L i = penalty factor of ith unit

20
 From this expression, for m generator we get ( m 1) equation and mth equation is
m

P
i 1
Gi PD PLOSS

PD = total power demand

For example, refer kuestions on Power systems.

Fault Analysis
Symmetrical Components

For an unbalanced 3 phase system, the analysis is done better by means of symmetrical
components.
Va0 Zero sequence components

Va1 Positive sequence components

Va2 Negative sequence components

Va0 1 1 1 Va
1 0

Va1 3 1 2 Vb ; Where e j120

V 1 2 Vc
a2
Vs A Vp
1

Vp = phase voltage
Vs = Symmetrical component
1 1 1

A 1 2
1 2

Power in terms of symmetrical components
P 3 Va1 Ia1 Va2 Ia2

Va3 Ia0

Remember, same transformation exist for current also.

Sequence Network

Alternators

Positive Sequence Network

Z1 positive sequence impedance

Z1 jX"d

21
 Negative Sequence Network

Va2 Ia2 Z2
Z 2 : Negative sequence impedance
X d " X q "
Z2 j
2

Zero Sequence Network

Va0 Ia0 Z0 3Zn

Z 0 = Zero sequence impedance
Z n =Neutral impedance ( in case of delta)
Z0 jXl
X l = leakage reactance

Transformers

Positive Sequence Network

Z1 = Positive sequence impedance

Z1 jXl

Negative Sequence Network

Z 2 = Negative sequence impedance

Z2 jXl

Zero sequence network

Depending upon scheme of connection, we close series or shunt connection & method
of grounding.

22
 Shunt connection are closed for delta connection & series connection are closed for star
connection with grounded neutral. If primary & secondary are inter changed then circuit
becomes mirror image.

Case 1

If neutral is grounded through an impedance Z n

Z 0 Z T0 3Zn

Case 2

Case 3

Case 4

23
 Case 5

Transmission Lines

Positive Sequence Network

Negative Sequence Network

Zero Sequence Network

Z1 Z2 Zs Zm

Z0 Zs 2Zm

Z s = Self impedance

Zm = mutual impedance

Remembers, all sequence networks are always drawn in per unit & never in actual values.

Fault Analysis
The following short circuit faults are considered
1. LG (Single Line to ground fault)
2. LL (Line to line fault)
3. LLG (Line to Line to Ground fault)
4. 3-phase short circuit fault.

24
3-phase short circuit fault comes under the category of symmetrical SC fault whereas other 3
faults are called as unsymmetrical SC fault.

Order of severity
LG < LL < LLG < 3 - SC

But if faults occur at terminal of alternator then LG fault is most severe.

Occurrence of SC fault

LG > LL > LLG > 3 - SC

Transient on a Transmission line

Equivalent Circuit

i t it iss

Vm Rt
V
sin e L m sin wt


Z Z

L

2
tan1 ; Z R L
2

Maximum momentary current

2Vm
imm sin
Z

If resistance is neglected, 900

2Vm
imm cos
Z

Short circuit model of a synchronous machine

During initial SC period for 1-2 cycles, current are induced in field & damper winding of machine
so reactance at least & called as sub transient reactance X d "

After initial sub-transient period, current in damper winding in reduced to zero, and this period
is called as transient period & reactance of machine is called as Transient Reactance X d "

25
Finally, when current in field winding is also reduced to zero, we enter steady state period &
reactance is called as steady state reactance Xd .

Xd " X d ' X d

Symmetrical Fault Analysis

We replace alternators by an emf source in series with sub transient reactance and emf
source under no-load is usually 100 pu or terminal voltage in pu.
V 00
Ef t pu
Vbase
Transformer & Transmission lines are replaced by reactance.
The equivalent circuit can be solved either by finding thevenin equivalent across fault or
by simple network analysis & fault in SC is calculated.

Ef
If
Z eq Z f

Z f = fault impedance.

In symmetrical fault analysis, we only consider positive sequence impedance.

1
SC MVA pu
Zeq Z f

SC MVA
MVA base MVA
Zeq Z f

For example, refer to kuestion on power systems.

Selection of Circuit Breakers

Usually, circuit breakers are selected on the basis of most severe fault which is 3 phase
SC fault.
Three ratings of circuit Breakers are important.

1) Rated momentary current

Momentary current ( rms ) = 1.6 Isc
Isc is symmetrical SC current which we calculated in previous section.

2) Making current
Making current = 2.54 Isc

26
 3) Symmetrical Interrupting Current
We need to recalculate Isc by using sub-transient reactance for alternators & transient
reactance for synchronous motors. Induction motors & other loads are neglected.

Then, we multiply it by a factor to calculate symmetrical interrupting current. This factor

depends on speed of circuit breakers which is measured in terms of numbers of cycles it takes to
operate.

Speed Factor
8 Cycles or slower 1.0
5 Cycles 1.1
3 Cycles 1.2
2 Cycles 1.3

Unsymmetrical Faults Analysis

Line to Ground Fault

We first draw equivalent positive, negative & zero sequence networks & calculate thevenin
impedance across fault terminals from each network.

Assuming equivalent positive, negative & zero sequence reactance are Z1 , Z 2 & Z 0
respectively.

Here all sequence currents are equal.

Ia1 Ia2 Ia0

Ea
Ia1
Z1 Z 2 Z 0 3Z f

Fault current I a

Ia 3Ia1

3 Ea
Ia
Z1 Z 2 Z 0 3Z f

Short Circuit MVA

SC MVA 3Ea1 , I a1 *

27
 3 Ea1 I2

Z1 Z 2 Z 0 3Z f

3
In pu SC MVA pu
Z1 Z 2 Z 0 3Z f

3 MVA base
MVA
Z1 Z 2 Z 0 3Z f

Line to Line Fault

Here, we calculate equivalent positive & negative sequence impedance Z1 & Z 2 respectively.

Ea
Ia1
Z1 Z 2 Z f

Fault current

j 3 Ea
Ib
Z1 Z 2 Z f

Short Circuit MVA

3
SC MVA pu
Z1 Z 2 Z f

3 MVA base
MVA
Z1 Z 2 Z f

Line to Line to Ground Fault

Ea
Ia1
Z1 Z 2 Z 0 3Z f
I Z2
Ia0 a1
Z2 Z0
Fault Current = 3 Iao

28
Short Circuit MVA

3
SC MVA pu
Z1 Z 2 1 3Z f Z 0

3 MVA base
MVA
Z1 Z 2 Z 0 3Z f
Remember, all fault analysis will be done in pu system.

Power System Stability

Two types of stability are studied:

1) Steady State Stability

2) Transient Stability

Steady State Stability

For Steady State Stability

dP
0
d
And for this condition to be true.
Pe Pmax
If power demand is greater than maximum demand than machine goes out of synchronous.
E V
For a loss less machine, Pmax
XS
Transient Stability
Swing Equation

Md2
Pm Pe
dt2
M = inertia constant ( MJ-S / elect - rad)
Pm= mechanical input (MW)
Pe = electrical output (MW)
= rotor angle
Another Form

H d2
Pm Pe
f dt2
H = inertia constant ( MJ / MVA)
Pm & Pe both are in pu

29
 GH
M (MJ S / elect - deg)
180f
GH
M (MJ S / elect - rad)
f
G = machine rating (MVA)
If two alternators are swinging coherently. Then they can be replaced by a single
alternator having
Meq M1 M2
But H cannot be added directly, they must first be on same base.
If machines are not swinging coherently, then
M1M2
Meq
M1 M2

Accelerating Power,
Pa Pm Pe
In steady state Pm Pe
In transient, Pm Pe so rotor accelerate or decelerate.

Equal area criterion

For system to possess transient stability

Pad 0
There are basically 3 stages in stability analysis

Before Fault
We say maximum power transferrable is Pmax,1
& Pe Pmax,1 sin

During fault
We say maximum power transferrable is Pmax,2
Pe Pmax,2 sin

After Fault
We say maximum power transferrable is Pmax,3
Pe Pmax,3 sin

30
Critical clearing angle

It is the maximum value of beyond which if the fault is cleared system will be unstable. The
time instant corresponding to this angle is called as critical clearing time assuming fault occurs
at t = 0.

Case-1 : Fault occurs on TL near to bus

Pmax,2 0
Pmax,3 Pmax,1
Cr clearing angle
By equal area criteria
2

Pm Pmax,1 sin d 0
0

P
0 sin1 m
Pmax,1
For critical clearing 2 max

max 0

2H Cr 0
tCr = Critical Clearing Time
f Pm

Case-2 : Fault occurs on one of parallel lines close to bus

Before Fault

E V
Pmax,1
Xg X1 X2

During Fault

E V
Pmax,2 0
Xeq

After Fault

E V
Pmax,3
Xg X1

31
 P
0 sin1 m

Pmax,1

P
max sin1 m

Pmax,3

For transient stability

2

Pad 0
0

c 2

Pm 0 d Pm Pmax,3 sin d 0
0 c

For critical Clearing

2 max

2H Cr 0
tCr
f Pm

Case-3 : Fault occurs in middle of one of parallel lines

The equivalent reactance during the fault is highest and thus Pmax,2 is lowest

Pmax,1 Pmax,3 Pmax,2

Pad 0
0

c 2

Pm Pmax,2 sin d Pmax,3 sin Pm d

0 c

For critical clearing,

P
2 max sin1 m
Pmax,3

32
 cr cos 1
P
m max 0 Pmax,3 cos max Pmax2 cos 0
Pmax3 Pmax2

This is a generic formula and can be applied to other two cases as well after substituting
value of Pmax,1 , Pmax,2 & Pmax,3 .
But tcr can only be calculated from cr in previous two cases using expression written
before.

Power System Protection

In our current protection, normally a current transformer is connected between
protected elements and the relay.
Plug setting multiplier (PSM)
Fault current

T ratio Pick up current
Usually pick up current = Relay setting x Rated secondary current of CT
Pick-up current is minimum current above which a relay operates.

Differential Relays

The current through operating coil k I1 I2

If this current is greater than pick-up current then
it operates, else it does not operates.
K I1 I2 Ipick up Trip
K I1 I2 Ipick up Block

We usually provide a restraining coil to avoid relay mal-operation.

Relay operates if
Nr I1 I2
K I1 I2 K Ipu
N0 2

Ipu = pick up current

Nr = Number of turns in restraining coil
N0 = Number of turns in operating coil
The ratio operating coil current & restraining coil current is called as bias of differential
relay.

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Protection of Transmission line

1) Mho relay is at least affected by power surges& thus it is used for protection of long
transmission lines. It is inherently directional.
2) Impedance relay is used for protection of medium transmission lines.
3) Reactance relay is unaffected by ground resistance & hence used for earth fault
protection & also for short transmission Lines.
These relays are collectively called as distance relays.

Protection of Transformers

Differential relays are used for protection of large transformers and CT are always
connected in configuration opposite to power transformer.
Example: 1) If power transformer is Y then CT is Y
: 2) If power transformer is then CT is Y Y
Buccholz relay used to prevent any incipient fault below oil level in a transformer of small
KVA.

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