Additional Course Material: Ceramic Materials

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A Focused Approach
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Additional Course Material

Ceramic Materials
Glass Vs. Ceramics
Glass is actually a type of ceramic.
The word Ceramic can be used to describe a number of materials, including: glass, enamel,
concrete, cement, pottery, brick, porcelain, and chinaware.
Glass is a special type of ceramic, in that it has no crystalline structure, and is classed as an
amorphous solid, meaning there is no long-range order of the positioning of its molecules.
Glasses have three characteristics that make them more closely resemble "frozen liquids"
than crystalline solids (ceramics). First, and foremost, there is no long-range order. Second,
there are numerous empty sites or vacancies. Finally, glasses don't contain planes of atoms.
Why Ceramics are Brittle?

Ceramics are generally hard and brittle because of the type of bonds that hold the atoms
together in the material. Ceramics are made up of covalent, ionic, or both types of bonds.
Covalent bonds are directional, which means that they form bonds only in specific directions
and in a sense are more ordered/selective. So when a force is applied, the bonds will try very
hard to resist deformation. As a result of this, the material is usually tough (toughness being
defined as the ability of a material to absorb energy without rupture), but brittle when that
threshold is passed.
Although ionic bonds are nondirectional in nature (meaning they can form bonds in multiple
directions) , we need to realize that we are dealing with charged particles that become
unstable when they are placed under a force. You could almost think of it as bringing like
charges closer together when a strong enough force is applied to the material, so that they
repel each other.
Crystalline Solids and Amorphous Materials

Solids have definite shape and volume because the average distance between the molecules
or atoms remain constant and do not change with time. The arrangement of molecules inside
a solid differ from one to another. This results in two types of solids
Crystalline solids
Amorphous solids
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A Focused Approach
In crystalline solids, the atoms or molecules are arranged in an order, extending over a large
volume of the crystal. All the bonds have the same bond strength. Therefore, such solids have
a precise melting point. They also have a uniform chemical composition. Examples of
crystalline solids are quartz, calcite, rocksalt, sugar, mica and diamonds.
Amorphous solids on the other hand, do not have a regular and periodic arrangement of
atoms. All the bonds are not equally strong. These solids do not have a precise melting point.
Properties of amorphous solids are:
They do not have sharp melting point.
Under go liquefaction over a broad range of temperature.
Do not posses characteristics heats of fusion.
When heated and cooled slowly they become crystalline.
Examples of amorphous solids are rubbers, glass, plastic, cement and paraffin.
Uses are
1. Most widely used amorphous solids are inorganic glasses, used as
construction material
houseware
laboratoryware etc.
2. Another important material is rubber used in making tyres.
Amorphous silica has been found to be the best material for converting sunlight into
electricity (in photovoltaic cells).
Difference between amorphous and crystalline solids
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A Focused Approach
Crystal Structure, Defects in Solids, Diffusion in

Solids
DEFECTS IN SOLIDS
Stacking Fault (Revised)
This is a part of an atomic plane confined between dislocations and in which the regular order
of alternation of atomic layers is disturbed. This type of fault arise from the stacking of one
atomic plane out of sequence on another while the lattice on either side of the fault is perfect.
For instance, in FCC lattice alloys, close-packed atomic layers are normally in an alternation
ABC ABC AB .... On passing through a stacking fault. their alternation may change, for
instance, to ABC BCA BC .... The BCBC alternation is typical of an HCP lattice, and
therefore the stacking fault in the case considered represents, as it were, a thin plate of an
HCP lattice in the structure of an FCC lattice. Following figure shows the faults in the
structure of an FCC crystal. Here the stacking sequence of an ideal FCC crystal is described
as ABC ABC . . . and the stacking fault may change the sequence ABC ACAB.
Surface defects influence the mechanical and physical properties of materials of especially
large importance are grain boundaries. The yield strength y is associated with the grain size
d by the relation.
y 0 kd 1/2
where 0 and k are constants for a given material. With finer grain, a material has higher
yield strength and toughness and is less susceptible to brittle failure. The size of sub grains
has a similar, though less strong, effect on mechanical properties.
Diffusion along boundaries of grains and sub grains occur many times quicker than in other
directions in a crystal, especially on heating. Interactions of defects, their displacements in
A Focused Approach
crystals, and variations of their concentrations all these factors can change the properties of
metals and are of high practical significance.
DIFFUSION
DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT
Steady-State Diffusion
The flux of diffusing atoms, J, is expressed either in number of atoms per unit area and per
unit time (e.g., atoms/m2-second) or in terms of mass flux (e.g., kg/m2-second).
Steady state diffusion means that J does not depend on time. In this case, Ficks first law
holds that the flux along direction x is:
dc
J D
dx
Where dc/dx is the gradient of the concentration c, and D is the diffusion constant. The
concentration gradient is often called the driving force in diffusion (but it is not a force in the
mechanistic sense). The minus sign in the equation means that diffusion is down the
concentration gradient.
Non steady-State Diffusion

This is the case when the diffusion flux depends on time, which means that a type of atoms
accumulates in a region or that it is depleted from a region (which may cause them to
accumulate in another region).
Diffusion Depends on Temperature

Faster diffusion will take place if the surroundings are warmer. Increase in temperature
means an increase in molecules' speed (kinetic energy). So the molecules move faster and
there will be more spontaneous spreading of the material which means that diffusion occurs
quicker.
Engineering Materials
additional topic
CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

The factors which form the basis of various systems of classifications of materials in material
science and engineering are: (i) the chemical composition of the material, (ii) the mode of the
occurrence of the material in the nature. (tii) the refining and the manufacturing process to
which the material is subjected prior it acquires the required properties, (iv) the atomic and
crystalline structure of material and (v) the industrial and technical use of the material.
Important grouping of materials is shown below:
Group Characteristics Examples
Metals and Lustre, hardness, thermal and Iron and steels, aluminium, copper,
A Focused Approach
Alloys electrical conductivity, resistance to silver, gold, zinc, magnesium,
corrosion, malleability, stiffness and brasses, bronzes, manganin, invar,
the property of magnetism super alloy, boron, rare earth alloys,
conductors, etc.
Ceramics and Thermal resistance, hardness, Silica, soda-lime-glass, concrete,
Glasses brittleness, cement,
opaqueness to light, electrical refractories, Ferrites and garnets,
insulation ceramic
abrasiveness, high temperature superconductors, MgO, CdS, Al2O3,
strength SiC,
and resistance to corrosion BaTiO3, etc.
Organic Soft, light in weight, poor Plastics: PVC, PTFE, polyethylene,
Polymers conductors of polycarbonate
electricity and heat, dimensionally Fibres: terylene, nylon, cotton,
unstable, natural and
ductile, combustible, low thermal synthetic rubbers, leather
resistance Other uses: refrigerants, explosives,
insulators,
lubricants, detergents, fuels,
vitamins,
medicines for surface treatment,
adhesives,
fibre-reinforced plastics, etc.
Composites They are better than any of the Steel-reinforced concrete, dispersion
(i) Metals and individual hardened alloys.
alloys components as regards to their _ Vinyl coated steel, whisker-
and ceramics properties reinforced

(ii) Metals and like strength, stiffness, heat plastics.
alloys resistance, _ Fibre-reinforced plastics,
and organic etc. carbon-reinforced rubber.

polymers
(iii) Ceramics
and
organic
polymers
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
additional topic
Characteristics of Composite Materials

Composite materials are superior to all other known structural materials in specific
strength and stiffness, high temperature strength, fatigue strength and other properties.
The desired combination of properties can be tailored in advance and realized in the
manufacture of a particular material. Moreover, the material can be shaped in this
process as close as possible to the form of final products or even structural units.
A Focused Approach
Composite materials are complex materials whose components differ strongly from
each other in the properties, are mutually insoluble or only slightly soluble and
divided by distinct boundaries.
The principle of manufacture of composites has been borrowed from nature. Trunks
and stems of plants and bones of man and animals are examples of natural
composites. In wood, cellulose fibres are bonded by plastic lignin, in bones, thin and
strong fibres of phosphates are bonded by plastic collagen.
The properties of composites mainly depend on the physico-mechanical properties of
their components and the strength of bonds between them. A characteristic feature of
composite materials is that the merits of their components are fully utilized.
Composite materials may acquire certain valuable properties not found in the
components. For obtaining the optimal properties in composites, their components are
chosen so as to have sharply different, but complementary properties.
The base, or matrix, of composites may consist of metals or alloys (metallic
composites), polymers, carbon and ceramic materials (non metallic composites).
The matrix is essentially the binding and shaping component in composites. Its
properties determine to a large extent the process conditions for the manufacture of
composite materials and the important operating characteristics, e.g., working
temperature, fatigue strength, resistance to environmental effects, density, and
specific strength. Some composites have a combined matrix which consists of
alternating layers (two or more) of different composition.
Composites with combined matrix may be called multi-matrix, or multi-layer
composites. Multi-matrix composites can be characterized by a wider spectrum of
useful properties. For example, use of titanium as an addition to aluminium may
increase the strength of a composite material in directions transverse to fibres.
Aluminium layers in a matrix diminish the density of composite material.
Fillers, i.e., other components are uniformly distributed in a matrix. These plays the
major part in strengthening of composites and thus they are called strengtheners.
Fillers should possess high values of strength, hardness and elastic modulus. These
characteristics should be substantially higher than those of the matrix. With an
increase of the elastic modulus and ultimate strength of a filler, the corresponding
properties of a composite material also increase, but do not reach the value of the
filler. Fillers are alternatively called reinforcing components.
Fillers of different shape may be used for obtaining a wider complex of properties or
enhancing a particular property of a composite material. For example, the strength of
bond between one-dimensional filler elements (glass or carbon fibres) and a polymer
matrix can be increased by introducing a zero-dimensional filler (particles of asbestos,
silicon carbide, etc.). The same purpose can be achieved by reinforcing a composite
material with fillers of the same shape, but different composition.
A Focused Approach
For example, the modulus of elasticity of composite materials with a polymer matrix
reinforced by glass fibres can be increased by additional reinforcement with boron
fibres.
Composite materials containing two-or more different fillers are termed complex-
reinforced composites.
Heat Treatment of Steels

NORMALISING
additional text
The advantages of this method are:
In comparison to fully annealed material, normalizing produces stronger material.
Normalizing refines the grains.
Normalizing produces homogenized structure.
Normalizing is used to improve properties of steel castings instead of hardening and
tempering.
Strength and hardness are increased.
Better surface finish is obtained in machining.
Resistance to brittle fracture is increased in hot-rolled steel.
Crack propagation is checked.
Mechanical Properties of Metals

BEHAVIOUR OF DUCTILE METALS
following topic rewritten
Engineering Stress, Engineering Strain, True Stress and True Strain

In order to study the plastic flow of materials it is preferred to use the concepts of true stress
and true strain. In tensile test for any engineering material one region of the specimen begins
to deform much quicker than the rest as the test progresses. The reduction in area therefore
raises a question, which area should be considered for calculating stress, the original area or
the actual area of the specimen at any instant of the load.
When we calculate the stress on the basis of the original area, it is called the engineering or
nominal stress. If we calculate the stress based upon the instantaneous area at any instant of
load it is then termed as true stress. If we use the original length to calculate the strain, then it
is called the engineering strain.
Consider following figure.
A Focused Approach
Stress calculated using original cross sectional area is variously known as engineering stress.
Following figure is replotted in terms of true stress and true strain.
Now, we have
True stress (T) = Instantaneous load/(Instantaneous cross sectional area)
P
=
Ai
where Ai is the actual area of the cross section corresponding to load P.

Similarly, we have
li dl l
True strain ( T ) log i
l l0
l0
where dl is the infinitesimal elongation, li is the instantaneous length and l0 is the original
length. The true strain may also be expressed as:
' log e (1 )
The true stress and strain can also be determined from load and diameter measurements as

'
di 2 / A
A0 d
and ' log e 2 log e 0
Ai di
where d0 and di are original and instantaneous diameter respectively.
A Focused Approach
Following is additional subheading in mechanical properties chapter
Thermal Properties
The study of the response of a material to the application of heat is very important. When a
solid absorbs energy in the form of heat, its temperature rises and its dimensions increases.
The absorbed heat energy by the specimen may be transported to cooler regions if
temperature gradient exist, and ultimately, the specimen may melt. Heat capacity, thermal
expansion and thermal conductivities are few very important properties that are often critical
in the practical and engineering applications of solids.
The theory of lattice vibrations, i.e. study of phonons and the band theory of electrons
provides a useful insight for understanding the broad differences in thermal behaviour among
the various classes of solid materials.
HEAT CAPACITY
When a solid material is heated, it experiences an increase in temperature signifying that
some energy has been absorbed. Heat capacity of a solid material is a property that is
indicative of materials ability to absorb heat from the external surroundings; it represents the
amount of energy required to produce a unit temperature rise. Mathematically, heat capacity
(C) of a body is defined as
dQ
C
dT
where dQ refers to the quantity of heat transferred to the body and dT is the rise in
temperature. Ordinarily, heat capacity (C) is specified per mole of material (e.g., J/mol-K, or
cal/mol-K). Heat capacity per unit mass of a homogeneous substance is known as specific
heat (c). [c = C/M, where M is the mass]. Specific heat has various units (J/kg-K, cal/gm-K).
Specific heat is really a measure of the number of degrees of freedom of a system.
One can measure heat capacity of a body in a two ways, according to the environmental
conditions accompanying the transfer of heat. One is the heat capacity at constant volume,
Cv (Q / T )v and the other is at constant external pressure, Cp. The magnitude of Cp is
always greater than Cv; however, this difference is very slight for most solid materials at
room temperatures and below. The heat capacity at constant volume Cv is the most useful
quantity than the heat capacity at constant pressure Cp, because the former can be obtained
immediately from the energy of the system.
The heat capacity depends upon the mass of the body, its chemical composition,
thermodynamic state and the kind of process employed to transfer the heat.
THERMAL EXPANSION
Most solid materials expand upon heating and contract on cooling. A solid material which
expands equally in three mutually orthogonal directions is called thermally isotropic.
The change in length with temperature for solid material can be expressed as
A Focused Approach
l1 l
(T1 T )
l
l
or T
l
where l and l1 represent, respectively initial and final lengths with the temperature change
from T and T1.
The parameter is called the linear coefficient of thermal expansion. It is a material property
that is indicative of the extent to which a solid material expands upon heating, and has units
of reciprocal temperature [(C)-1]. No doubt, heating and cooling affects all dimensions of a
body, with a resultant change in volume.
Volume changes with temperature can be expressed as
V
T
V
where V and V are the volume change and the original volume, respectively, and is the
volume coefficient of thermal expansion. In many materials, the value of is anisotropic; i.e.,
it depends on the crystallographic direction along which it is measured. For materials in
which the thermal expansion is isotropic, is approximately 3.
The thermal expansion of the solid materials has its origin in the lattice vibrations and these
vibrations increases as the temperature rises.
From atomic point of view, thermal expansion is reflected by an increase in the average
distance between the atoms.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
The law of Heat Conduction, also known as Fourier's law, states that the time rate of heat
transfer through a material is proportional to the negative gradient in the temperature and to
the area at right angles, to that gradient, through which the heat is flowing.
This is the phenomenon by which heat is transported from high-to-low temperature regions of
a substance. The property that characterizes the ability of a material to transfer heat is termed
as the thermal conductivity.
One can best define it in terms of the expression
dT
K
dx
where heat flux or heat flow, per unit time per unit area (area is perpendicular to flow
direction), dT / dx temperature gradient through the conducting medium and
K thermal conductivity .
The units of Q and K are W/m2 and W/(m-K) [k cal/(m-s-k)], respectively. We may note that
above Eq. is valid only for steady-state heat flow, i.e., for situations in which the heat flux
A Focused Approach
does not change with time. Minus sign in above Eq. indicates that the minus sign in the
expression indicates that the direction of heat flow is from hot to cold, or down the
temperature gradient.
Thermal conductivities in decreasing order: Diamond > Silver > Copper >Gold > Aluminium
THERMAL FATIGUE
The change of temperature imposed upon a body of the specimen produces alternate thermal
gradients and hence changing stresses. These changing stresses have the effect of creating
thermal fatigue in the specimen. The stresses generated by changing temperature are often
high in magnitude creating plastic deformation. Under such conditions, the material fails due
to low cycle thermal fatigue. The failure of the material is further hastened because of bad
effects of temperature on mechanical strength.
THERMAL SHOCK
Thermal shock is generation of sudden and high stresses due to sudden and severe changes in
temperature. Thermal shocks created by cooling are much more dangerous than those from
heating as this process creates tensile stresses on the surface. Surface of any material is
weaker than inside surface of the material for various reasons. For ductile metals and
polymers, alleviation of thermally induced stresses may be accomplished by plastic
deformation. However, the non-ductility of most ceramics enhances the possibility of brittle
fracture from these stresses. Brittle materials are weak in tension.
THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY
It is given by
thermal conductivity
h cm3/sec
heat capacity x density
K
= represent heat requirement per unit volume
Cp
A material having high heat requirement per unit volume possesses a low thermal diffusivity
because more heat must be added to or removed from the material for effecting a temperature
change.
REFRACTORIES (HIGH TEMPERATURE MATERIALS)

The ability of a material to withstand the action of heat without appreciable deformation or
softening is called as refractories. Obviously, this property is measured by the temperature at
which the refractory material softens. Usually, the softening or fusion temperature of
refractories is determined under load.
Refractories are capable of withstanding high temperatures. Commercially available most
refractories are complex solids. They are usually made of Si, Al, Mg, Ca and Zr. As
impurities, other elements may also present. In addition to oxides refractories the present day
A Focused Approach
industries mostly depend upon crystalline oxides, carbides, borides and sulfides. Combination
of these materials with metals have resulted into ceramics.
Now, we will study various refractory materials:
Ceramics
The salient properties of refractory ceramics include the capacity to withstand high
temperatures without melting or decomposing, and the capacity to remain unreactive and
inert when exposed to severe environments. In addition, the ability of ceramics to provide
insulation is often an important factor.
Refractory materials are marketed in a variety of forms but bricks are found to be most
common. Typical applications of these refractories include furnace linings for metal refining,
glass manufacturing, metallurgical heat treatment and power generation.
The performance of a refractory ceramics, to a large extent, depend on its composition.
High Purity Fireclays

The primary ingredients for these are high purity fireclays, alumina and silica mixtures
usually containing 25 and 45 Wt% alumina. Over this composition range the highest
temperature possible without the formation of liquid phase is 1587C. Below this temperature
the equilibrium phases present are mullite and silica (cristobalite). The presence of a small
amount of a liquid phase may be allowable without compromising mechanical integrity
during refractory service use.
Fireclay bricks are used basically in furnace construction, to confine hot atmospheres, and to
thermally insulate structural members from excessive temperatures.
Silica Refractories (Acid Refractories)

The primary ingredient for these is silica. These materials have high-temperature load-
bearing capacity, are widely used in arched roofs of steel-and glass making furnaces; for
these applications, temperatures ~1650C may be realized. Under these conditions some
small portion of this brick will actually exist as a liquid.
These refractory materials are also resistant to slags that are rich in silica, called acid slags
and are used usually as containment vessels for them.
Basic Refractories
The refractories that are rich in periclase, or magnesia (MgO), are called basic and they may
also contain Ca, Cr, and Fe compounds. The presence of silica is deleterious to their high-
temperature performance.
These refractories are especially resistant to attack by slags containing high concentrations of
Mgo and CaO. These find extensive use in some steel-making open hearth furnaces.
There are yet other ceramic materials, e.g. relatively high-purity oxide materials that are used
for rather specialized refractory applications. Many of these oxides may be produced with
very little porosity. Included in this group of oxides are alumina, silica, magnesia, beryllia
A Focused Approach
(BeO), Zirconia (ZrO2), and mullite (2Al2O3-2SiO2). Others include carbide compounds, in
addition to carbon and graphite. Carbon and graphite are very refractory, but find limited
applications as they are susceptible to oxidation at temperatures in excess of about 800C.
Silicon carbide (SiC) has been used for electrical resistance heating elements, as a crucible
material, and in internal furnace components. These specialized refractories are relatively
costly.
CRYOGENIC MATERIALS
Cryogenics is the study of the production of very low temperature (below 150 C, 238 F
or 123 K) and the behavior of materials at those temperatures. Rather than the familiar
temperature scales of Fahrenheit and Celsius, cryogenicists use the Kelvin (and formerly
Rankine) scales. A person who studies elements under extremely cold temperature is called a
cryogenicist.
The word cryogenics stems from Greek and means "the production of freezing cold";
however the term is used today as a synonym for the low-temperature state. It is not well-
defined at what point on the temperature scale refrigeration ends and cryogenics begins. The
workers at the National Institute of Standards and Technology at Boulder, Colorado have
chosen to consider the field of cryogenics as that involving temperatures below 180 C
(93.15 K). This is a logical dividing line, since the normal boiling points of the so-called
permanent gases (such as helium, hydrogen, neon, nitrogen, oxygen, and normal air) lie
below 180 C while the Freon refrigerants, hydrogen sulfide, and other common refrigerants
have boiling points above 180 C.
Liquefied gases, such as liquid nitrogen and liquid helium, are used in many cryogenic
applications. Liquid nitrogen is the most commonly used element in cryogenics and is legally
purchasable around the world. Liquid helium is also commonly used and allows for the
lowest attainable temperatures to be reached.
These liquids are held in either special containers known as Dewar flasks, which are
generally about six feet tall (1.8 m) and three feet (91.5 cm) in diameter, or giant tanks in
larger commercial operations. Dewar flasks are named after their inventor, James Dewar, the
man who first liquefied hydrogen. Museums typically display smaller vacuum flasks fitted in
a protective casing.
Cryogenic transfer pumps are the pumps used on LNG piers to transfer Liquefied Natural Gas
from LNG Carriers to LNG storage tanks.
Cryogens, like liquid nitrogen, are further used for specialty chilling and freezing
applications. Some chemical reactions, like those used to produce the active ingredients for
the popular statin drugs, must occur at low temperatures of approximately -100 C. Special
cryogenic chemical reactors are used to remove reaction heat and provide a low temperature
environment. The freezing of foods and biotechnology products, like vaccines, requires
nitrogen in blast freezing or immersion freezing systems. Certain soft or elastic materials
become hard and brittle at very low temperatures, which makes cryogenic milling
A Focused Approach
(cryomilling) an option for some materials that cannot easily be milled at higher
temperatures.
Cryogenic processing is not a substitute for heat treatment, but rather an extension of the
heating - quenching - tempering cycle. Normally, when an item is quenched, the final
temperature is ambient. The only reason for this is that most heat treaters do not have cooling
equipment. There is nothing metallurgically significant about ambient temperature. The
cryogenic process continues this action from ambient temperature down to -320 degrees. In
most instances the cryogenic cycle is followed by a heat tempering procedure. As all alloys
do not have the same chemical constituents, the tempering procedure varies according to the
material's chemical composition, thermal history and/or a tool's particular service application.
The entire process takes 3-4 days.
Another use of cryogenics is cryogenic fuels. Cryogenic fuels, mainly liquid hydrogen, have
been used as rocket fuels. Liquid oxygen is used as an oxidizer of hydrogen, but oxygen is
not, strictly speaking, a fuel. For example, NASA's workhorse space shuttle uses cryogenic
hydrogen fuel as its primary means of getting into orbit, as did all of the rockets built for the
Soviet space program by Sergei Korolev. (This was a bone of contention between him and
rival engine designer Valentin Glushko, who felt that cryogenic fuels were impractical for
large-scale rockets such as the ill-fated N-1 rocket spacecraft.)
Cryogenic cooling of devices and material is usually achieved via the use of liquid nitrogen,
liquid helium, or a cryocompressor (which uses high pressure helium lines). Newer devices
such as pulse cryocoolers and Stirling cryocoolers have been devised. The most recent
development in cryogenics is the use of magnets as regenerators as well as refrigerators.
These devices work on the principle known as the magnetocaloric effect.
ASSIGNMENT
THERMAL PROPERTIES
Q. (AMIE W08, 2 marks): State Fourier law of conduction of heat at steady state.
Q. (AMIE W08, 2 marks): How does thermal diffusivity differ from thermal conductivity?
Q. (AMIE S09, 4 marks): Arrange the following metals in order of their decreasing thermal conductivity (i)
Gold (ii) Silver (iii) Copper (iv) Aluminium.
Q. (AMIE S09, 7 marks): What are refractories? Discuss their industrial applications.
Q. (AMIE S08, 5 marks): What arc cryogenic materials? Show how ductile to brittle transition zone takes
place. Determine its applicability.
Q. (AMIE S07, 4 marks): State the important properties a material must have for cryogenic application, and
name two such widely used materials.
Q. (AMIE S06, 7 marks): (a) What arc the effects of high temperature on mechanical properties of metals. (b)
What will be your considerations for choice of an alloy for high temperature applications.
Polymers
additional topic
A Focused Approach
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN POLYMERS AND METALS
The fundamental difference between metals and polymers - molecular structure.
If we look at the fundamental building blocks in a metallic and a polymeric material, we can
begin to appreciate the reasons for the differences in behavior. At a molecular level, the basic
units that make up a metallic structure are relatively small and uniform in size. Consequently,
they readily arrange into a structure that is very regular and predictable. Material scientists
identify these structures as crystalline solids. This type of structure is influenced very little by
changes in temperature until the materials in this class reach their respective melting points.
Metals are also not significantly affected by sustained loading until the stresses reach a point
close to the yield strength of the material. In other words, they are not generally susceptible to
creep or cold flow.
The smallest unit in a polymeric material is a very large molecule with an extended chain
shape. Even the smallest polymer molecule will be about 50 times more massive than the
heaviest naturally occurring unit in a metallic structure. These polymer molecules can twist,
turn, fold, and entangle in almost unlimited variations. In addition, not all of these molecules
are of the same size. The smallest molecule in any random sample of plastic is often a
thousand times smaller than the largest, which increases the possibilities for local variation in
the structure of a material.
This has important implications for the mechanical and thermal properties of the two classes
of materials.
Electronic Properties of Materials

additional topic
CURIE TEMPERATURE
The Curie temperature of a ferromagnetic or a ferrimagnetic material is the temperature
above which it becomes paramagnetic (it is for instance 768C or 1414 F for iron). Below
the Curie temperature the magnetic moments are aligned parallel within magnetic domains in
ferromagnetic materials and anti-parallel in ferrimagnetic materials. As the temperature is
increased towards the Curie point, the alignment (magnetization) within each domain
decreases. Above the Curie temperature, the material is paramagnetic so that magnetic
moments are in a completely disordered state.
The destruction of magnetization at the Curie temperature is a second-order phase transition
and a critical point where the magnetic susceptibility is theoretically infinite.
A heat-induced ferromagnetic-paramagnetic transition is used in magneto-optical storage
media, where it is used for erasing and writing of new data. Famous examples include the
Sony Minidisc format, as well as the defunct CD-MO format.
A Focused Approach
Other uses include temperature control in soldering irons such as those made by Metcal and
the Weller WTCPT and, in general, where a temperature-controlled magnetization is
desirable.

Additional Course Material: Ceramic Materials

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Additional Course Material

Why Ceramics are Brittle?

Crystalline Solids and Amorphous Materials

Crystal Structure, Defects in Solids, Diffusion in

Non steady-State Diffusion

Diffusion Depends on Temperature

CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

and ceramics properties reinforced

and organic etc. carbon-reinforced rubber.

Characteristics of Composite Materials

Heat Treatment of Steels

Mechanical Properties of Metals

Engineering Stress, Engineering Strain, True Stress and True Strain

where Ai is the actual area of the cross section corresponding to load P.

REFRACTORIES (HIGH TEMPERATURE MATERIALS)

High Purity Fireclays

Silica Refractories (Acid Refractories)

Electronic Properties of Materials

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