19
Gas Tungsten Arc
Welding Practice:
Jobs 19-J1J19 (Plate)
Chapter Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
19-1 List the various types of metal weldable with the
GTAW process.
19-2 Describe proper GTAW techniques.
19-3 Explain GTAW joint design and material thickness
requirements.
19-4 List procedures for setting up the GTAW equipment.
19-5 Name the major safety precautions of the GTAW
process.
19-6 Describe problems, causes, and remedies for GTAW
process troubleshooting.
19-7 Produce acceptable weld beading on flat plate.
19-8 Produce acceptable fillet and groove welds on
aluminum, mild steel, and stainless steel with the
GTAW process.
Gas Tungsten Arc
Welding of Various Metals
The gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) process can be
used for nearly all types of metals. The welds are of the
highest physical and chemical quality obtainable. Study
the following material carefully so that you will be famil-
iar with the GTAW characteristics of each metal.
Table 19-15, on page 614, provides a Job Outline for
Chapter 19. It is recommended that students complete the
projects in the order shown.
Aluminum
Aluminum is one of the most abundant metals. It has the
characteristics of being light and strong, highly corrosion
resistant, ductile, and malleable. It has good electrical
conductivity and is relatively inexpensive.
Aluminum melts at 1,218F and its oxide melts at about
3,700F. (Steel melts at about 2,800F, and copper at ap-
proximately 1,980F.) Aluminum oxidizes readily at room
temperature. The oxide must be removed prior to welding.
This can be done mechanically, chemically, or with the
cleaning action of the welding arc.
Selection of the arc welding method for joining alu-
minum depends largely on the individual application.
593
The thickness of the metal, the design of the parts and
assemblies, production quantities, and the equipment
available must be considered.
The best welding methods for aluminum are the gas
tungsten arc welding (GTAW, also known as TIG) and
the gas metal arc welding (GMAW, also known as MIG)
processes. Because of the shielding gas, each offers good
protection for the weld pool. The gas shield is transparent
so that the welder can see the fusion zone. This helps in
making neater and sounder welds.
One disadvantage in the welding of aluminum is the
fact that it does not change color when it approaches
the melting point, as most other metals do. The flux
required when welding with other processes also
causes a glare in the weld pool and emits a consider-
able amount of smoke. When TIG welding, there is no
glare or smoke, and the weld pool is clearly visible to
the welder.
The gas tungsten arc welding process is preferred
for welding aluminum sections less than 18 inch in
thickness. This method can also be used on heavier
sections, but the gas metal arc welding process, Chap-
ter 21, is usually chosen for its higher welding speed
and economy. In this chapter we are concerned with
the TIG welding of aluminum. The welding of alumi-
num with the MIG process is discussed in Chapters21
and 22.
All types of aluminum alloys can be welded with
the TIG process, including those alloys in the 1000,
1100, 3000, 5000, 6000, and 7000 series. (Refer to
Table 3-23, page 94, for the classification system of alu-
minum alloys.) Alternating current with stabilization is
recommended. Welding is possible with direct current
electrode negative, but it is not as successful as with
stabilized alternating current. The shielding gas is usu-
ally argon.
S H OP TAL K
Aluminum
Aluminum is harder to resistance weld than
steel because, comparatively, it
1. Melts at a lower temperature (1,220F).
2. Has a shorter weld time due to higher thermal
conductivity
3. Has 4 to 5 times lower electrical resistance
4. Has a surface of protective oxide
5. Has different dynamic material resistance
594 Chapter 19 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Practice: Jobs 19-J1J19 (Plate)
Plate PreparationAluminum plates may be prepared
for welding by mechanical or thermal cutting processes.
Plasma arc cutting (PAC) is used a great deal. Mechanical
processes include machining, shearing, sawing, chipping,
and filing. Any contaminant, such as oil or grease, must
be removed from the prepared surface.
In addition to the contamination that may be on the
surface of the plate due to joint preparation, there is also
an oxide film. It is necessary to remove this material from
the plate and filler metal before welding. Contamination
may be removed from the surface with caustic soda, acids,
and certain solutions. Mechanical methods include stain-
less-steel wire brushing, scraping, filing, and the use of
stainless-steel wool. The interval between cleaning and
welding should be as short as possible, since aluminum
reoxidizes so rapidly.
When aluminum is welded from one side only, some
type of backup may be desirable to control penetration.
Backup strips may be made of steel, copper, or stainless
steel. For certain welding jobs, especially pipe, the back-
ing may consist of an inert gas shield.
Preheating Aluminum alloys are of two types, the work-
hardenable alloys such as EC, 1100, 3003, 5052, 5083,
and 5086; and the heat-treatable alloys such as 6061,
6062, 6063, 7005, and 7039. Alloys in the 2000 and 7000
series can also be welded with either the gas metal arc
welding process or resistance welding.
Heat-treatable alloys may be preheated to keep crack-
ing to a minimum. These alloys are heated at tempera-
tures above 900F and then given a low temperature aging
treatment above 300F. Heat treatment is not generally
required in the welding of work-hardenable aluminum
alloys.
Preheating is necessary if the mass of the base metal
is such that heat is conducted away from the joint so fast
that the welding arc cannot supply the heat required to
produce fusion. Insufficient heat results in poor fusion of
the weld bead and inadequate melting of the base metal.
Preheating the parts being joined helps produce a satisfac-
tory weld, reduces distortion and cracking in the finished
product, and increases welding speed. Mechanical prop-
erties of certain aluminum alloys will decline with exces-
sive preheat temperatures. Special consideration should
be given to the amount of time heat is applied for each
application.
In gas tungsten arc welding, preheating is necessary
when welding plate over 38 inch thick. With the enhanced
square wave a.c. power sources, preheating may be elimi-
nated on thicker sections.
One of the advantages of gas metal arc welding is that
preheat is seldom required, regardless of plate thickness.
Welding Technique Because aluminum alloys have rela-
tively high coefficients of thermal expansion compared
with most weldable metals, there may be a problem with
distortion whenever unequal expansion or contraction oc-
curs. You will recall that control of distortion is a mat-
ter of proper design, joint preparation and fitup, choice
of welding process, and the use of a proper welding
sequence.
In planning the sequence of welding, individual pieces
and members must have freedom of movement. Joints that
are likely to contract a great deal should be welded first.
Welding should be done on both sides of the structure at
the same time and alternated from one side to the other to
equalize stresses. The weld should be completed as rap-
idly as possible without interruption.
Because of the high thermal conductivity of aluminum,
a very high heat input must be maintained in the weld
zone to balance the heat loss to the adjacent metal. Be-
cause of the intense temperature of the tungsten arc, little
difficulty is encountered.
The molten pool of aluminum has a high degree of sur-
face tension and solidifies rapidly so that it is possible to
weld in all positions, Fig. 19-1. Fig. 19-1 This aluminum weldment was manually welded
using the GTAW-P process without a foot control but with the
When welding aluminum, the old practice was to
use of a sequence control button or switch mounted on the
ball or round the end of the electrode before welding torch. Note the degree of weld pool control where the three
to keep the arc steady. The ball was required with con- corner joints came together, and consistent weld pool con-
ventional a.c. sine wave power sources. A more tapered trol across the joints. The weldment has been rotated 90 for
tungsten can now be used with the enhanced square picture purposes. The pictorial view shows the position it was
wave power source. This type of power source with fre- welded in. The corner and butt joints were all CJP while the lap
and T joints could have no melt through to the back side of the
quency control and a tapered tungsten allows the arc to joints. Material was approximately 18 inch thick, pipe OD was
be directed into the joint. This allows the aluminum to 2inches, and the top piece was approximately 4 inches square.
be welded with a.c. much like stainless steel is welded Edward R. Bohnart
with DCEN, with its small focused weld pool and no
arc wandering.
is a great deal of similarity, however, and the practice
gained in welding these steels will make it easier for
For video of GTAW a.c. square wave arc on you to learn to weld the stainless steels. There is also
aluminum with no arc wander, please visit the matter of cost to consider. By practicing on carbon
www.mhhe.com/welding. and low alloy steels, you can gain a great deal of expe-
rience with the gas tungsten arc process at the lowest
possible cost.
If the end is uneven, the arc may move from side to TIG welding of carbon steels is usually done on light
side. The method for balling the end of the electrode is gauge materials that require relatively less heat than
given in Chapter 18, pages 577579. Consult Tables19-1 heavy plate. A given size electrode also requires less heat
and 19-2 (p. 596) for the common filler metals to be used in the welding of carbon steel than the same size used
and the proper operating conditions for welding alumi- in the welding of aluminum. Lower current results in a
num with alternating current. smaller arc. The small arc is more difficult to see than the
arc for aluminum welding. For this reason a lighter shade
Carbon and Low Alloy Steels of welding lens is recommended when welding carbon
The welding of carbon steels is not taught until after you steels.
have mastered the welding of aluminum because they When welding carbon steels, the best results are ob-
are a little easier to weld than the stainless steels. There tained with direct current electrode negative. Use argon

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Practice: Jobs 19-J1J19 (Plate) Chapter 19 595
 Table 19-1 Chemical Compositions

Chemical Composition Requirements for Steel Solid Electrodes and Rods1

AWS UNS
Classification Number C Mn Si P S Ni Cr Mo V Cu Ti Zr Al
0.06 0.090 0.45
ER70S-3 K10726 0.025 0.035 2 2 2 2
0.50
0.15 1.40 0.75
0.06 1.40 0.80
ER70S-6 K11140 0.025 0.035 2 2 2 2
0.50
0.15 1.85 1.15

Chemical Composition Requirements for Aluminum Electrodes and Rods3

AWS UNS Other Elements

Classification Number Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Ni Zn Ti Each Total Al
4.5
ER4043 A94043 0.8 0.30 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.054 0.15 Remainder
6.0
0.05 4.5 0.05 0.06
ER5356 A95356 0.25 0.40 0.10 0.10 0.054 0.15
0.20 5.5 0.20 0.20

Chemical Composition Requirements for Stainless-Steel Electrodes and Rods5

AWS UNS Other Elements

Classification Number C Cr Ni Mo Mn Si P S N Cu Element Amount
19.5 9.0 1.0 0.30
ER308L S30883 0.03 0.75 0.03 0.03 0.75
22.0 11.0 2.5 0.65
23.0 12.0 1.0 0.30
ER309L S30983 0.03 0.75 0.03 0.03 0.75
25.0 14.0 2.5 0.65
18.0 11.0 2.0 1.0 0.30
ER316L S31683 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.75
20.0 14.0 3.0 2.5 0.65

Weight percent single values are maximums.

1

These residual elements shall not exceed 0.50% in total.

2

Weight percent single values are maximums. If other elements are detected, they cannot exceed the limits specified for other elements.
3

Beryllium shall not exceed 0.0008%.

4

Weight percent single values are maximums. If other elements are detected, the amount of those elements shall be determined and cannot exceed 0.5%, excluding irons.
5

Source: Data extracted from AWS filler metal specifications A5.9, A5.10, and A5.18

Table 19-2 Operating Conditions with Stabilized A.C. Current and Argon Shielding
Gas: Aluminum1

Work Tungsten Filler

Thickness Welding Current (A) Diameter Rod Size Cup Size Gas Flow
(in.) Flat Vertical Overhead (in.) (in.) (in.) (ft3/h)
16
1
6090 6090 6090 16
1
16
1
4, 516, 38
1
15
1
8 125160 115135 120160 32
3
32
3
8, 716
3
17
16
3
190240 190220 180210 1
8 1
8 16, 2
7 1
21
1
4 260340 220260 210250 16
3 1
8, 16 3 1
2, 8, 4
5 3
25
3
8 330400 250300 250300 16, 14
3 3
16, 14 29
1
2 400470 290350 250375 16, 4
3 1 3
16, 4 1
31

Optimum conditions for each application should be determined by trial.

1

Source: Eutectic Corp.

596 Chapter 19 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Practice: Jobs 19-J1J19 (Plate)
as the shielding gas and cerium, lanthanum, or thoriated
electrode with a tapered electrode tip.
The sharpened electrode makes it easier to control the
arc and the weld bead size. Because the current is DCEN,
it takes a lot of heat to melt the sharpened electrode. Make
sure that the electrode does not touch the weld pool. The
molten metal will contaminate it and cause an erratic arc.
Use a filler rod that matches the base metal.
Set the high frequency switch in the start only position.
It is not necessary to use continuous high frequency as was
needed with the conventional a.c. sine wave power source.
If the power source is equipped with a lift arc or touch
start control feature, this can be selected. The scratch start
is not recommended, because the weld or tungsten can
be contaminated, especially with the inverter-type power
source.
Less heat is needed to start the weld pool in carbon
steel than aluminum. Since the machine heat setting
may be held fairly steady from start to finish, a foot-
operated heat control is not absolutely necessary. The
welding heat can be controlled by varying travel speed.
In order to obtain the highest weld quality, however, a
heat control should be used. Consult Tables 19-1 and
19-3 for the common filler metals to be used and the
proper operating conditions for the welding of low car-
bon steel with DCEN.
Stainless Steel Stainless steel is one of the most widely
used of all the alloys. It is suitable for all types of welded
fabrications in which strength and resistance to high
temperatures, pressures, and corrosion are desired. Root
passes laid down by gas tungsten arc welding are always
specified for X-ray quality welds in large, heavy-walled
pipe for nuclear power plants, hygenic applications, and
other critical services. Stainless steel is made in all stan-
dard steel shapes and forms.
You will recall from Chapter 3 that there are three gen-
eral types of stainless steel, and all can be welded with the
gas tungsten arc process. Steels in the 300 series, which
are referred to as the austenitic type, are chromium-
nickel steel alloys. They are highly weldable. These steels
are hardenable only by cold working. A second type is the
martensitic steels. They are straight-chromium stainless
steels in the 400 and 500 series. These steels are harden-
able by rapid cooling from a high temperature. A third
type in the 400 series is ferritic steels. It has a straight-
chromium content of approximately 11.5 to 18 percent.
Ferritic steels are nonhardenable in certain high carbon-
chromium combinations. Lower chromium grades may be
air hardened.
Stainless steels have a high resistance to corrosion and
high temperatures, excellent strength-to-weight ratios,
and a high degree of ductility. They can be fabricated by
the same methods as carbon steel. Their thermal conduc-
tivity, however, is about 50 percent less than that of car-
bon steel, so heat stays in the weld zone. Because their
thermal expansion is about 50 percent greater than that of
carbon steel, there is a problem with distortion. Distortion
and heat retention can be minimized through the use of
proper jigs and fixtures. Reduction of heat input by using
GTAW-Pulse is also very helpful to control distortion,
Fig.19-2, page 598.
The gas tungsten arc welding process makes it possible
to weld stainless steels without the problems of flux and
weld spatter. The dangers involved in multipass welding
due to heavy slag are not present.
Stainless steel can be successfully welded with either
direct current electrode negative or alternating current
with stabilization. Much greater penetration and weld-
ing speed can be obtained with direct current electrode
negative. When welding with DCEN, high frequency is
usually used only to start the weld. Consult Tables 19-1

Table 19-3 Operating Conditions with DCEN and Argon Shielding Gas: Carbon Steel Plate

Plate Tungsten Ceramic Gas Argon Welding Current Filler Rod

Thickness (in.) Diameter (in.) Cup Size (in.) Flow (ft3/h) DCEN (A) Size (in.)
16
1 1
16 3
8 1012 80120 1
16
3
32 3
32 1
2 1214 100140 3
32
1
8 3
32 1
2 1216 100140 3
32
16
3 3
32 1
2 1218 100140 1
8
1
4 3
32 1
2 1418 130175 3
16
3
8 1
8 1
2 1620 170200 3
16
1
2 1
8 1
2 1822 200250 1
4

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Practice: Jobs 19-J1J19 (Plate) Chapter 19 597
and 19-4 for the common filler metals to be used and
the proper operating conditions for welding stainless
steel with DCEN.
A 1 or 2 percent cerium, lanthanum, or thoriated tung-
sten electrode is used.
Either argon or helium (or a mixture of these
gases) may be used as a shielding gas. Argon provides
Fig. 19-2 This stainless-steel weldment was manually welded
using the GTAW-P process without a foot control but the use of
a sequence control button or switch mounted on the torch. Note
the degree of weld pool and heat input control where the three
corner joints come together. This was presented for inspection
in the as-welded condition. Note the uniform heat color marks
along the joints and the lack of buckling and distortion. All cor-
ner and butt joints required CJP, while T and lap joints could
have no melt-through on the back side of the joint. The small
tube extending from one end is for purging. The material was
approximately 14-gauge 304 stainless steel. All welding was
done with the weldment orientated in the position shown.
Edward R. Bohnart
smoother arc action and gives good results when weld-
ing the thinner gauges. Helium shielding produces
a hotter arc than argon and permits higher welding
speeds and deeper penetration, particularly on heavier
materials. Welding research has determined that argon-
hydrogen mixtures of about 1 to 7 percent hydrogen
are the equivalent of helium and produce sound welds
in austenitic stainless steels. Shielding the back side of
the weld may be necessary to prevent oxidation and to
promote maximum corrosion resistance. One method is
to introduce argon or a backup powder under the weld
with some type of backing device to confine the gas to
the weld area.
See Fig. 19-3 for the color indications that denote the
amount of acceptable oxidization when welding stain-
less-steel pipe and tubing as used in the food processing
industry. The type of welding current and polarity have
a large effect on welding penetration. Developments
have been made in producing chemical fluxes that af-
fect the surface tension of the weld pool molecules and
allow improved penetration on certain metals. The flux
is applied prior to welding, and for a given amperage,
penetration will be increased. Figure 19-4 shows ex-
amples of weld profiles with and without the use of a
welding flux.
One of the principal differences between welding
stainless steel and aluminum is that aluminum requires
more heat and a faster speed of travel. Take care in the
selection of filler rod size. If the rod diameter is too large,
it will soak up a good deal of heat and make welding more
difficult.
It is important that the filler rod match the type of
stainless steel being welded. The rod must also deposit
metal that has the physical and chemical properties that
the job requires.

Table 19-4 Operating Conditions with DCEN and Argon Shielding Gas: Stainless Steel1

Work Tungsten Filler

Thickness Welding Current (A) Diameter Rod Size Cup Size Gas Flow
(in.) Flat Vertical Overhead (in.) (in.) (in.) (ft3/h)
1
16 80110 70100 70100 1
16 1
16 1
4, 516, 38 11
3
32 100130 90120 90120 1
16 3
32 1
4, 516, 38 11
1
8 120150 110135 105140 1
16, 32 3 3
32 1
4, 16, 8
5 3
11
3
16 200275 150225 150225 3
32, 8 1 1
8 3
8, 16, 2
7 1
13
1
4 275375 200275 200275 1
8 3
16 13
1
2 350375 225280 225280 1
8, 16
3 1
4 15
Optimum conditions for each application should be determined by trial.
1

Source: Eutectic Corp.

598 Chapter 19 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Practice: Jobs 19-J1J19 (Plate)

Fig. 19-3 Weld discoloration levels inside of austenitic stainless-steel pipe. Sample 1 has
10ppm oxygen, sample 5 has 200 ppm, and sample 10 has over 25,000 ppm. Samples 5 and
under are generally considered acceptable in the as-welded condition. Proper purging is critical
for hygienic quality welds. American Welding Society. D18.1:1999, Figure 2
Fig. 19-4 At a given amperage level, note the increased
penetration achieved with the flux on this application.
Navy Joining Center
Travel speed is slow with relatively low heat, and it
takes considerable skill to keep from burning through
thin materials. Because stainless steel distorts much
more than carbon and low alloy steels during weld-
ing, proper tacking, weld sequencing, and clamping are
important.
Magnesium
Many people mistake magnesium for aluminum be-
cause they are similar in appearance and character-
istics. Magnesium is a very light material. It is about
two-thirds the weight of aluminum and one-quarter
the weight of steel. The melting point of magnesium is
1,204F, while the melting point of aluminum is 1,218F.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Practice: Jobs 19-J1J19 (Plate) Chapter 19 599
The strength-to-weight ratio of
magnesium alloys is good. The
thermal conductivity is rela-
tively higha little less than
aluminum.
Welding magnesium is similar
to welding aluminum. The same
type of joints and method of joint
preparation are used. Careful
cleaning of the workpiece is al-
ways required, since magnesium
oxidizes readily. The parts should
be degreased by chemical clean-
ing and/or mechanically cleaned
with abrasives.
Rolled or extruded magnesium sections can be joined
easily to each other or to castings. All welds are made
without flux and usually have more than 90 percent of the
tensile strength of the annealed base metal.
Either alternating current with stabilization or
DCEN may be used. The shielding gas may be argon
or helium.
Consult Table 19-5 (p. 600) for the proper operating
conditions for the welding of magnesium with alternating
current.
Titanium
Titanium is lightweight, has excellent corrosion resis-
tance, and has a high strength-to-weight ratio that makes
it a desirable metal for applications in the chemical,
aerospace, marine, and medical fields. Its use in the pet-
rochemical industry and in the manufacture of sports
equipment are some more recent applications. Many
consider titanium to be very hard to weld. Titanium al-
loys can be embrittled by failure to follow proper weld-
ing techniques, but titanium is much more readily welded
than typically believed.
Before welding titanium, it is essential that the weld
area and the filler metal be cleaned. All mill scale, oil,
grease, dirt, grinding dust, and any other contamination
must be removed. If the titanium is scale-free, degreas-
ing is all that is required. If oxide scale is present, it
should be degreased prior to descaling. An area at least
1 inch around where the weld is to be made should
be cleaned. The joint edges should be brushed with a
stainless-steel wire brush and degreased with acetone
just prior to welding. Any titanium part handled after
cleaning should be done so using a white glove proce-
dure to eliminate recontamination of the weld area. The
cleaned parts should be welded within a few hours or
properly stored by wrapping in lint-free and oil-free
materials.
 Table 19-5 Operating Conditions with Stabilized A.C. Current and Argon Shielding
Gas: Magnesium1

Work Tungsten Filler

Thickness Welding Current, Flat Position (A) Diameter Rod Size Cup Size Gas Flow
(in.) Backup No Backup (in.) (in.) (in.) (ft3/h)
1
16 60 35 1
16 3
32 1
4, 516, 38 13
3
32 90 60 1
16 8
1 1
4, 16, 8
5 3
16
1
3 115 85 1
16 8
1 1
4, 516, 38 19
One pass Two passes
3
16 120 75 1
16 5
32 1
4, 516, 38 19
1
4 130 85 3
32 5
32 19
3
8 180 100 3
32 3
16 24
1
2 260 5
32 3
16 24
3
4 370 3
16 4
1
36
1
Optimum conditions for each application should be determined by trial.
Source: Eutectic Corp.

Table 19-6 Operating Condition with DCEN and Argon Shielding Gas: Titanium1

Work Thickness Welding Current, Tungsten Filler Rod Cup2 Gas Flow3
(in.) Flat Position (A) Diameter (in.) Size (in.) Size (ft3/h)
16
1
65105 1
16 1
16 15
32
3
75125 1
16 1
16 15
1
8 95135 1
16 3
32 15
16
1
150225 3
32 3
32 20
1
4 225300 1
8 1
8 20
3
8 225350 1
8 1
8 20
1
2 250350 1
8 1
8 20

Optimum conditions for each application should be determined by trial.

1

Cup size should be as large as possible, that is, 1 in. or larger. A gas lens should be used, and a trailing gas shoe can also be adapted.
2

 his is the torch (primary) shielding gas flow rate; a trailing (secondary) shield gas flow rate should be two to four times this rate. A trailing shielding gas is generally required for
T
3

welding titanium.

If grinding or sanding is used to clean titanium or pre- Alpha alloy Alpha alloys are generally single-phase
pare a joint, be very cautious of the fine titanium dust par- alloys that contain up to 7 percent aluminum and a
ticles. Titanium is flammable, and the smaller the dust small amount (<0.3 percent) of oxygen, nitrogen, and
particles, the more flammable they are. Excess heat input carbon.
from grinding operations can cause oxidation on the sur- Alpha-beta alloys Alpha-beta alloys have a
face of the metal that could lead to weld failure. characteristic two-phase microstructure brought
Consult Table 19-6 for the proper operating conditions about by the addition of up to 6 percent alumi-
for the welding of titanium with DCEN. num and varying amounts of beta formers. Beta
These welding parameters are usable on the three types forming alloys are vanadium, chromium, and
of titanium alloys. The three types of titanium alloys are: molybdenum.

Titanium (CP) Commercially pure (98 to 99.5 percent Table 19-7 shows some of the relative weldability of these
Ti) can be strengthened by small additions of oxygen, alloy groups. Also displayed are recommended filler met-
nitrogen, carbon, and iron. als. When welding titanium or one of its alloys, the filler

600 Chapter 19 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Practice: Jobs 19-J1J19 (Plate)