CVEN2401

Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering

Week 10: Vertical Alignment (Part 1)

Kasun P. Wijayaratna
 Review
Assignment Progress Check
Introduction - What is Geometric Design? / Design Standards (L7(1))
If you answer No to any of these
Road and Design Characteristics (L7(1)) questions, you need to catch up and
Basic Kinematics (L7(1)) get organised!!!
Speed Parameters (L7(2)) - Do you know what design group
you are in? Have you spoken to
Sight Distance (L7(2))
others in your design group?
Horizontal Alignment: Part 1 (Basics and Sight Distance) (L8(1))
- Have you or members in your
Horizontal Alignment: Superelevation and Cross Sections (L9(1)) group downloaded and installed
Horizontal Alignment: Transition Curves (L9(1),(2)) Infraworks360?

Satisfying the Guidelines (L9(2)) - Has your group developed a base

model of the study area?
Completed a full worked example according to AGRD
- Has your group completed an
analysis of the existing road
conditions using Infraworks360?
- Has your group finalised your
horizontal alignment?
- Has your group thought about how
to present the assignment, reports,
technical drawings?

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 2

 Overview
Vertical Alignment: Why do we need it?
Vertical Alignment: Controls
Vertical Alignment: Design Procedure
Grading
Vertical Curves
Vertical Curves: Key Definitions
Vertical Curve Fundamental Calculations
Vertical Curve Design Calculations
Stopping Sight Distance Revisited
Crest Curves
Sag Curves Historic Columbia River Highway Scenic Byway , Oregon, USA
http://industry.traveloregon.com/industry-resources/product-
development/oregon-scenic-byways/
Minimum Length of Vertical Curves
Reference: Austroads Guide to Road Design
(AGRD) Part 3: Geometric Design

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 3

 Vertical Alignment: Why do we need it?
Remember,
why didnt
we think this
was an
appropriate
design?

Not very
efficient in
terms of
earth
works

Earthworks
are
dependent
on the
longitudinal
profile

Vertical alignment is the longitudinal profile along the centre line of a road.
It is made up of a series of grades and vertical curves.

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 4

 Vertical Alignment: Why do we need it?
Longitudinal Profile of the natural terrain along
the straight line road from the previous slide

Can a vehicle travel along this terrain in the

existing state?

Maybe but it will

most likely be
uncomfortable or
unsafe.

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 5

 Vertical Alignment: Why do we need it?
Longitudinal Profile of the natural terrain along
the straight line road from the previous slide

Select a grading for the road design

Rough
RoughEstimate
Estimate
Even with this Cut>>>Fill
Cut>>>Fill
design, we still have
the pictured issue.

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 6

 Vertical Alignment: Why do we need it?
Vertical alignment is the longitudinal profile along the centre line of a road. It is
made up of a series of grades and vertical curves.
The natural terrain must be graded to achieve consistent slopes along the road.
In order to achieve a smooth transition between grades we need to design
vertical curves.

Natural Terrain Graded - Design Terrain

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 7

 Vertical Alignment: Controls
The level of a road at any point along its route (vertical alignment) is controlled
by the features that exist along the route. (Section 8.2 AGRD)
Topography
Geotechnical conditions
Existing intersections
Property entrances
Overpasses and underpasses
Pedestrian access
Service utility assets
Median openings

Source: http://kboi2.com/news/local/walmart-truck-gets-
stuck-under-overpass-in-oregon-11-21-2015

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 8

 Vertical Alignment: Design Procedure
Grading (Section 8.3 AGRD3)
Step 1: Identify all major controls on the alignment and categorise as mandatory
or discretionary (refer to controls discussed in previous slide and Section 8.2)
Step 2: Prepare a horizontal alignment in accordance with Section 7 of AGRD3
(Week 9 of the course)
Step 3: Select appropriate grading points (selecting the centreline for a 2-way, 2-
lane road)
Step 4: Prepare a longitudinal section with an appropriate vertical exaggeration
(commonly 10:1) showing natural levels relative to the grading point (centreline)
Step 5: Prepare a trial gradeline, taking into account the vertical control including
culverts and coordination of horizontal and vertical alignments.
Step 6: Calculate earthworks quantities (Week 11-12)
Step 7: Adjust the vertical alignment so that:
o all mandatory controls are met
o discretionary controls are met as far as possible
o ensuring minimum sight distance and critical cross-fall controls are met
o earthworks are minimised.

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 9

 Vertical Alignment: Design Procedure
Grading: Grades (Section 8.5 AGRD3)
Grades should generally be as flat as possible, consistent with economy and
longitudinal drainage requirements (where kerbing is to be incorporated. Flat
grades permit all vehicles to operate at the same speed. Steeper grades
introduce variation in speeds between vehicles with varying power to weight
rations in the uphill and downhill direction.
o The speed variation can result in higher rear end vehicle crash rates.
o Increases the likelihood of queuing and makes it difficult to overtake.

Baldwin Street, NZ, Worlds steepest street

Source: https://au.pinterest.com/pin/299911656409359649/

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 10

 Vertical Alignment: Design Procedure
Grading: Grades (Section 8.5 AGRD3), Effect of grade on vehicle type
Grades are generally expressed as a percentage of the vertical component
divided by the horizontal component.

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 11

 Vertical Alignment: Design Procedure
Grading: Grades (Section 8.5 AGRD3), Maximum Grades

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 12

 Vertical Alignment: Design Procedure
Vertical Curves (Section 8.6 AGRD3)
The vertical alignment of a road consists of a series of straight grades joined by
vertical curves.
Vertical curves are parabolic in shape and selected based on 3 controlling
factors.
o Sight distance: safety requirement
o Riding comfort
o Appearance: pertinent in flat topography where it is used to alleviate
boredom (safety) and enhance aesthetics.

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 13

 Vertical Curves: Key Definitions
Classification of Vertical Curves:
Crest Curves: convex vertical
curves that meet at a summit
(high point)
Sag Curves: concave vertical
curves that meet at a trough (low
point)
PVC PVI PVT
CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering
Properties of Vertical Curves
: initial roadway grade in percent or m/m (also
referred to as initial tangent grade)
: final road way grade in percent or m/m (also
referred to as final tangent road way grade)
: absolute value of the difference in grades in
percent or m/m (|2 1 |)
: length of curve in stations or metres measure in a
constant-elevation horizontal plane.
: point of vertical curve (initial point of the curve,
also referred to as beginning of vertical curve
() or as tangent point 1 (1 ))
: point of vertical intersection (intersection of
grades)
: point of vertical tangent (final point of the
curve, also referred to as end of vertical curve
() or as tangent point 2 (2 ))
14
 Vertical Curves: Key Definitions
Properties of Vertical Curves
In general (and for this course), curves will be equal-tangent vertical curves,

where the point is distance from the point and to the point.
2

: offset at any
distance from the
PVC (in metres)

: mid-curve offset
(in metres)

: offset at the end of
the vertical curve
(PVT) (in metres)
2 2

PVC PVI PVT

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 15

 Vertical Curve Fundamental Calculations
General parabolic equation
= + +
Where;
: roadway elevation at distance from the beginning of the vertical curve () in
stations/metres
: distance from the beginning of the vertical curve in stations/metres
, , : coefficients of the parabola.

PVC PVI PVT

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 16

 Vertical Curve Fundamental Calculations
General parabolic equation
= + +
Defining , and
Slope at the origin ( = 0) is equal to the slop of the initial
tangent, 1 :

= 2 +


= 2 0 + = = 1
=0
=
The average rate of change of slope is the difference between

the gradients divided by the length of the curve, 2 1 :

2
2 1
= 2 =
2

=

The -intercept of the parabola = , which corresponds to the
elevation of the at = 0:
=

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 17

 Vertical Curve Fundamental Calculations
General parabolic equation
= + +
Defining , and
Slope at the origin ( = 0) is equal to the slop of the initial
tangent, 1 :

= 2 +


= 2 0 + = = 1
=0
=
The average rate of change of slope is the difference between

the gradients divided by the length of the curve, 2 1 : Note: These are not

2 formulae and should be
2 1
= 2 = derived for each
2 question. They may
need to be adjusted
= depending on the
context of a question
The -intercept of the parabola = , which corresponds to the and the set-up of axes.
elevation of the at = 0:
=

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 18

 Vertical Curve Fundamental Calculations
Example
A 200 metre equal-tangent sag vertical curve has the PVC at station 3+700.000 and
elevation at 321m. The initial grade is -3.5% and the final grade is +0.5%. Determine the
stationing and elevation of the PVI, the PVT, and the lowest point on the curve.

= 200

PVC PVI? PVT?

(3+700.000)
Elevation: 321m

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 19

 Vertical Curve Fundamental Calculations
Example
A 200 metre equal-tangent sag vertical curve has the PVC at station 3+700.000 and
elevation at 321m. The initial grade is -3.5% and the final grade is +0.5%. Determine the
stationing and elevation of the PVI, the PVT, and the lowest point on the curve.
Measuring along the horizontal plane and as = 200:

o PVI will be 100m from PVC: = + = 3 + 700.000 + 0 + 100.000 =
2
+ .
o PVT will be 200m from PVC: = + = 3 + 700.000 + 0 + 200.000 =
+ .
Elevation at PVI and PVT:

o = 1
2
= 321 0.035 100 = .

o = + 2
2
= 317.5 + 0.005 100 = .

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 20

 Vertical Curve Fundamental Calculations
Example
A 200 metre equal-tangent sag vertical curve has the PVC at station 3+700.000 and
elevation at 321m. The initial grade is -3.5% and the final grade is +0.5%. Determine the
stationing and elevation of the PVI, the PVT, and the lowest point on the curve.
Low point is equivalent to the minimum of the parabolic function (given that the low
point is definitely between PVC and PVT)

For = 2 + + , let = 0 to determine location of low point:


= 2 + = 0

When = 0, = 1 = 0.035
Consider the average rate of change of slope:
2 1 0.005 0.035
o = = = 0.0001
2 2 200

2 0.0001 + 0.035 = 0
= 175m
Stationing of low point: 3 + 700.000 + 0 + 175.000 = + .
Elevation of low point: = 0.0001(175)2 + 0.035 175 + 321 = .

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 21

 Vertical Curve Fundamental Calculations
Further derivation:
2 1 2
= + + = + 1 +
2
Offset distance, , is the distance between the initial tangent and curve
2 1 2
= = 1 + + 1 +
2
|2 1 | 2
= = 2
2 200

=

Where, = absolute value of the difference in grades expressed as a percentage
Similarly the mid-curve offset ( ) and end of curve offset ( ) can be derived as
follows:

At = and =
2
2
2
= = =
200 2 200 4

= 2=
200

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 22

 Vertical Curve Fundamental Calculations
Further derivation (considering the case presented):

: offset at any distance

from the PVC (in metres)

=

: mid-curve offset (in

metres)

=


: offset at the end of the
vertical curve (PVT) (in
metres)
2 2
=

PVC PVI PVT

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 23

 Vertical Curve Fundamental Calculations
Constancy of the rate of change of slope (second derivative)
Vertical curves are parabolas, considering = 2 + + :
2
2 = 2 constant

Using this property, the horizontal distance, necessary to change the slope of
the vertical curve by 1% can be estimated as follows:
Curve Length
=
Absolute change in grade over the curve length

=

Where,
: horizontal distance in metres required to affect a 1% change in the slope of the vertical curve
: length of the curve in metres
: absolute value of the difference in grades |2 1 |

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 24

 Vertical Curve Fundamental Calculations
Computation of high and low points on a vertical curve
The K-value can also be used to compute the high and low point locations of crest
and sag vertical curves, respectively (provided the high or low point does not occur
at the PVC or PVT)

For a high/low point to occur = 0 and this is located distance from :


= 2 + = 0


=
2
2 1
Substitute 2 = and = 1

1
=
2 1

As is a distance, take the absolute value:
1 |1 | |1 | |1 |
= = = = = 1
2 1 |2 1 | 1

=

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 25

 Vertical Curve Design Calculations
Stopping Sight Distance Revisited
The sight of a driver is affected by the presence of a crest.
There must be adequate sight distance to a distant object so that the driver can
stop the vehicle prior to striking the object whilst traversing the vertical curve
For a given set of grades and operating speed, longer curves provide more SSD
but are longer to construct so estimate the minimum curve length and provide
a length that is equal to or greater than the minimum.

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 26

 Vertical Curve Design Calculations
Stopping Sight Distance Revisited
Sight Distance (S) may be greater than or smaller than the vertical curve designed.
Thus, these instances govern the estimation of the curve length.
Crest Curve Example

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 27

 Vertical Curve Design Calculations
Stopping Sight Distance Revisited
Sight Distance (S) may be greater than or smaller than the vertical curve designed.
Thus, these instances govern the estimation of the curve length.
Sag Curve Example

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 28

 Vertical Curve Design Calculations
Crest Vertical Curve Design (AGRD3)
Vertical Curve Length (L)
=
Sight Distance Criteria

=
when <
+

+
= when >

Where:
= length of vertical curve (m)
= length of vertical curve in metres for 1% change in grade (m)
= algebraic grade change |2 1 | (%)
= sight distance (m)
1 = driver eye height, as used to establish sight distance (m) (Table 5.1)
2 = object height, as used to establish sight distance (m) (Table 5.1)
To determine minimum vertical curve length, set = .

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 29

 Vertical Curve Design Calculations
Crest Vertical Curve Design: A note on overtaking sight distance (OSD)
If overtaking is allowed (2-lane, 2-way road sections) the vertical curve length for a
curve should be compared with the OSD.
Overtaking sight distance is only a factor in crest curves. Sag curves offer
adequate visibility to conduct passing manoeuvres.
Vertical Curve Length (L): =
Overtaking Sight Distance Criteria

=
when <
+

+
= when >

Where:
= length of vertical curve (m)
= length of vertical curve in metres for 1% change in grade (m)
= algebraic grade change |2 1 | (%)
= sight distance (m)
= = driver eye height, as used to establish sight distance (m) (Table 5.1)
To determine minimum vertical curve length, set = .

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 30

 Vertical Curve Design Calculations
Crest Curve Vertical Design (AGRD3)
Minimum crest curve lengths ( < )

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 31

 Vertical Curve Design Calculations
Crest Vertical Curve Design (AGRD3)
Appearance criteria: At very small changes of grade, a vertical curve has little
influence other than appearance of the profile and may be omitted.

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 32

 Vertical Curve Design Calculations
Sag Vertical Curve Design (AGRD3)
Vertical Curve Length (L)
=
Sight Distance Criteria

= when <
+ ()

+ ()
= when >

Where:
= length of vertical curve (m)
= length of vertical curve in metres for 1% change in grade (m)
= algebraic grade change (2 1 ) (%)
= sight distance (m)
= mounting height of headlights (m) (taken as 0.65m)
= elevation angle of beam 1 degree (+upwards) ( = 1)
To determine minimum vertical curve length, set = .

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 33

 Vertical Curve Design Calculations
Sag Vertical Curve Design (AGRD3)
Vertical Curve Length (L)
=
Appearance and Comfort Criteria
A person subjected to rapid changes in vertical acceleration feels discomfort. To
minimise such discomfort when passing from one grade to another, it is usual to
limit the vertical acceleration generated on the vertical curve to a value less than
0.05 times the acceleration due to gravity.

=

Where:
= length of vertical curve (m)
= length of vertical curve in metres for 1% change in grade (m)
= vertical acceleration (m/sec2) = 0.05
= speed of the vehicle (km/h)
= acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/sec2

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 34

 Vertical Curve Design Calculations
Sag Vertical Curve Design (AGRD3)
Vertical Curve Length (L)
=

Overhead obstruction criteria (if overhead obstructions are present)

=
when >
+

Where:
= length of vertical curve (m)
= length of vertical curve in metres for 1% change in grade (m)
= height of overhead obstruction
= sight distance (m)
1 = truck driver eye height (2.4m)

2 = object height (0.6m)

To determine minimum vertical curve length, set = .

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 35

 Vertical Curve Design Calculations
Sag Vertical Curve Design (AGRD3)
K-values graph.

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 36

 Minimum Length of Vertical Curves
Short Calculated Lengths
When there are changes of grade less than 1%, the calculated curve lengths
can be too short for practical construction
o Define the minimum length of vertical curve as the either = .
where is the speed of the vehicle in km/hr or use Table 8.10 (for new
construction) or Table 8.11 (for reconstruction.
o Design road without a vertical curve (See Table 8.12)

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 37

 Minimum Length of Vertical Curves
Short Calculated Lengths
When there are changes of grade less than 1%, the calculated curve lengths
can be too short for practical construction
o Define the minimum length of vertical curve as the either = .
where is the speed of the vehicle in km/hr or use Table 8.10 (for new
construction) or Table 8.11 (for reconstruction.
o Design road without a vertical curve (See Table 8.12)

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 38

 Minimum Length of Vertical Curves
Short Calculated Lengths
When there are changes of grade less than 1%, the calculated curve lengths
can be too short for practical construction
o Define the minimum length of vertical curve as the either min = 0.6 where
is the speed of the vehicle in km/hr or use Table 8.10 (for new
construction) or Table 8.11 (for reconstruction.
o Design road without a vertical curve (See Table 8.12)

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 39