CIVILEN 5320

Intermediate
Steel Structural
Design
Hojjat Adeli

Shanghai Tower
 1. INTRODUCTION TO PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

1.1 Application of Simple Plastic Design

(a)

(b)
(c)

(d) (e)

(g)

(f)

(h)

(i)

Figure 1 Examples of structures where simple plastic design can be applied readily

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1.2 Stress-Strain Relationship for Structural Steel

Figure 2 Stress-strain relationship for structural steel

Figure 3 Necking

Figure 4 Idealized stress-strain relationship for structural steel

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 Figure 5 Bauschinger effect

The deviation from linearity in unloading is called the Bauschinger (1886) effect

( 0.04 ). Bauschinger effect is attributed to the polycrystaline internal structure of the

metal.

1.3 Allowable Stress Design (ASD) Versus Plastic Design (PD)

1. Attainment of specified yield stress (elastic

2. behavior)
3. Attainment of maximum plastic strength
4. Excessive Deflections
5. Buckling and instability
6. Fracture
7. Fatigue

A design based on any of these criteria can be called a limit deign. Allowable Stress Design

(ASD) or elastic design is based on limit states 1, 3, 4, and 5. Plastic design (PD) is a limit

state primarily based on item 2.

In ASD, an allowable or working stress is defined as

all = w = lim/SF

3
where SF is the safety factor, a number greater than one. lim is a stress that denotes a limit of

usefulness such as the yield stress (y), a critical buckling stress cr (column stability), the

tensile strength at which the member fractures (u), or the stress range in fatigue (sr).

Under a given set of loads (working or service loads), everywhere within the structure

we must have:

< all

The actual stresses are found by an elastic analysis for the service loads of the structure.

In plastic design (ultimate strength design), the working or service load, Pw, is

multiplied by a load factor (LF) greater than one, a failure mechanism is postulated, and the

ultimate load Pu corresponding the postulated failure mechanism, Pu, is determined. Then, the

following condition is satisfied:

Pu, > (LF) Pw

Plastic design is based on the maximum load the structure will carry.

4
Figure 6 An example of a failure mechanism

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There is no basis for the assumption that stress in a steel structure should not go beyond the

elastic limit. In fact local yielding occurs in most steel framed structures under extreme loading

conditions due to winds or earthquakes.

It is important to note that at service loads, the plastically-designed structure is normally

in the so-called elastic range.

Figure 7a is a beam with a triangular section. Figure 6b is the same beam with a cut

across the tip. Their section moduli are also given in the figure. The question is which beam is

stronger?

Figure 7

6(10)2
1 = = 25 .3
24

92 [62 + 4(6)(0.6) + 0.62 ]

2 = = 27.19 .3
12(12 + 0.6)

Stop2 is about 9% greater than Stop1. If beam material is brittle, the second beam could be

stronger than first. For ductile materials the first beam is stronger!

1.4 Ultimate Strength of Statically Indeterminate Axial-Load Structures

6
Figure 6

Figure 7

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1.5 Plastic Bending of Beams

Figure 8

= ( )

= =

For a rectangular cross section:

2
S = =
6

8
Figure 9 Normalized moment-curvature relation for beams of rectangular cross-section

Figure 10 Distribution of bending stress over the cross section with strain-hardening

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1.6 Determination of Plastic Moment capacity

(a) (b)

Figure 11 (a) A beam cross-section with one axis of symmetry (b) plastic stress distribution

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Figure 12 Stress distribution over the cross section in the beam of Figure 11 as bending moment
is increased from the elastic range (a) to the yield moment (b) to the final plastic moment
capacity (e)

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 First, we must locate the neutral axis of the cross-section. Let

A1 = area of the cross-section above the neutral axis

A2 = area of the cross-section below the neutral axis

A = A1 + A2 = total area of the cross-section

C1 = centroid of the area above the cross-section

C2 = centroid of the area below the cross-section

Tensile force: T = A2 y

Compressive force: C = A1 y

Equilibrium equation:

= 0 1 = 2 =
2

Thus, the plastic neural axis (PNA) divides the cross-section into two equal areas. In general, the

neural axis for plastic moment is different from that for linear elastic bending. For example, for a

trapezoidal cross-section such as shown in the figure, the PNA is slightly lower than the elastic

neutral axis (ENA).

Next, the plastic moment capacity is obtained by take the moments about the neutral axis

of the forces T and C.

= 1 + 2 = 1 1 + 2 2 = (1 + 2 ) =
2

(1 + 2 )
: =
2

Geometrically, the plastic modulus may be described as the absolute value of the first moment,

taken about the neutral axis, of the area of the cross-section above the neutral axis plus the

absolute value of the first moment of the area below the neutral axis.

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 The shape factor is defined as the ratio of the plastic moment capacity to the yield

moment:

= =

Example 1: Find the plastic modulus of a wide flange shape with the parameters shown in Figure

13.

Figure 13

= 2() + 2( ) (0.5)
2 2 2 2
2

= +
2

Contribution of Flanges Contribution of Web

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Example 2: Find the plastic modulus and the shape factor for the T shape shown in the figure.

Figure 14

= 4(0.5) + (3.5)(0.5) = 3.75 .2

3.75 15
4 = =
2 32

15 15 1 1 3.5 1
= (4) + 4 + (3.5)(0.5) + = 3.56 .3
32 64 32 64 2 32

3.5
4(0.5)(0.25) + (3.5)(0.5) 2 + 0.5
0 = = 1.18
3.75
1 1 1
= (1.18)3 (0.5) + (0.5)(4 1.18)3 + (3.5)(0.5)3 +
3 3 12

(3.5)(0.5) (1.18 0.25) = 5.56 .4

5.56
= = 4.71 .3
1.18

5.56
= = 1.97 .3
4 1.18

= = = 1.97 .3

My = S

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 3.56
= = = 1.81
1.97

1.7 Moment-Curvature Diagrams for Beams of Various Cross-Sections

Figure 15 Moment-curvature diagrams for beams of various cross-section

In Figure 15, curved lines represent the region where the beam is partially plastic and

partially elastic, known as contained plastic zone. Figure 16 shows an idealized bilinear moment-

curvature curve. Use of this idealization will facilitate the computation of deflections greatly.

Figure 16 Idealized bilinear moment-curvature curve

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 The equations of idealized bilinear moment-curvature curve are:

= <

1.8 Plastic Hinge

The concept of a plastic hinge is explained by considering the behavior of a simply-

supported beam under a concentrated load applied at the center of the span. Figure 19a shows a

partially yielded beam with maximum bending moment at the center greater than the yield

moment My and less than the plastic moment, Mp. Figures 19b and 19c show the corresponding

bending moment diagram (BMD) and curvature diagram, respectively. In Figure 20a the bending

moment at the center has reached the plastic moment capacity, Mp. Figure 20b shows the

corresponding BMD. At this point, the two segments of the beam will rotate relative to each

other and the beam cannot take any additional load; it turns into a failure mechanism, shown in

Figure 20c.

(a)

(b)

15
 (c)
Figure 17

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 18

16
 Figure 19

C = Deflection at the center just as the ultimate load Pu is attained (incipient collapse)

a) Deflected form of the beam just as the ultimate load Pu is attained, but before any rotation

has occurred at the plastic hinge

b) Deflected form of the beam after the central hinge has undergone rotation through an

arbitrary angle 2

c) Changes of deflection during plastic hinge rotation, that is, (b) (a)

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Experiment

(a)

(b)

Figure 20

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1.9 Plastic Reserve Strength and Redistribution of Moments and Stresses

(a)

(b) Bending Moment Diagram

(c) Deflected Beam and Failure Mechanism

Figure 21

Degree of static indeterminacy is 1 (neglecting axial force)

q L = P = total load on the beam

(1) Onset of yielding in the beam at supports A & B

(2) Onset of plastic limit state (ultimate load)

(3) Arbitrary deflected curved after continued deformation at the ultimate load

12
= =
12

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At Pu, the ratio of the end moment and central moment is equal to one. As a result of the formation of the plastic hinges, there has been

a redistribution of moments.

(a) (b) (c)

BMD for (a) BMD for (b) BMD for (c)

Figure 22

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Example 3: Statically Indeterminate Beam

(a) (d) Additional load beyond P1

(b) Combined BMD (e) BMD at incipient collapse

(c) BMD after the formation of (f) Failure Mechanism

the first plastic hinge (P=P1)

Figure 23

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1.10 Examples of Complete and Partial Collapse

Examples of complete mechanisms are shown in Figure 24 where N is the degree of static
indeterminacy.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

Figure 24

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Examples of incomplete or partial mechanisms are shown in Figure 25.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 25

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1.11 Assumptions of Simple Plastic Theory

1. The structure and the loads are in the same plane.

2. Each member of the structure has an axis of symmetry located in the plane of the structure.

3. The structure is made of ductile materials.

4. The stress-stress relationship is idealized as elastic-perfectly plastic material.

5. Stress-strain relation for compression is the same as for tension (the Bauschinger effect is

neglected).

6. When the bending moment at a cross section approaches the plastic moment capacity of that

section a plastic hinge will develop there which can rotate at constant moment.

7. The elastoplastic behavior of the longitudinal fibers of members in bending is assumed to be

the same as in simple tension or compression.

8. The loading on the structure is proportional, i.e., the ratios among different loads remain

constant during loading.

9. The deformations of the structure are small so that the equilibrium equations and virtual work

expressions can be written with respect to the undeformed geometry.

10. The effects of axial forces are negligible.

11. The effects of shear forces are negligible.

12. Local instability will not occur before the structure reaches the plastic limit state.

13. Lateral buckling will not occur.

14. Connections are designed for full continuity so that plastic hinges can develop at those

locations.

15. Fatigue is not a problem.

16. Brittle fracture is not a problem.

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1.12 Conditions of Elastic Versus Plastic Analysis

Conditions of elastic analysis are:

1. Equilibrium

2. Continuity

3. Limiting stress condition

Conditions of plastic analysis are:

1. Equilibrium

Summation of moments and forces is equal to zero.

2. Mechanism condition

Ultimate load is attained when a mechanism forms.

3. Plastic moment condition

Moment cannot be greater than the local plastic moment anywhere within the

structure

Theoretically, plastic hinges interrupt continuity. Requirement in plastic analysis: development

of a sufficient number of hinges in order to obtain a complete or partial mechanism.

1.13 Basic Theorems of Plastic Analysis

1.13.1 Static (Lower Bound) Theorem

A load calculated on the basis of an assumed equilibrium bending moment diagram in

which nowhere the moment is greater than the local plastic moment capacity is equal or less than

the true ultimate (plastic limit) load.

Consider the fixed-end beam shown in Figure 26. The bending moments at the support and

beam center must satisfy the following equilibrium equation:

+ =
8

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The ultimate load for this beam is obtained by substituting MA=MC=Mp:

= 16

Assume an arbitrary moment distribution satisfying the equilibrium equation as follows:

3
= =
4

Substituting these values in the equilibrium equation will yield:

3
+ =
4 8
7
=
4 8

= 14 < = 16

The full load capacity of the beam has not been used because the center moment is less than Mp.

Only when the load is increased to the point that a mechanism is formed will the correct value be

obtained (the BMD at failure is shown with dashed line in Figure 28).

Figure 26

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1.13.2 Kinematic (Upper Bound) Theorem

A load calculated on the basis of an assumed failure mechanism is equal or greater than the

true ultimate (plastic limit) load. Again consider the fixed-end beam shown in Figure 27. The

bending moments at the support and beam center must satisfy the same equilibrium equation:

Figure 27

This time assume an arbitrary mechanism with plastic hinges at supports A and B and the

quarter point D.

= 0

2 + =0
4 8 2 4

41
2 =
32

27
 64
+ = > = 16
3

Since Mp is exceeded from D to E, the load P based on the assumed mechanism is too

great and is in fact an upper bound to the actual ultimate load.

1.13.3 Uniqueness Theorem

A load calculated on the basis of an assumed equilibrium bending moment diagram which

also satisfies the conditions of plastic moment and mechanism is the true ultimate (plastic limit)

load.

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