CHAPTER

1 Introduction

A network or a system may be described as a collection of objects or elements

governed by certain laws. In electric network theory we concern ourselves with
four basic quantities: voltage, current, charge and flux. The study of interrelationship
among these variables and the physical laws governing their behaviour is the
subject of network theory. Network theory, in general, may be divided into three
components:
1. The mathematical modelling of electromagnetic phenomena.
2. The mathematical analysis of models of individual elements and systems,
and their signal processing capabilities.
3. The synthesis and design of systems and devices.
One of the most useful approaches in scientific analysis is that of modelling.
The primary reason for constructing models is that the physical systems are usually
too complex to be amenable to practical analysis. The complexity arises due to the
presence of non-essential factors and, hence, a model should extract only the
essential factors. In essence, we can state that the model should adequately describe
the physical behaviour of a system. The more detailed the model the more accurate
the predicted solutions. But then the analysis of such a model also becomes more
complicated. Hence, a model is always a compromise between the reality and
simplicity. Consider, for example, an ideal and the corresponding non-ideal model
of a coil shown in Fig. 1.1. The latter has three basic circuit elements, whereas the
former has only one element.

Fig. 1.1
2 NETWORK THEORY AND FILTER DESIGN

An electric network (amplifier, filter or equalizer circuits and the like) can be
modelled using certain lumped circuit elements. A basic problem faced by an
engineer is to design a network model to satisfy certain signal processing
specifications and then fabricate physical components which approximate the
idealized elements. A prelude to design (and synthesis) is analysis, which is mainly
an algebraic problem. A major part of this book deals with it.
In this chapter, we discuss the characterization and modelling of lumped circuit
elements. A network, consisting of lumped elements, exhibits certain basic
properties depending on the type of elements used which themselves are classified
according to these properties.

1.1 LUMPED CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

A large part of the network theory deals with the study of lumped circuits. Lumped
circuit is a result of interconnection of lumped elements. An element is classified
as a lumped element if its physical dimensions are small compared to the wavelength
corresponding to the highest frequency of operation of that element. For example,
a frequency of operation of 10 kHz (audio frequency) corresponds to a wavelength
of 30 km and any circuit built in a laboratory has negligible physical dimension
compared to this wavelength. If the frequency of operation is 1 GHz or 109 Hz
(microwave frequency), the wavelength is 0.3 m and a circuits dimension becomes
comparable to the wavelength. In the latter case, the lumped circuit approximation
is not valid.
For a lumped element the instantaneous current entering one terminal is equal
to the instantaneous current leaving the other terminal. A television antenna is not
a lumped element as the current at the foot of the antenna is not the same as that
at the tip of the antenna. If the two were the same, there would be no radiation.
The current through and the voltage across a lumped element are well defined
quantities and satisfy Kirchhoffs laws (Section 1.2). Typical lumped circuit
elements are resistors inductors, capacitors, voltage and current sources.
1.1.1 Resistors
An element which can be characterized by a curve in the vi plane is called a
resistor (v represents voltage and i represents current). A resistor is linear if it is
characterized by a straight line passing through the origin of the vi plane
[Fig. 1.2(a)]. A linear resistor is represented by the symbol shown in Fig. 1.2(b)
and is described mathematically by
i = Gv or v = Ri (1.1)
The constant G, called the conductance, represents the slope of the line in
Fig. 1.2(a). The constant R is the reciprocal of the slope and is called the resistance.
The practical unit of G is mho ( ) and R is ohm (). If R = 0, a linear resistor is
said to be a short circuit; and if R = , it is said to be an open circuit.
If a resistor is characterized by a vi curve other than a straight line through the
origin, it is called a non-linear resistor. Figure 1.3 shows the characteristics
(vi curves) of two non-linear resistors. Figure 1.3(a) corresponds to a tunnel
diode and it can be seen that the current is a single valued function of the voltage.
INTRODUCTION 3

i
i
+

R
v ohm
v

Slope = G = 1/R -

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.2

Such a resistor is said to be voltage-controlled. On the other hand, in the

characteristics of Fig. 1.3(b) (silicon-controlled rectifier) the voltage is a single
valued function of the current. Such a resistor is said to be current-controlled.
These non-linear resistors have the unique property that the slope of the vi
characteristic is negative in some range of voltage and current. Such devices are
often used as negative-resistance devices for these ranges. Evidently, non-linear

i i

v v

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.3

resistors cannot be characterized by a single value of resistance R, as in the case

of linear resistors. The value of the non-linear resistor depends on the operating
point and hence is characterized by incremental resistance which is defined as the
slope of the vi characteristic at the particular operating point. Non-linear resistors
find use in rectification, frequency multiplication, current and voltage limiting,
and many other electronic applications. Figure 1.4 shows the symbol and the
vi characteristic of a semiconductor diode (continuous curve). In analysing a
network with a non-linear element, such as a diode, one often resorts to piece-
wise linearization. The piece-wise linear model of a diode (broken line) is also
shown in Fig. 1.4.
A distinct property of a linear resistor not usually possessed by a non-linear
resistor is that the vi characteristic is symmetric with respect to the origin.
4 NETWORK THEORY AND FILTER DESIGN

+ i

Fig. 1.4

An element exhibiting such a symmetric property is called a bilateral element.

A physical consequence of this property is that for a bilateral element it is not
important to keep track of the two terminals of the element. All linear circuit
elements are bilateral. Not all non-linear elements are bilateral. The semiconductor
diode of Fig. 1.4 is not bilateral.

1.1.2 Independent Sources

Figure 1.5 shows an arbitrary network N excited by a source of electric energy. If
we change the network N, then v and i, in general, also change. If the prescribed
voltage is maintained, the source of energy is called a voltage source. On the other
hand, if the prescribed current is maintained it is called a current source.

+
+
v N
-
-

Fig. 1.5

A two-terminal element is called an ideal independent voltage source, if it is

capable of supplying any current at the same prescribed voltage, i.e. the voltage
across the source is independent of the current drawn from the source Figure 1.6
shows the symbol and the iv characteristic of a voltage source. If the voltage of
a voltage source is identically zero, the voltage source is effectively a short circuit.
The internal resistance of an ideal voltage source is considered to be zero. In the
physical world, there is no ideal independent voltage source.
A two-terminal element is called an ideal independent current source, if it is
capable of supplying a prescribed current at any voltage, i.e. the current drawn
from a current source is independent of the voltage across the source. Figure 1.7
INTRODUCTION 5

i v5
+

v5
-

Fig. 1.6
shows the symbol and the iv characteristic of a current source. If the current
drawn from a current source is identically zero, the current source is effectively an
open circuit. The internal shunt resistance of an ideal current source is considered
to be infinite. In the physical world, there is no ideal independent current source.

+ v

i5
v i5
i

Fig. 1.7

A dependent voltage (or current) source is a source the voltage (or current) of
which depends on another voltage (or current). A dependent or controlled source
is said to be voltage- (or current-) controlled if its terminal behaviour is controlled
by another voltage (or current). This leads to four different controlled sources
which are:
(a) Voltage-controlled voltage source.
(b) Voltage-controlled current source.
(c) Current-controlled voltage source.
(d) Current-controlled current source.
Some physical devices operate almost like ideal dependent sources. For example,
an operational amplifier is a voltage-controlled voltage source, a field-effect
transistor a voltage-controlled current source, and a common base transistor a
current-controlled current source.
1.1.3 Capacitors
An element which can be characterized by a curve in the vq plane is called a
capacitor (q represents the charge). A capacitor is linear if its characteristic is a
6 NETWORK THEORY AND FILTER DESIGN

straight line passing through the origin of the vq plane [Fig. 1.8(a)]. A linear
capacitor is represented by the symbol shown in Fig. 1.8(b) and is described
analytically by

q
i
+

Slope = C
v C
v

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.8

q = Cv (1.2)
where the constant C is the slope of the straight line, and is called the capacitance.
The unit of capacitance is farad. (A farad is a very big unit for measuring
capacitance; a more practical unit in a network being Fmicrofarads, or pF
picofarads). The current-charge relation being i = dq/dt, for a linear capacitor, we
have
dv( t )
i =C (1.3)
dt
If a capacitor is characterized by a vq curve other than a straight line through
the origin, it is called a non-linear capacitor. Figure 1.9 shows the characteristic of
a non-linear capacitor (metal-oxide semiconductor capacitor). A non-linear
capacitor is characterized by
q = f (v) (for a voltage-controlled capacitor)
and by v = (q) (for a charge-controlled capacitor)
For a voltage controlled capacitor the current through the capacitor is
dq (t ) df ( v ) dv ( t )
i (t ) = =
dt dv dt

dv( t )
or i (t ) = C ( v )
dt
where C (v) = df (v)/dv is called the incremental capacitance of the capacitor.
The instantaneous power entering an element is given by
p( t ) = v ( t ) i ( t )
INTRODUCTION 7

where v is the voltage in volts and i the current in amperes. Hence, the energy in
the element from t0 to t is
t
W (t 0 , t ) = v (t ) i ( t ) d t (1.4)
t0

Fig. 1.9

Let a capacitance be characterized by

v = v ( q ) (1.5)
The energy in the capacitor, from eqns. 1.4 and 1.5, is
t
W ( t 0 , t ) = v( t ) i ( t ) d t
t0

q (t )
= v (q ) dq
q (t 0 )

If the initial charge on the capacitors, q(t0), is zero, then the energy stored in the
capacitor is
q(t )
W (t ) = v ( q )( dq )
0
For a linear capacitor (q = Cv) it reduces to
1 q 2 (t ) 1 2
W (t ) = = Cv (t ) (1.6)
2 C 2

1.1.4 Inductors
An element which can be characterized by a curve in the i plane is called an
inductor ( represents the flux). An inductor is called a linear inductor if its
characteristic is a straight line passing through the origin of the i plane
(Fig. 1.10). A linear inductor is represented by the symbol shown in Fig. 1.10(b)
8 NETWORK THEORY AND FILTER DESIGN

and is described analytically by

= Li (1.7)
where the constant L is the slope of the straight line and is called the inductance.
The unit of inductance is henry. (Since an inductance of one henry is quite large,
typical values of inductors are given is mHmillihenrys.) The voltage flux linkage
relation being v = d/dt for a linear inductor, we have
di ( t )
v=L (1.8)
dt

f i
+

Slope = L v L
i

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.10

If an inductor is characterized by a i curve other than a straight line through

the origin, it is called a non-linear inductor. A non-linear inductor is characterized
by
= f (i) (for a current-controlled inductor)
and by i = () (for a flux-controlled inductor)
For a current-controlled inductor the voltage across the inductor is
d f(t ) df (i ) di ( t )
v(t ) = =
dt dt dt

di (t )
or v (t ) = L (i )
dt

df (i )
where L (i ) = is called the incremental inductance.
di
Non-linear inductors can be used in frequency conversion, memory and storage.
A special type of nonlinear inductor, such as a ferromagnetic-core inductor,
has a characteristic that exhibits the phenomenon of hysteresis (Fig. 1.11).
Let an inductor be characterized by

i = i ( f) (1.9)
INTRODUCTION 9

The energy in the inductor, from eqns. 1.4 and 1.9, is

t
W (t 0 , t ) = v ( t ) i ( t ) d t
t0

f (t )
= i ( f) d f
f (t 0 )

Fig. 1.11

If the initial flux, (t0), is zero, then the energy stored in the inductor is
f (t )
W (t ) = i ( f) d f
0

For a linear inductor ( = Li) this reduces to

1 f 2 (t ) 1 2
W (t ) = = Li (t ) (1.10)
2 L 2

1.2 KIRCHHOFFS LAWS

Figure 1.12 shows the model of an electric network (from here on we use the word
network for its model). A basic problem in network theory is to analyse the
network and find the voltages across and the currents through all the elements of
the network. Certain physical laws are fundamental to the algebraic formulation
of such a problem. Two of the fundamental physical laws in network theory are
the Kirchhoffs current and voltage laws. If we consider the junction points A
and B of the network we can write
at A : i = iC1 + iL2

at B : iL2 = iC2
10 NETWORK THEORY AND FILTER DESIGN

that is, the current flowing towards a junction is equal to the total current flowing
away from the junction. This is Kirchhoffs current law (KCL). More formally, the

l2 il
i A 2 B

+ iC + vl 2 -
1
iC
2

+ +
C1 C2
v1
vC vC
1 2

- -
-
C

Fig. 1.12

KCL can be stated thus: The algebraic sum of all instantaneous currents entering
or leaving a junction is zero.
If we consider the closed paths consisting of the source and capacitor C1 (say
path 1) and the capacitors C1, C2 and the inductor L2 (say path 2) we can write
path 1: v1 = vC1
path 2: vC1 = vl2 + vC2
where v1, vC1 , vC2 and vl2 are all voltage drops, i.e. the voltage drop between any
two junctions is independent of the path between the junctions. This is Kirchhoffs
voltage law (KVL). More formally, KVL states: The algebraic sum of all voltage
drops or rises in a closed path is zero.
The KCL imposes linear constraints on the currents through the elements whereas
the KVL imposes linear constraints on the voltage drops across the elements.
Together, these two laws imply conservation of energy (Sec. 5.4).

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF NETWORKS

The overall behaviour of an electrical network can be predicted by the constituent
elements and their interconnection. The behaviour of the network, considered as
a black box, leads to a number of classifications like linear, nonlinear; time-
invariant and time-variant; passive, active.
(i) Linear and Non-linear networks: In a linear network, the relationship
between the voltage and current is described by a linear equation. Consider two
networks N1 and N2 as shown in Fig. 1.13(a) and (b) respectively. Network (a) is
made up of a linear resistor R, while (b) is made up of a semi-conductor diode and
linear resistor R. Let the cut-in voltage of the diode be 0.6 volt. In network
(a) current I1 is given by V/R and exists for all values of V. In network (b) if V is
less than 0.6 volt the current I2 is zero and for voltages higher than 0.6 volts I2 is
given by (V 0.6)/(R + RF), where RF is the forward resistance of the diode.
Obviously, in network (a) the current response is linear in contrast to that in (b).