Thermodynamics

MTX 220 Formules

Chapter 2 Concepts & Definitions

Formule Units

Pressure Pa
F
P=
A

Units
1 Pa = 1 N / m2

1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 Mpa

1 atm = 101325 Pa

Specific Volume
V m3 / kg
v=
m

Density
kg / m3
m 1
= =
V v

Static Pressure Variation Pa

P = gh = , = +

Absolute Temperature
T ( K ) = T (C ) + 273.15

Chapter 3 Properties of a Pure Substance

Formule Units
Quality (vapour mass fraction)
mvapor
x=
mtot

(Liquid mass fraction)

mliquid
1 x =
mtot

Specific Volume
m3 / kg
v = v f + xv fg

Average Specific Volume (only two phase

m3 / kg
v = (1 x )v f + xvg
mixture)

Ideal gas law

P << Pc T << Tc Z =1

Equations
Pv = RT PV = mRT = nRT

Universal Gas Constant

R = 8.3145 kJ / kmol K

Gas Constant = molekulre mass

kJ / kg K
R M
R=
M

Compressibility Factor
Pv = ZRT
Z
Reduced Properties ,
P T
Pr = Tr =
Pc Tc

Chapter 4 Work & Heat

Formule Units
Displacement Work 2
W = Fdx = PdV
2 J
1 1

Integration 2
W = PdV = P( V2 V1 ) J
1

Specific Work (work per unit mass)

J / kg
W
w=
m

Power (rate of work)

W&= FV = PV&= T W

Velocity
V = r rad / s

Torque
T = Fr Nm

Polytropic Process
( n 1) PV n = Const = PV
1 1 = PV
n
2 2
n

Pv n = C

Polytropic Exponent
ln 2
P
P1
n=
ln 1
V
V2

n=1
PV = Const = PV
1 1 =P
2 V2

Polytropic Process Work

1 J
W2 =
1 2 2 PV
(PV 1 1) n 1
1 n

n=1
V2 J
W2 = PV
2 2 ln
1
V1

Adiabatic Process
Q=0
Conduction Heat Transfer , =conductivity
W
dT k
Q&= kA
dx

Convection Heat Transfer , =convection coefficient

W
Q&= hAT h

Radiation Heat Transfer

Q&= A(Ts4 Tamb
4
) W

Terminology
= heat
Q

= heat transferred during the process between state 1 and state 2

1 Q2

= rate of heat transfer

Q&

= work
W

= work done during the change from state 1 to state 2

W2
1

= rate of work = Power. 1 W=1 J/s

W&

Chapter 5 The First Law of Thermodynamics

Formule Units
Total Energy
E = U + KE + PE dE = dU+ d (KE +) d (PE ) J

Energy
dE = Q W E2 E1 =1 Q2 1 W2 J

Kinetic Energy
KE = 0.5mV 2
J

Potential Energy
PE = mgZ PE2 PE1 = mg( Z2 Z1) J

Internal Energy
U = U liq + U vap mu = mliq u f + mvap ug

Specific Internal Energy

u = (1 x)u f + xu g kJ / kg
of
Saturated Steam u = u f + xu fg
(two-phase mass
average)
Total Energy
m(V22 V12 ) J
U 2 U1 + + mg( Z2 Z1) = 1 Q2 1W2
2

Specific Energy
e = u + 0.5V 2 + gZ

Enthalpy
H = U + PV

Specific Enthalpy
h = u + Pv kJ / kg

For Ideal Gasses

Pv = RT and u = f( T)

Enthalpy
h = u + Pv = u + RT

R Constant
u = f ( t) h = f ( T )

Specific Enthalpy for

h = (1 x )h f + xhg kJ / kg
Saturation State
(two-phase mass h = h f + xh fg
average)
Specific Heat at
1 Q 1 U u
Constant Volume Cv = = =
m T v m T v T v

(ue ui ) = Cv (Te Ti )

Specific Heat at
1 Q 1 H h
Constant Pressure Cp = = =
m T p m T p T p

(he hi ) =C p (Te Ti )

Solids & Liquids Incompressible, so v=constant

(Tables A.3 & A.4)

C = Cc = Cp

u2 u1 = C (T2 T1)

h2 h1 = u2 u1 + v( P2 P1)

Ideal Gas
h = u + Pv = u + RT

u2 u1 Cv ( T2 T1)

h2 h1 C p (T2 T1 )

Energy Rate
E&= Q& W& ( rate = +in out)

E2 E1 = 1 Q2 1W2 ( change = +in out)

Chapter 6 First-Law Analysis for A Control Volume
Formule Units

Volume Flow Rate (using average velocity)

V&= V dA = AV

Mass Flow Rate (using average values)

kg / s
V
m&= VdA = AV = A
v

Power
W
W&= mC
& p VT W&= mC
& v VT &
m&= V
v

Flow Work Rate

W&flow = PV&= mPv
&

Flow Direction From higher P to lower P unless significant KE or PE

Total
Enthalpy htot = h + 1 V 2 + gZ
2

Instantaneous
Process
Continuity
Equation
m&C .V . = m&i m&e

Energy First Law

Equation E&C .V . = Q&C .V . W&C .V . + &
mi htot i &
me htot e

Q&+ m&i (hi + 1 V 2+ gZ i )=

2
dE
dt
(
+ m&e he+ 1 V 2+ gZe W &
2 )
Steady State A steady-state has no storage effects, with all properties
constant with time
Process
No Storage
m&C .V . = 0, E&C .V . = 0

Continuity (in = out)

Equation
m& = m&
i e
 Energy (in = out) First Law
Equation Q&C .V . + m & +m
&i htot i = WC .V .
&e htot e

(
Q&+ m&i (hi + 1 V 2 + gZ i ) = W&+ m&e h e+ 1 V 2+ gZ e
2 2 )
Specific
kJ / kg
Heat Q&
Transfer q = C .V .
m&

Specific
W&C .V . kJ / kg
Work w=
m&

SS Single (in = out)

Flow Eq. q + htot i = w + htot e

Transient Process Change in mass (storage) such as filling or emptying of a

container.

Continuity
Equation
m2 m1 = mi me

Energy
Equation
E2 E1 = QC V. WC V. . + mi htot i me htot e

( ) (
E2 E1 = m2 u2 + 1 V22 + gZ2 m1 u1 +1 V12 +gZ1
2 2 )

( ) ( )

QC .V + mi htot i = me htot e + m2 u2 + 1 V2 2 + gZ2 m1 u1 + 1 V2 2 + gZ1 W
2 2 C .V . C .V .

Chapter 7 The Second Law of Thermodynamics

Formule Units

All can also be rates

W, Q W&, Q&
Heat Engine
WHE = QH QL

Thermal
WHE Q
efficiency HE = = 1 L
QH QH

Carnot Cycle
QL T
Thermal = 1 = 1 L
QH TH

Real Heat
WHE T
Engine HE = Carnot HE = 1 L
QH TH

Heat Pump
WHP = QH QL

Coefficient
QH QH
of =
HP =
Performance
WHP QH QL

Carnot Cycle
QH TH
=
HP =
QH QL TH TL

Real Heat
QH TH
Pump HP = Carnot HP =
WHP TH TL

Refrigerator
WREF = QH QL

Coefficient
QL QL
of REF = =
Performance
WREF QH QL

Carnot Cycle
QL TL
= =
QH QL TH TL
 Real
QL TL
Refrigerator REF = Carnot REF =
WREF TH TL

Absolute Temp.
TL QL
=
TH QH

Chapter 8 Entropy
Formule Units

Inequality of Clausis
Q
T
0

Entropy
Q kJ / kgK
dS
T rev

Change of Entropy
Q
2 kJ / kgK
S 2 S1 =
1
T rev

Specific Entropy
s = (1 x ) s f + xsg kJ / kgK

s = s f + xs fg

Entropy Change
 Carnot Cycle Isothermal Heat Transfer:
2
1 Q
S 2 S1 =
TH 1
Q = 1 2
TH

Reversible Adiabatic (Isentropic Process):

Q
dS =
T rev

Reversible Isothermal Process:

Q
4
3 Q4
S 4 S3 = =
3
T rev TL

Reversible Adiabatic (Isentropic Process): Entropy

decrease in

process 3-4 = the entropy increase

in process 1-2.

Reversible
1 Q
2 2
1 q h
Heat-Transfer
Process
s2 s1 = s fg = =
m 1 T rev mT 1
Q = 1 2 = fg
T T

Gibbs Equations
Tds = du + Pdv

Tds = dh vdP

Entropy Generation
Q
dS = + Sgen
T

Wirr = PdV T Sgen

2 2
Q
S 2 S1 = dS = + 1 S2 gen
1 1
T

Entropy Balance Eq.

VEntropy = + in out + gen
Principle of the
Increase of Entropy
dSnet = dSc. m. + dSsurr = S gen 0

Entropy Change

Solids &
Liquids T2
s2 s1 = c ln
T1

Reversible Process:
dsgen = 0

Adiabatic Process:
dq = 0

Ideal Gas Constant Volume:

2
dT v
s2 s1 = Cv0 + R ln 2
T v1
1

Constant Pressure:
2
dT P
s2 s1 = Cp0 R ln 2
T P1
1

Constant Specific Heat:

T2 v2
s2 s1 = Cv0 ln + R ln
T1 v1

T2 P2
s2 s1 = Cp0 ln R ln
T1 P1

Standard Entropy T
C p0 kJ / kgK
s =
0
T dT
T0
T

Change in Standard
kJ / kgK
Entropy s2 s1 = ( sT02 sT01 ) R ln P2
P1
Ideal Gas Undergoing
an Isentropic Process
s2 s1 = 0 = Cp0 ln T2 R ln P2
R

T1 P1 T P Cp 0
2 = 2
T1 P1

but , = ratio of
R C Cv 0 k 1 C p0
= p0 = k=
C p0 C p0 k Cv 0

specific heats

k 1 k
T v P2 v 1
2 = 1 , =
T1 v 2 P1 v 2

Special case of polytropic process where k = n:

Pv k = const

Reversible Polytropic
PV n = const = PV
1 1 = PV
n n
Process for Ideal Gas 2 2

n n 1 n1
P V T2 P2 n
V
2 = 1 , = = 1
P1 V2 T1 P1 V2

Work 2 2
dV PV PV mR (T2 T1 )
1W2 = PdV = const = 2 2 1 1=
1 1
V n
1 n 1 n

Values for n Isobaric process:

Isothermal Process:

Isentropic Process:
 Isochronic Process:
n = , v = const

Chapter 9 Second-Law Analysis for a Control Volume

Formule Unit
s

2nd Law Expressed as a

dSc.m. Q&
Change of Entropy = + S&gen
dt T

Entropy Balance Eq.

rate of change = + in out + generation

dSC .V . &
Q
= m&i si m&e se + C .V . +S&gen
dt T

where
SC .V . = sdV = mc.v.s = m As A + m Bs B + ...

and
S&gen = s&gen dV = S&gen .A + S&
gen .B + ...

Steady State Process

dSC .V . Q&C .V . &
dt
=0 m&e se m&i si = C .V . T
+ Sgen

Continuity eq.
m&i = m&e = m& Q&C .V . &
m&( se si ) = + Sgen
C .V . T
 Adiabatic
se = si + sgen si
process

Transient Process
d Q&
( ms ) C .V . = m&i si m&e se + C.V . + S&gen
dt T

Q&C .V .
t
( m2 s2 m1 s1 ) C .V . = mi si me se + T
dt + 1 S&
2 gen
0

Reversible Steady State

Process
If Process
Reversible & se = si
Adiabatic

e
he hi = vdP
i

Vi 2 Ve 2
w = ( hi he ) + + g ( Zi Ze )
2
e
Vi 2 Ve 2
= vdP + + g ( Zi Ze )
i
2

If Process is
1 Q
Reversible and m&( se si ) =
T C .V .
Q&C .V . = C .V .
T
Isothermal

or
Q&C .V .
e

T ( se si ) = = q T ( se si ) = ( he hi ) vdP
m& i

Incompressible Bernoulli Eq.

Fluid V Vi
2 2
v ( Pe Pi ) + e
+ g ( Ze Z i) = 0
2
 Reversible e
Polytropic w = vdP and Pv n = const = C n
Process i

for Ideal Gas

e e
dP
w = vdP = C 1
i i P n

n nR
= ( Pe ve Pv
i i) = ( Te Ti )
n 1 n 1

Isothermal e e
dP Pe
Process (n=1) w = vdP = C = Pv
i i ln
i i
P Pi

Principle of the
dSnet dS C.V . dS surr
Increase of Entropy = + = S&gen 0
dt dt dt

Efficiency

Turbine Turbine work is out

wa hi he
= =
ws hi hes

Compressor Compressor work is in

(Pump) ws hi hes
= =
wa hi he

Cooled
Compressor wT
=
w

Nozzle Kinetic energy is out

1 V2
= 2 2
e

1 V
2 es