ARE1024

Building Equipment and System Design

HANYANG UNIVERSITY, ERICA CAMPUS

School of Architecture and Architectural Engineering

3rd year undergraduate

Prof. Kyoo Dong Song, Ph.D.

Tel: (031)400-5135
E-mail: kdsong@hanyang.ac.kr
http://aesl.hanyang.ac.kr

Reference Books and Resources

 CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Vernacular versus Modern Architecture

1.2 The Impact of Buildings on Global Environment
1.3 The Scope of Building M/E Systems
1.4 The Impact on Space Planning
1.5 The Impact on Architectural Design
1.6 The Impact on Construction Cost
1.7 The Impact on High-rise Building Design
1.8 Energy and Energy Conversion
1.9 Building Form and HVAC Load

1.1 Vernacular vs Modern Architecture

 New York City, NY, U.S.A.

1.1.1 Vernacular Architecture

The term vernacular is derived from the Latin vernaculus, meaning "domestic, native,
indigenous"; from verna, meaning "native slave" or "home-born slave".

Vernacular architecture is a term used to categorize methods of construction which use

locally available resources and traditions to address local needs and circumstances. Vernacular
architecture tends to evolve over time to reflect the environmental, cultural and historical
context in which it exists. It has often been dismissed as crude and unrefined, but also has
proponents who highlight its importance in current design.

A House in Nepal A House in Korea

1.1.2 Modern Buildings
Modern buildings are no longer just shelters from rain, wind, snow, sun, or other harsh conditions of
nature. Rather, they are built to create better, more consistent, more productive environments in which
to work and to live.

Modern buildings mostly depend on the mechanical and electrical systems for heating, cooling and
ventilation.

Modern buildings consume more water than before.

John Hancock Center, Chicago, IL, U.S.A.

More than 60% of energy is consumed for HEATING, COOLING, VENTILATION

and LIGHTING systems in commercial buildings.
1.2 The Impact of Buildings on Global Environment
Ozone depletion
Resource depletion (energy and material)
Environmental pollution
Global warming

1.2.1 All Pollutants Produced From Energy Conversion (Combustion)

The amount of each air pollutant can easily be calculated by the chemical content of a fuel.
 1.2.2 Example

- A large office building with 55,742 gross floor area.

- Average electric power demand for heating, air conditioning, lighting , plumbing, fire protection, elevator,
and other equipment is 86W/ .
- Building operates about 4000 hours a year.

- The annual electric energy consumed:

55742 4000 hr/yr 86W/ 19,200,000kWh/yr

- Assuming that the utilitys power-generating plants is coal-fired

Carbon dioxide(CO2): 19,200,000 1090g = 20,928,000kg/yr

Sulfur dioxide (SO2): 19,200,000 9.0g = 172,800kg/yr
Oxides of nitrogen(NOx): 19,200,000 4.4g = 84,480kg/yr

If a 10% energy conservation can be achieved through better design and controls for this
building then the CO2 emission alone will be reduced by 2,092,800kg/yr

1.3 The Scope of Building M/E Systems

The complexity of M/E systems varies with:

living standards of the society
climatic conditions of the region
occupancy and quality of the building

Categories of Building M/E systems:

Mechanical system
Electrical system
Building Operation Systems
 Mechanical Systems

HVAC: Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning

Site utilities: Water supply, storm-water drainage, sanitary disposal, gas supply
Plumbing: Water distribution, water treatment, sanitary facilities
Fire protection: Water supply, standpipe, fire and smoke detection, automatic
sprinklers, annunciation

Electrical Systems

Electrical power: Normal, standby, and emergency power supply and distribution
Lighting: Interior, exterior, and emergency lighting
Auxiliary: Telephone, signal, data, audio/video, sound, fire alarm, security systems

Building Operation Systems

Transportation: Elevators, escalators, moving walk-ways

Processing: Production, food service
Automation: Environmental controls, management

1.4 The Impact on Space Planning

The floor area for M/E systems depends on the occupancy, climatic conditions,
living standards, and quality and general architectural design of the building.

The M/E space affects the gross floor area, footprint(the size and shape of the
buildings ground floor), floor-to-floor height, geometry, and architectural expression.

Space planning for M/E systems is one of the most challenging and least developed
procedures in the architectural design process.

Central equipment used for large buildings is usually bulky and tall, requiring floor-
to-floor heights of 1.5 to 2 times the normal height
The duct work, lighting, and wiring of a commercial building usually require between
60 90 cm of ceiling cavity.
1.5 The Impact on Architectural Design
1.5.1 Early Building Forms

Prior to the development of reliable and affordable M/E systems, buildings designed for
human occupancy followed a simple rule: every room must have exterior operable
windows for daylight and natural ventilation.
Most buildings: L-, U-, or H-shaped, having either single or double-loaded
corridors
Deep block-type buildings: open interior court for access to daylight and outside
air.

1.5.2 Building Height versus Space Utilization

Buildings may be classified as low-rise, high-rise, and a number of other categories.

Low-rise building
less than 7 stories or lower than 75ft(3.5m) from street level
reached by conventional fire-truck ladders
modern firefighting equipment, that definition is no longer valid, but still
used by most building codes as the basis for classifying buildings
High-rise building: buildings from 7 to 29 stories
Super high-rise building: 30 to 50 stories
Skyscraper: 51 stories upward
As the height of the building increases, more floor space is required for stairs,
structural elements, elevators, lobbies, M/E system shafts, etc., causing
reduction in the net usable space on the floor
 Source: Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings, 10th Ed., p.380

1.5.3 Building Efficiency Factors

Factors used to evaluate the effectiveness of the building design:

Net-to-gross ratio (NGR)

Floor-efficiency ratio (FER)

1) Net-to-Gross Ratio(NGR)

NGR 100 NFA / GFA

Where NFA= net floor area, [m2]
GFA=gross floor area [m2]

NFA is the floor area that can be used by the occupants, excluding the area taken by stairs,
circulation space, elevators, lobbies, structural columns, M/E equipment and shafts.

The NGR usually ranges from 60 to 90 percent. The NGR of highly technical buildings,
such as research laboratories, computer centers, and hospitals may even be below 50
percent.

The objective in space planning is to improve the NGR while maintaining a proper
balance between occupants comfort and productivity, M/E system performance, and
initial and operating costs.

2) Floor-Efficiency Ratio(FER)
FER is used for office buildings to calculate the rentable space on typical rental floors.

FER 100 ( NRA / GFA)

where, NRA=net rentable area[m2]

GFA= Gross floor area [m2]

Normally, an FER of 85% is

considered an excellent design.
1.5.4 Geometric Factors
Factors used to evaluate economics and energy-effectiveness relative to building geometry
and form:
VSR: volume-to-surface ratio
APR: area-to-perimeter ratio

1) Volume-to-Surface Ratio

VSR = V / S

where, V=volume of building[m3]

S=total exterior surface of building[m2]

To be cost-effective and energy efficient, the building geometry should minimize exterior
surfaces (walls and roof) and maximize interior volume (floor area x height).
The optimum VSR of a building is either a semispherical dome with diminishing upper floor
areas or a semicubical building with equal floor areas and height half its base dimension.

Any building with height greater than half its base dimension is less energy efficient and
more costly to build than on with height less than or equal to half its base dimension.

The VSR can also be used to evaluate the optimum size of buildings by comparing smaller
numbers of large buildings and larger numbers of small buildings. The answer is in favor of
the larger buildings.

2) Area-to-Perimeter Ratio(APR)

The APR is related to aspect ratio(AR) of the building, defined as the length(longer
dimension) divided by the width of the building.
APR is the typical floor area divided by the perimeter length of the floor
(most upper floors are substantially the same)

APR A / P
Where, A= typical or representative floor area of building [m2]
P=linear dimension of perimeter of a typical or representative floor [m]

The larger the APR, the higher the energy efficiency

A round or square building should have the optimum APR

A rectangular building with
maximum daylight and minimum
solar heat gain in the cooling
season could override the APR
factors.

The final design will depend on a

computer simulation of the HVAC
and lighting load on an hour-by-
hour basis.

Fig. 1-9 Comparison of the APR values of

several geometric configurations.

1.5.5 Impact on Building Exterior Design

The Major influence of M/E systems on modern architecture has been not only in
building height but in architectural style, faade, form, and expression.

Pompidou Center, Paris, France

Designed by Renzo Piano and Richard Rogers

Opened on January 31, 1977
Most modern buildings are influenced by the presence of M/E systems, as evidenced by
the following architectural design styles:

Penthouse design
Flattop design
Intermediate floor bands design
Signature design

Sears Tower, Chicago, IL, U.S.A. Pierre Laclede Center, St. Louis
U.S.A.
 MetLife Building (59 stories), New York, NY, U.S.A.
(Originally Pan Am Building)

Penthouse design:
designed to enclose the elevator equipment and elevator overtravel, cooling towers,
exhaust fans, and other equipment

Flattop design:
designed to house central M/E equipment and to conceal upper-level M/E equipment
(cooling tower, air-handling units, and elevator equipment)

Intermediate floor bands design:

High-rise buildings of over 30 stories are usually designed with one or more
intermediate floors to house central M/E equipment.

Signature design:
Postmodern design in the 1990s for individuality and sculpture-type rooftops.
Cooling towers must be concealed by locating at or near the ground level or may be
concealed within the building.
1.6 The Impact on Construction Cost
1.6.1 Impact of Building Height on Construction Cost

A taller building requires more time and hoisting equipment and complicated scheduling to
raise the material to the upper floors

For a building taller than 10stories, the unit cost per floor area increase about 5 to 15% for
the next 5stories and another 10 to 15% for each additional 5 floors.

For example, if the unit cost for a 10-story building is $150/sq ft, then the cost for a 25-
story building, using 10 percent as the incremental cost, can be estimated as follows:

Average unit cost=[($150 x 10)+(165 x 5)+(182 x 5)+($200 x 5)] / 25 = $173/sq ft

1.6.2 Impact of M/E Systems on Construction Cost

The impact of M/E systems on construction cost varies depending on:

the type of building

standard of living
architectural design
M/E systems selected
 1.6.3 Impact on Operating Costs

The operating cost includes the cost of routine maintenance, repairs, replacements, and
utilities.
Most architectural and structural components of a building(except for roof) are normally
long-lasting and do not need frequent replacement.
Most M/E systems not only consume energy but also require ongoing maintenance and
repair.
Over a life cycle, the cost of owning and operating M/E systems may outweigh the initial
capital investment of the entire building.
Therefore, efficient M/E systems and management are very important.

1.7 The Impact on High-rise Building Design

In high-rise building design, there is no single solution to a problem.

Two buildings of similar size and configuration located on different sites may
favor different M/E systems and central plant location, depending upon climate
and the economic and cultural background of a country.

M/E system takes considerable space

- The average M/E floor space in an office building
is about 4% of the total building gross floor area

e.g. 1) for 25stories, 500,000 ft2 (46,451m2) gross

floor area, 20,000ft2 (1,858m2) should be initially
allocated as M/E equipment space.

e.g. 2) Two floors are needed for M/E equipment in a

50-story building, and four floors in a 100-story
building.

Optimum solutions are a result of close

coordination between the architect and the
M/E engineers.
1.7.1 Factors affecting the location of a central plant
Accessibility for loading/ unloading equipment
Proximity to the outside air supply and exhaust air discharge
Adequacy of floor height
Interference with a convenient parking plan
Safety. equipment such as boilers, chillers, and liquid-filled transformers should be
confined within fireproof walls.
Proximity of system components, such as the chiller and the condenser, and the
cooling towers.
Ease of maintenance.
Vibration and noise from equipment
Aesthetics

Source: Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings, 10th Ed., p.372
 Reasons favoring upper or lower central plant locations

1.8 Energy and Energy Conversion

1.8.1 Common Energy Sources

All buildings require electrical power.

HVAC systems also require fuel for heating and cooling.

1.8.2 Efficiency of Energy Conversion Processes

Energy exists in the form of heat, light, chemical, sound, mechanical, and nuclear
energy.

Energy can be neither created nor destroyed but can be converted from on form to
another.

Energy conversion is never 100% efficient.

The loss is usually in the form of low-level(temperature) heat, which is not readily
useful.
 1) Common Energy Sources and Conversion Efficiencies

2) Energy Conversion Efficiencies of the Heating Process

3) Electric Heat Pump (EHP)

The electric heat pump utilizes electrical energy to transport heat energy from the building
exterior to the building interior

The process is not an energy conversion process but rather a transfer process
1.9 Building Form and HVAC Load

Internal Load Dominated (ILD) Buildings

Thicker and taller buildings have more floor space away from climate
influences; being electrically lit rather than daylit, they generate heat and need
cooling all year.

Skin Load Dominated (SLD) Buildings

Thin buildings, in which nearly all spaces have an exterior wall, need heating
in cold weather and cooling in hot weather; electric lights by day are largely
unnecessary.

1) Internal-Load-Dominated Buildings

These buildings typically have energy-use patterns dominated by heat gains from lighting,
equipment, and people and have limited opportunities for the use of on-site or natural
energy sources.

Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings 10th Ed., John Wiley & Sons Inc., p.213
Internal-Load-Dominated Buildings Continued

Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings 10th Ed., John Wiley & Sons Inc., p.213

Zoning of Internal-Load-Dominated
Buildings

Perimeter zones (within 10m from

windows):

At least four zones according to

the window orientations.
These zones are mostly affected
by the outdoor conditions, such as
air temperature and solar
radiation.
Require heating in winter and
cooling in summer.

Interior zone:

This zone is mostly affected by

the heat generated by the lighting
fixtures, office equipment and
people.
May require cooling all year.
2) Skin-Load-Dominated Buildings

These buildings typically have energy-use patterns dominated by heat gains and losses
through the building envelope with opportunities for the use of on-site or natural energy
source.

Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings 10th Ed., John Wiley & Sons Inc., p.214

ASSIGNMENT-1 Global Warming Issue

Find data and information about global warming issue from books, news media and
internet web sites. The information should include types of GHGs(green house gases),
mechanism of infrared absorption by the GHGs, expected consequences of global
warming, international protocols, effective solutions to resolve the problems, and
MORE.

Prepare your report in English using Powerpoint program, and the number of slides
should be exactly eleven(11) including a cover page for title and student name.

Include as many pictures and graphs as possible, and very long sentences are not
recommended.

This is a personal project (NOT a group project) and the work period is ONE WEEK.

Submit a copy of printed report.