. .,_.,.

I C1 4 z.:. ~:J..,~vi;>
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTE~IOR ( -1
HAROLD L. ICKES, SecretarY

BUREAU OF MINES
R. R. SAYERS, Director
JJ[-7'1

Technical Paper 635

DESIGN OF AIR-BLAST METER AND

CALIBRATING EQUIPMENT

By

A. T. IRELAND

''"

UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON : 1942

- - - -------- --------
Price 10 cents
For 1.ale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C.

www.ARblast.osmre~gov

1(12.937.2169 /lll2.937,3012 KELtSCHlAGER@OSMRE.G,OV

 FOREWORD
For s('Ycral YcarR the BurC'a\1 nf I\liu(':-< has comlnct<'d research on seismic. wnw
<'manatillg frn;n quarr_v bla:->t:-: nnd tlwir dftct::; on JH'arby rC'sidential st.rur111n-~
At nJ.I'iow.: times t.hc osei\Jograph i'PCordcd a s<'cund Yibration followinf! rlw
:-:Pismi(' wrtY<'. lllY<'St-iga(ion ::hmnd thP arriyuJ timr of thest' rll.'lay<'d waw:< !P
lw coincid('nt with nr close to thl' spc('(l of :o;ounc!. They wp_n thcrf'fon :~:<:-llliWd
f(IIW r<eorrb of rlishnbn.JH't'S rausNI hY air Yibratinns. Foreword _____ _
~1\~sf$ W<'l'<' mad{' in whirh Pxp\o:-::iy( charges wert dC'tonat<'d in t.ll<' air \\ithnt!l ( )hj{'Ct of this p:
contact- with tlw ground. :\n sPismir wan was prod.llC'('cl\Jy this type of lla~.l. Acknowlcdgmer
hut, \d1cn :>Pt up in house's, t.lw ,..;cismolll<'tt'l"H rcrunl<'ddh:turlmllcC's,anrl !lw!ii!P
nf arrinl.l again rlosf'ly npproximntPd tlu -"]Wed of .-::mmd. St.ndy of rPla.t.f'i
It j(': C"cmmJnn \;:nnwlcctp:c that. IHIHI-cnppPd !"hntl' (','lll!"(' air di.-:turbamc:-: n~1111 Air-blast meter
h1g in tlw !'<tt.tling nf window :::a.-::11 nr lnnsc p:tl\C'I' of glnR:->. Tc,.::t.-: mnck 11ith thl> Hist.ory __ _
kind nf h\a.-:ting a.l~n ga.\'<' no n'Pmd of n. ,.:pismiP \\'il\'C' hut dicl indiC"Htl' di.-:tnrlaw' Construction
from :u1 a-ir wan. Characteri:-:tic
A stncly of phot.ngraphic ncnnb em whi('h Yihr~ltinnR from both SC'i.-:mic ~uu! :111 Circuit __ ----
wnns 1nn ncorckd Cl('{'~l ...;innnll~ .dw1n'd !J:l'('fi!Pr (\isplac<'HI<'Ht from tlw !:111'
froB\ tlw :-::um hln:;t.
It \l'fl:; fr('ql!('ntly oh.~<'l'YPcl that no complnint:-: Wl'H' rec<ind from l'l'~id1 HI
JH~Ill' a quarry if n.tmnsph('ric PmHlition::; IYC]'(' Rueh that thP quarry bln:-:1 mL~ Jud
!ward. Connr~<'ly, many complaints wC'n' l'P{'c'iYP<l follm\'ing hlockhnlc ... ]1"'
from which no nppncinh\( :-:ci:-:miP ,,-n,c w:-u: >:<'1 11p. Fig.
Tht'8(' ob.-::{'rYnl ion:-: l0cl ton f':llld,Y c1f tlw I'll' Pel of tlw air distmhaHCI' front qu:trr, 1. Air-blaRt m
hla:-:ting parnlleling liH' :'<!ncly of the spi,.;mie wan. Th{' :-:<'iRmonHtcr:-: t'lliJil".''' 2. Air-hlaRt ll1
t.o R\JHly thC' grmtnd waYC' <'011\dlw ll~td to measnn tlw :-:pt'<'d of propagalicl' 3. \Y cntc 1R ciT
the air wnn a.nd nl:-o t-he di:-:placPlll<'llt of n holl~C can~ed by tlw n.ir Wl).Ye. .\It 11 4. Transduct'l
t.<'Sb'l w<n' mad I' to rcconl air-wn.YI' :-:pPPds. and it; wa::-: found that n.t :-:hor-1 di:-:1 :l!w 5. Tra.nsrlttrl'l
fmm t.lw bln:-:t tlH' .-:pePc\ 0f 1lw nir Wll\'P '\'llf': much faster than th<' SJWI'ci of a~,.,,,_.! 6. Thrcc-pla\c
wave, lmi that it wn.t:: rapid\~ dnnqwrl tn tl}{' Rpe<rl of ROnnel am\ eon\illllf'd al 11:' 7. ];;Iect.roc-- t.rr I
rntc for a <'OJt:-:iclPrahl< di:-:1 lllH'<'. 8. Elect.rn~tal
Tn orfi<'T t-hai tlw r.lwraetcri.-:t ies nf tlw a.ir wn.-.,e could h<' Rindi('{\ qww1 i1a1 i1 !.1 H. Electro:4a1
it. was r\c>cidtd to (\('sign n.n air-pT<'f':Siln' nlC't<'r t.hnt conic\ h(' n~rrl in pl:Hc ol II mount. fc
Sf'iSillOllll' I ('J'.
10. Calibrn.tim
Tlw problC"m 0f designing :'1-neh a pr<ss.nr<' nH'\N tog('t.h>r with lh<' Jlt'tT." ;P 11. Iligh-voltn
cq11ipn1<.mt. h~' which th<' m<'tN' rnnlcl hC' cn.libmtcd \Yas a.s.o:ignNl to Ancln11 'I 12. V r;ltagc-Rc
frt'hlnd in t.lH' fall of 103\1. fnllnwi11g <nmplP\ion of fi<'ld h~f':h-; of 1\H't'll:ri,:! 13. Correct.ion
ngitnl'ion of rP~idt'ntinl s1nw1m<'.-:. 1-1. Pi:-;tonpho
.T. H. 'l'noE:'>lE~. I il. Pistonphn
Srnwr _,finin(l Un(li1ur1. hrnUon_
Hurrau o_( .llm 1 (). Calibratio
17. Window b
II 18. Obs<'rved
 S'i:-:mic w:rn-.
in! ~t-l'll<'llm: CONTENTS
followiu~ I h:
\\"('tl \\'ll\'t':- ,,,
t;fOI'I' ns~\llllt'' I Page Page
Foreword ____________________ _ n Electrostatic actuator _________ _ 6
lw nir wil ho111 1 Theory ___________________ _ 6
Obj'ct- of this pap'1' __ _ 1 ConBt.niCtion _______________ _ 9
lypi of lJn,.l,
:\cknmYledp;mcnt~-- __ Tm~t:;: __________ ------------ 11
"-,:\IUII\\1(11111"
~tudy of related phcnonH'na ___ _ 1
2 Pistonphone _________________ _ 13
'h:IJU'I'S \'t':->1!11 Air-blast. meter Theory ___________________ _ 13
nndt wi1l1 thir. History--_ 2 ConstructiOn _______________ _ 14
16
II' tlislltl'lntll'l'

t'i.t'l\\k llllil tlil

Const.ruct.ion _____ . _________ _
Cha.ract.eri;-:tics _____________ _
Circuit ____________________ _
4[ R;;~~:or 1;rCltmil~a-n; fi~ld t-~fs~
3
5 Bibliography _________________ _
17
19
om tlw \allJ

from n:-it\1'111
1\nsl '' u:-_11>1
ltH'klult- ;.fHt-.
ILJ,\iHTHATJ0:\8
Fig.
t't' from ij\11\JT_\' 1. Air-blast meter________ ----- -------------- -------- 3
'11'\'.t' t'lll!Jh,\t'tl 2. Aic-bl"'t mete'------------------------ ------- ---- 4
]ll'ilpH~tHIJI\11 nl 3. \Vente's eircuit_ ____ . ______ ------ ________ _ 5
\\'ll\'t~. .\ ft'\\ , . 4. TransdncN circuit __________________________ - .. ---------------- 6
..;Juut distnn- '- J 5.' Transducer hox, shiclcicrl cable, and air-nwtcr asRcmhly ____________ _ 7
Jt'Pd of
/li'<OI\Ih\ 8

~
;. 6. Thrce-pln.tc condenser__ _______ _
J\.ill114'd !\I lli111 7. Elcct.rost.atie act.natnr ____ - _- __ -- __ - . 10
-~ 8. 1.-:lcctro:::t.atic-actuatm voltage supply_ 10
JIUUJiiln!J\-t'h 9. Electrostatic actuator with air-hla.st mPtN and spacing \\asher ready to
in pint,- .. r ''" mount. for calibration________ _ __________ _ 11
10. Calibration of the clcct.rostat.icacttmtor____ ------------------- 11
I he lll'l'l'h"ltt \
11. High-voltagC' rectificL------------ _ ------------- 12
to Andl'n\ 'J'. 12. Voltage-Reparation graph and electrof'tnt.ie actuator _______________ _ 12
nf mcclmuh'ltl i 13. CorrC'c-tion curve for pistonphone ____ _ 14
'' 11. Pifltnnphone assembly _____________ .. 15
I:N, ~ lfi. PistonphonC' wit.h air-blast meter and microscope mounted for cali- "'
'uaiurn. brn.t.ion_______ ----------- 16
16. Calibration of 11istonphone ___ -- _ 17
1111 of .llt11n-
17. \Vindow box ______ .. lR
18. Observed pressure-distance relationship. 1R
III
I

DESIGN OF AIR-BLAST METER AND CALIBRATING

EQUIPMENT 1

OBJECT OF THIS PAPER

The objeet of this paper is to describe the evolution of the design

.
of n.n n.ir-blnst nrPter to be used for measuring n.ir pressun's from quarry
hlnsts and the design and n.pplieation of equipnwnt required for
en.librn tion thereof.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The u.ut.hor wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to J. R. Tluwnen,
~uprrvlsing p.ngiiH'Pr, Nonrnetnl ~'lining Section, for his direction of
the work, eonstructivr critieism of the manuscript, and helpful
suggestions; to Stephrn L. \Vindes, seisrnologie obsrrver, NonnwtnJ
).lining Sl'ction, for his valuable a.dvice n.nd aid; to Jack T. Donovan,
junior physical sc.irnc.P- aid, N omnetnl fihning Section, for his assistj
' nnce- in enlibrnJion; and to Rudolf 1\.:udlich, superintendent, En.stcrn
E:xp{':rimrnt. St.ation, C. 1vl. Davis, n,nd l\L R. Priee for construction
of t.Iw nppnrn.tus.

STUDY OF RELATED PHENOMENA

The fact that the hig-h-pressure impulse of an explosion has a higher
dPnsit.y a.nd lndrx of refraction tlmn the undisturbed air is utilized
in t\\'O methods of photogmphing (21, 22, 23, 25) 3 air waves from
<'Xplosions. The Schlieren method (34, p. 342), by an ingenious
- ;UTn.ngPrneHt. of Iens<'S n,nd mirrors, photographs the- wave by means
of its chn.nging indpx of rdrn.etion and density. The shn.dow method
of Dvorak (34 1 p. 340) photographs the shadow of the highly com- "
pressed p1essurc wa.ve. \~Tith either n1ethod, a spark mn.y be used
ns the source of illurnination for an instantaneous picture, or an arc
nnrl a moving film may br used to givr a continuous record of the
progress of the wn.ve. By plotting the position of the wave against
tirne, the veloc.ity of the wave nt any distn.nce from the source may
lw determined. HowPvrr, ncit.lH'r rurthod direet.Iy mrnsures the
pressure or enngy of the wave. Both methods are dr.signrd for tlw
study of the shape m1d speed of high-pressure. waves at short distane<s
from a small explosion, and neither could be adapted easily to det.or-
~ mination of lower prrssures at greater diStn.nces from the sourcP.
: Explosions in eannon and engine eylinders also hn.ve been rccordt>rl
~by vu.rious typPs of gages (15, 16, 17, 18, 19). Sueh gages have- a high
1 Work on mnnlls{'ript comp\{'tcd March 20, 1941.
! Junior physicist, NonmC'tRI Mining Sertion, Mining Division, Httrcan or l\-rili('S.
. a Nnmbt'fS in pnr!'nt.h('scs refer. to rcreren<X's In the bibliography; page nmnbrrs are t.hose In the refHences
:.and not in this publication. l
 2 AIR-BLAST METER Ai\D CALIBRATING EQlliPl\lENT

natura-l frequency so as to rrspond to the. extn'mrly rapid risr in phone (set' fig. 1) was
pressure for thrse confined explosions n.nd n1ust be constructed rigidlv easily eonstructcd an
to withstand the high prrssures. Thrrr nre three p:eneral typ<'S Or condit.ions.
these gages-the piPzocleet.ric, rrsista.nee, nnd condens<'r. In tlw piP?.n- E. C. Wente's cond<
e]er.t.ric t.ype the prrssure eauses eomprrssion of n sLaek of piezoPlrrtric ist.ic that its scnsitivi
crystals, the resulting voltngo bring mnplifiod and recorder! by suitn hk que-ney range. It co
mPans. In t.lH' resistance typr, the- pressure eanses compression of n of a rigid pluto.. Th
carbon pile wit.h a resulting change in dect-rien-l resistance whi<h is diaphrn.gn1 and IS srp
reeorded ns a pn'ssurr-timc relationship. In thr condenser gn.p:<' th(' em. (0.001 inch). Tl
pressure bPlHls n. din.phrn.gm of high na.turnl fnqn<ney toward n rigid in t.lw plato and holes
plntP, and tllt' resulting ehn.nge in p](.ctrir.nl cnpneit.a.ner. giYes tht bPhind t.lw plato. Tl
prrssnrC'-timr rela.tionship. Oln~iously these gngrs nre drsigned tn bv a srnrill hole or by
mpn.sure pressures far nbove those rrquirrd to dmnn.gf'. a building-. fOr c.hangrs of atnlOSf
On tlH' other hand, the vnrimiR typrs of 1nierophones in common dia.phrngm and pla;t.r
USC' 'iYC'l'f' de.signe<l for sound Pnuuw ting from surh sourres as Yoitw. at hightr frPCJlH'llCH'S
tnnsi('.a.l instnnnents, trn.ffie, etc., n.ll of whirh, ns shown by common
rxprrienrP, n.rr harmless t.o buildings. It wns llf'rt':::sn.ry, therefore, to
design and cnlibrn.te an instrument for the nwasurrnwnt of pressurps
rn.nging smnewlwre het.vn'Pn these extrc1nes.
li..,rom l'l<mwntn.ry prineiplrs of mechn.nics, it c.an lw stated that. a.ny
dn.InagP dmw to a building by the n.ir blast will dPp<'lHl on the con-
struction and condition of the building itsPlf ns WPll as upon tht
size, distrHmt.ion, and duration of forcrs acting upon thr strurtnn.
Thes<' fon:f's n.tr any mmuent ean bP computPd most. {'asily. from n
timc-pressurererord. 1.'hey could also bt~ comput.Pd from the VPlocit.y.
or mnp1itudP and frequency, of motion of t.Jw air particles, hut sn<'h
n. emnputat.ion would require tha.t thf': vPlocity, or amplitud<' a.nd
frequency, be used to solve for thP prrssurP, whir.h would tlwn he
integrated over the area nffeetrd to give Lllf' totn.l fore<'. Rcgardh"
of the method used, it would bP dif!ieult to eulculat... exact!) (.\1(
minin1mn force 1wcessary to damage a C{~rt.ain building, but it. wu~
thought that this difficulty could br OV('rromp by uutking ohsNYH-
t.ions upon a. number of buildingH and dPt.tnnining a limit hPimr
whicll. an ordinary structure would not be dn.mn.~ycl. the natural frcquenc
1nicrophonc can be 1
To make these observat-ions it wn.s nPc.Pssa.ry to d<sign an instru-
nlent that would nwasure pressure cha.ng('S, and it "~as desired t.luH a few hundred eye!<
it should have linear frf'queney and pressure rpsponsP ovP.r any nntir- frequency of the dia]
ipat,ed range. Further, it shm1ld have different sl'nsitivity rangt. . .
n.nd should be rugged tnough to minimizP Uw rlanger of bP.ing dn.mu~~d
or thrown out of adjustnlPnt in thP field. The amplifying n.nd r(.ronl- As the n.ir-blasl m
ing equipment should not hP unduly con1plir.atcd or require cxr('f::~irr and the n1ete.r reasst
power fCir field use. l\1PasurPment.s should be reproducible, should stretched 1nen1bntn~:
be in absoJute units and should be accurate t,o within 10 prr<'tnt
1 son1e loss of sensitiv
Although the. desirability of prrcision nwasuremPnts was rtali:wd. i1 of the same resomtn1
was felt that, owing to the grt>nt diff<'nnrPs in tlw construction :1nd disadvnntn.ge. . . .
eondition of buildings, the addrd cost. Ilf'ctssary for pr<'ris<'. Ifl('fi.Slll'!'- Diffcrrnt sens1t1vi
monts would not be justified. thickness (0.01 em
spacing between the
AIR-BLAST METER chosen for the diaph
HISTORY ~lnsticity insure hi;

.
Other metal parts
Of the prrssurc-response instrnnwnts in common use, t.h(~ rondPII~(r distortion due to t
and crystn.l-typr microphones giye thr. n1ost nearly linear f.n.qut>IH".\' clamped portion oft
I"Cspons<' below their resonant frf'.q tunc.ies. The condrnsPr micro- frcquoney of the tln
 AlR-BLAST :METER 3
,jd rise. in phone (see fig. 1) was chosl'n instead of tho crystal type because it is
ll'<.l l'igitll\' tasily constructed and its response is independent of atmospheric
I ty}H'S t;f conditions.
Uu.pi<?.o- E. C. Wente's condenser microphone (13) has the notable character-
(ztwlf't' I rie istic that its sensitivity is comparatively constant over a wide fre-
\Y suitnhl" quency range. It consist.s of a steel diaphrag1n stretched in front
ssir)n of n of a rigid plat.e. The plate does not conr the entire area of the
' \Yhidt j~ diapluu.gm and is separated from it by "'n "'ir space of about 0.0025
r ghg-t\ I ht em. (0.001 inch). This air space is connected by grooves "'nd holes
ll'd n ri~~id in the pla.t.l' and holes at the side of the plate to a larger air chamber
~jyp~ ~It' bl'l1ind tlw pla.te. The large aiT chamber is connected to tho outside
signed to by u. small hole or by 111cans of a componsating diaphragm to allow
niildiJ.lg. for changC's of atinosphcric pressurE'. The thin air space between the
1 rommon din.phrng-n1 and plnk OYPnlmnps th<' din.phra.gin at low frequencies;
..; ns voi('.P, at hig-lwr fl'f'C{1H'neiPs it n,d<ls stiffness to thC' diaphrri.gm and rais($
\" ('.OJlllHOII
Prpfon\ t.o
( pt'PS~iJI'P~

I thnt. unv
1 l.ht' cml-
npon t.hP
st.rul'l-11 n.
1h frotH n
<; vl'lo<'it.y,
. hut. su;b
~it.tidt'
:mel
d Llwn he
l{t\gitJdlt:4~
xnt.t.l\ tlw
HIt it ,.;~11 :-:
FH!GR~ 1.-Air-hlu:>J mct('r.
~ ob.-wnn-
lllit. lwlow
the natural frequency of the system. The pressure response of the
n.n inst.ru- microphone can be held comparatively constu.nt from frequencies of
sircd t.lutl
a few hundred cycles per second to frequencies above tho natural
nny nnl i('
frequency of the diaphragm.
i t.y' riut~tH CONSTRUCTION
\Tdn.mntrt>d
~ul rP.Pc~~ I As the air-blast metoT must be t"'kcn apaTt, the sensitivity changed,
' excPssivt and the meter reassembled in the fielcl, a clamped plate instead of a
1le, should stretched membrane wa.s used as the diaphragm. This resulted in
0 P<ntut. smne loss of sensitivity, as a plate is less sensitive than a mmnbrane
I'PU.lizPd, it of the same resonant frequency; but this \vas not considered a serious
<~<t.ion und clisadvuntage.
llll'll~lll't' Different sensitivities are obtained by using diapluagms of different
thickness (0.01 em., 0.03cm., and 0.05 em.) and by vaTying the
spacing between the plate and diaphragm (fig. 2). Duraluminum was
chosen for the diaphragm because its low density and high modulus of
elasticity insure high sensitivity for a given resonant frequency.
Other metal parts ulso were made of dumluminum to avoid any
t'01Ult'll:4t'l'- rlistortion due to temperature changes. The dimneter of the un-
frtq IH_'IH'_Y clamped portion of the diaphragm is 2.5 em. (1 inch), and the resonant
St'l' lllH'I'Il- frequency of the thinnest diaphragm is about 1,400 cycles per second,
 4 AIR-BLA~'l' ME'fER AND CALIBRA'.riNG EQUIPMENT

slight.ly above the highest rf'sonant frequencirs of the dements nsPd ca vi tv resonance, d
in the oscillogra.ph. A dil'lretric washer (b) holds rigid inside plat<' of the mierophone
(d) amty from case (i) a.Jl(l diaphragm (a). The case :md diaphrngm of the sound u.nd
completely enelose and electriea.l!y shidd this pln.te, which is the only calibrn lions. In o
part not n.t gronnd pot.C'Htinl. This prevents any interference from ducrd in a chamb
ncar-by electrira1 rireuits or nny ehnnge in ea.pneitane-e en used by thl' wn.vr leng:th of the
rnove1nent of one's hnnd near the nir-blnst. mcter. The separn.tio11 produced in a chan
between the diaphragm and tJH inside p1n.tr is va.riecl by nu'alls of on1 any rPficctions aT
to four spacer washers (c) of 0.0025 em. (0.001 inch) thickness, t.llf' ob;iously require
number used depending on the sensitivity drsirrd. Since the thin nir o-rca t as those prot
spn.ee between the diaphrngn1 and insidr plntr wonld ordinarily cn.mH' (2) with similar
the din.phragm to be ovrrdn.mpNl, holrs and grooves are cut in t.l11 between field and
plate, connecting wit-h a lnrgor air chamber (g) formed by a bu.kelit<' 500 eyelcs. The d
-.l usrd bv other inve
Altlioup;h an ex]
" show lnrge romp<
Fourier analysis (i

~-=-=;
~-b

~;,>1--g
=--i
FIOt:RE 2.-Air~blast m('ter: u, Plnt.t diaphrngm; IJ, dielectric wa~her; r, ~pncing wnshcr; d, insi(k plat<-.
r., bakLIit(' rin~; f. rrar metal pl11tc: {1. 11ir ehnmber; h, minint.un L'!lblc eonncctnr; i, rase. <t

ring: (e) pressed ng-n.inst the inside. plate by the renr metal pblc (fl.
The dinphrn.g1n lhrrt'fore n.ets ns nn l.mdC'nln.nlpNl vibrn.ting- systrm.
Tlw p}ectrica1 eonneet.ion to tlw insidr plntr is mndr. by n. small wirt
from thr minitl tm1 mierophonp en hlP c.onne.etor (h) through Ihe
bn.kditr ring to the inside plntP.
high-frequency co
OHARA CTERISTICS rapidly decrea~scs ,.
the pressure IS g1
As t.lw diffphrn.gm is undrnln.rnped, its dcfleetion for a certain forC'r \.Vi thin this runge,
is the same n.t. nll frrqnewiPs that a.re sn1n.l1 eompnre.d to its rcsomu11 also has the great
frequency. It therrforr has a. "linear frequency response" ovN 1-hi~ compressed pa.rts
range. The force e.xprtrcl npon the din.plnn.g1n is chH' to t-he clifYrrC'JH'I' the air-blast mete1
in pressure of the ontsidr air n.nd tl1e prrssure in the air ehmnlH'r. 100 fret to several
Some leakage must he a.llowt'd to rom}wnsa t.e for ('luwges in t.rmp<rn- was carried only t
tun and n.tmosphrric JH'rssmP. This len.knge is t.hrough the t.hnndl'd the shot, would h
portion of the bnck pln.tc nnd c.n.uses n loss in sensitivit.y nf. low fn- calibration was no
quencies. 'l'0sts (dr-scribed under uPistonphmw") hn.vp show11 fhi~ graph el!'mcnts bci
error to be less thn.n 2 prrcent. n.t 20 cydes on one n.ir metl'l' aHd
incrensing from 4 pereent at 20 cyc.lcs to 8 por~ent a.t 10 cyrl0s and I;,
percrnt at. 5 cycles on another. It cn.n be n..ssumrd that t.lw nir nwtl'r
would rreord wn.yrs of rven lm,~rr frrqnr:ney with somr furthrr loss in W cntc's eircuit
sensit-iYity. As no indirnt.ion of infrn.-n.udio (below 15 cyclrs JWr with a. large resistl
seeond) waves (such n.s 1Gs'hmgon (20) found) have yet bern ohLflilH'd This eireuit. gives
in the tests, ca.librn.tion brlow 5 eyeles hns not. bern made. capn.citancc at an~
The response. of n. conclenspr n1ierophone at high frequenci's uo1 large compared to
only drpends on the nn.turn.l frrquency and damping of the dinphrng-n1

.
but n.Jso on the size n.nd shape. of the mierophonr n.nd the cavil.y in microphone in fara
front of the diaphm.g:m. Thcsr factors influence the response dnr to this frequency the
423668-42-2
 (
G EQlilPI\.fENT
pg of thP rknwn Is URt>cl
holds rigid insid1 pb tc
l,he r-nsp nnd <lin phr:J~nl
pln.te. whieh is tlw nnh
" nny int<J'fP.retH'P fro1;1
pneitnner <'n.nsl'd bv tl11'
met~r. ThC' sPpnr;t t ic1r1
Yfll'If'd by HH'U.US of Oil I'
101 inch) t.hir.kn<'RR, 1ht
I'Pd. SincC' tlw I hin nir
would ordinnrih <'n u:-;1'
grooYrs me eu{ in 1 he
!) fonfwd by n. hnkclitc
Q
~""'~~-!
~1----g
"""OJ<--i
<', ~pnrini wnslwr; rl, in:;id< I'IHI
It roUTJtrtnr; i, '('R~'C.
a nnr 1netnl plnt1 t (1.
nJwd vibrn,ting sn.;h,-111.
: mnde bv n ~;un'll wirt
ctor (h). throug-h !Itt
tion for n crrt.ain fnrl'l'
mfmrrct to its rp~onnnl
cy rpsponsP 11 O\'PI' 1his
is dur lo Uu difl'l'l'I'JH'f'
p in the n.ir c.hmnlH'I'.
1r e1umgrs in II'IIIJWI'H
; through llw t hrtHthd
spnsit.ivit.v nt low fn
nrn) hn-v~ shown I In~
Hl one nir mPIPJ' nnd
ntnt. 10 ey<"lc~ nnd lh
nrd that t-il<' nir nwl,t
h smnr furt hPr loss i 11
(below 15 c.yciPs Jh'r
nn~ Yt't. been ohlnitwd
lPPn 'made.
hip:h fl'<-'(]l.IPIH'i<S 1101
ping of thP din.phrng111
llll' rmd thr envily i11
r t.hc rcsponsr du~ to
AIR~ BLAST ME'l'ER 5
cavity rrsonnnce, directivity, n.ncl diffraction (2, 4, 5), as the clinunsions
of the microphone become an appreciable fmction of the wave length
of the sound and usufl.1ly neressitn.te sepn.rn.te field and laborn.t.ory
en-libra tions. In a. ln.boratory calihrution 1 the sound waves n.re pro-
duced in a ehmnber tlmt is rclathely small when compared to the
wnsr length of the sound. In n. field ea.libration the sound wrrvrs n.rr
producr(f in a chamber so lar~e, or with wn.lls so sound-absorbent, thn.t.
any rdlections are negligibLe cmnpnred to the somre. It. would
obvious!)' require grrrtt power to produce sounds with pressurE's as
gren.t. ns those produerd by pxplosions. The investigations of othrrs
(2) with sin1i1n.r condenser microphmws showed close agnrmPnt.
hetweP11 firld and laboratory r.alibrat.ion n.ncl negligible errors up to
500 evcles. The dimensions of the mrtor were mn,de snmllcr tlmn those
usrd Lb~,. other investigators to aYoirl the nccr.ssity o.f field calibration.
Althongh an oxplosion has a very steep wave front, whieh "~auld
..
shmv lnrg(' romponrnts of high-fr0qurnry 1vn.vos if snhjrrtNl to
Fourier analysis ($4, p. 27), thr. dampin~: is so murh greater on the
FIGURE 3.-Wente's circuit.
high-frcqupnr.y cmnponcnts t.hnt the strepnr.ss of the wave front
rapidly derT(\flses with dist.nncP px:eept. VC'ry close to tlw sourco, w]wre
the pressnn~ is great enough to incrrnsr the vrlocity approeia.bly.
Within this rnngc, that part of t.hr wnve having the greatest pressure
a.]so has the greatest velocity and consequently ga-ins on less highly
cmnpressed parts of the wave lending to n st.ccpcr wave front. As
the air-blast n1r.tr.r wns intended to lw US(~d at. distn.Jlcrs from about
100 fept. to scY('l'Hl thous:md frPt from the explosion) thr. calibration
was cnrri('(l only to ;)00 cyelrs. The thicker dinphrn.gm 1 used nearer "
the shot, wmtld hnv< linear TcsponS(' t.o higher fn~qurnri<~s, hut the
cnli.bTntion wns not. enrri('(l higlwr owing to lirnittLtions of the oscillo-
graph p}pmcnts hPing usPd.
CIRCUIT
VVPntr's r.ireuit (13) ronf'lists of tlw condrnser mierophone in sr.ries
with n. lnrge rPsistanrr and n polarizing voltage, n.s shown in fignr< 3.
This rircuit gives n. ePTt.ain ehnngP in voltnge for a. givri\ change in
cnpnritnnrP n.t any freqwney sufficiently high tlwL R (rcSistancr) is
lmgr. eompmp.d to 2 'lrl rr' wlwre cis tlw cn.pac.it.a.nce of the conchnser
microphone in farads fln(l.f t.lw frrqurncy in cycles pt>r second. Below
this frPC}lHncy the- S<~nsitivity of the circuit decreases.
4236f>8-42-2
 .-\lR-BL:\:-<1' .\lETEH AXD CALIHHATlKG EQl'lPl\IEI\'T

Tlw disndYnntngt'S of t.hi::: S!TSt<'m for low frc~qnrnril's nn obvious.

l\lmpon'l', tJw first. stng:P of thr nmplifiPr usnnll~v is ktJH- rlose to t.hl'
microphmw to nvoid adding rnpnrit:mcP in pnrnlld with the miero-
phonP :llld d<'<'r<nsing tlw srnsitiYity. li'or high-pnssm1' work this
would l'XflOSI' the nmplifiPr to SPYl'l'P shocks. FurtlwrmorP, this rir-

II
ruit nquirPs SPYl'rn1 sl-ngi'S of :nnplifirntion, whir.h nrc difllrnlt t.o
cnlibrntP nnd mni11tnin in <'tllibrntion.
A ,lightly mo<iifi,,<i form of the trnnsdurcr rireuit (26) used b)' tlw
Burpnu of ~Iincs in its seismic. rPSI'nrcli "ork "-ns ndapt.P.d in tlw form
I
sbowu in figun 4- mHl giYes linPtlT frN[liPllry rPsponsP from stntic to

I
31 31

Cj io
B
1
R, To air-blast meter

Fh:nn: I. Trnnsdtul'r dntut: C., lUll mftl.; C1. Htl) mmf>!.: c~. ll.lltl2mfd.; Cl, -'ll nnuft\.; (~, :mu mmftl.:
C;, 200 nnnfd.; 0, o~eillu_crnph Pil'ltltnt; Ut, G olnn~; R~. ;;u,ono ohms; Ho, shnnl lor mHlimnmetcr; R1,
.'iOO olllns; ;l!l Mid 31 iln' Y:lC'lll\111 1nhPK

stl})('l'sonie frN[IIPIICi<s. Two A l)nHI'l'i<'S nn mwd for tlw filanwnt.

Rllppl!r, nnd up lo Jour B hnttl'riPs (lXO rolts) fl1'<' \IS('(] for plnl1
YoltngP. Its srnsit jyjty is slightbr morp tlullJ 1 millinm}WJ'P pPr mirro-
mirrnfnrad of dwngP in rnpncitnnr<'. Tlw trnnsd1wer is built i11 :l
smnll aluminum ('llsP, whieh <'ompldl'ly shil'lds tlw s_vst-Pm froJll From the
Pl('ctri<"nl inll'l'fl'l'('JH'<~. Thr cnsr n1Hl batlPri<.s nn prnkrt.rd from pln.t-es, whm
llw WPatlHr mul t.]w nir h1nst by n lwnYY wood<'ll box. Th<' 1Tfl-llS- llll'm, \Vill, :
1hH<'I' cnsl' is suspi'IHINI within 'tlw woo1lL'll box by Plustic cords to
minimizl' shocks. A shiPltlNI cnhlt {i t.o 10 fPC't- in lPngth COlllH'.r1s
t.lw nit-blnst nwtpr nnG trnnsdtH'PT. TPst.s -..nrr lll:Hk with thr nil'-
hlnst llH'II'r disrmmC'rt.rd. ThPR<' shm\-Pd no vihrntinn dlll' to ilH' wlwre
l-rnl!sd!H'I'l' <'ireuit it~wlf. Fig-urt' 5 shm\-s tr~msdurPr box, shirld1~d
enbl<, nnd nir-lllt'tPr HSsPmhly; tht nir nwter mountNl on wiudo\\-frnnw.

A.=ar
k=tl-
x=t.l

.
lJGN'l' ELECTHO:-iTATIC' AC'TL\TUH 7

s Ill'<' ohYiou~.
pt elo:w to tlw
ith ilu micro-
..;mt work 1hi~
llHH'<', thi~ ('ir-
1re diflicult. to
lJy t Ju
I!') t1RPd
I'd in tht,'forln
from ~t11tic It)

31

lll!H[ol.; c,, ;;nu lllllllol.;

fur millhmm!'h'l"t Ji,,
FIGUHK 5.-'l'rnusdnccr Om.-, ~hteldt>d Ctlhk, aud ntr-mctcr assembly.

ll'11H' lil:lllll'lll ELECTROSTATIC ACTUATOR

UHI'd for plul'
ppn JH'T mitru THEORY
r i~ huilt in 11
''RYf'1t'lll frnlll From the t.heory of. t'lectrostat.ic loi'Cl'S we find that two pnmllel
pro.l<t'IPd frfJIII plates, \vhose dinwnsions nrc lnrge eompnrccl to tlw disln.nee srpnrnting
IX. Tht t I'll !I~ t.}wln, wil1 n,ceording to Pcndl'l' (38), cxpJ't, n forcP upon eneh other of "
1
ln:-:1 ic ('OI'd~ In
t'IW,:1h ('()Jlfll't'l:-< (1)
I'~Yilh lht nit-
nn tlut to till' wlwrc
box, RhiPidtd
1 window l'rnuu.
J=force, in dynes;
V=potential drop between thP plntr~. in rlrct-ro~tnJic vnlt.:; (pract-ical
volt~ dhidcd by 300);
A=arca of t.hc plaie 1 in squar{' e<'ntinwt.cr~:
k=thc dielectric constant;
x= Uw :-:cparation 1 iu centimeters.
 8 AIR-BLAST .METER AND CALIBRATING EQUIPMENT

It is nlso shown that

we have

wlwrr ('is t.hr cnpacit,y of the condPnsrr: hence, e.quntion 1 may hP The forec is on
\\Tittrn has twice t-he frl''
1TZC proportional to th
r~- (21
2x lf a rigid pln tc
nir-blnst nwt.C'r an-
lf p]afps 1 nnrl 2 of t.!w system shown in figure 5 ure sopn.mtod h) con he cnlibrntcd
n diPlPctrir of constnnt k, nnd plnh's 2 nncl 3 nre sepnrntrd h~ nir Such a. enlihrnt1

In cu1ibrnt.ing: t
ibrntlng inst.rum<'
dn.ngex in th~ usc
is the dn.rnpmg r
and motrr diupl1
For this reason
a.t snell distnneC' !
Fl<lURE 6.-ThtC'ClJllrtte condensor. will not be thin <'
of a g:rill or strcl
(dill<rt.rir constant 1), thr cnpnr.it.ane<\ 0, het.-ween platps 1 nn.d 3 Both mPthods
mn~- lw found from t.lw Pquntion obtninubiP with
The fornw1 m1
separation 1md l-
Thr actuator
or dielectric (c). 'I
C=--.~~_ =...4_' break-dowri aero:
411" (x,+
ic x2 ) 4=
dielectric. constn
where (scvNn.l thm~sn.n
J.:=thC' Pffective separntiort, enclosPd by msn
C 1=cap:wii.nnce- bctwcc11 plah'B 1 ttnd 2,
G2 =capacit-nncc hct,Yccn plate" g ami S, n,ir-hlnst n1rtP1
C= capacitance bctwccll plate$ 1 and 3. AI tern a ting VI
control syste1ns t
If the pln.te 2 hns no cleetrica.l eOnnpctions and is of negligible thick to n 400-to-1 '"
npss, it may hr removed wit.hout a.ffectil1g thr cnpacitnncc C of t-hl' could supply fr,
systrm. Substih1tlng in Pqun.t.ion 2, \'ire hn.vr the force hetwrPn f.wo could be used f~
pln.t.ps, mw. of whieh is r.ovt'rNi by n. dirlcet.ric, n.s rlcct.rost.n..tic net
was 20, t.lH' frrl
The yo}tagr n.c
Ducldoll-typc o
with a. rpsistauc
To give the forr.c per unit n.rrn (F) in dynes per square ccnt.imrter WI'. vol tn.gP h<'ing 1
divide by A, and equat.ion 3 bt'conlr.s rcsistunce. ,. (fig
oscillogrn.p~l de>
(4) hflxing a ln};h p
op<'-ned n_ccidrnt
If tho poknt,iul applied is 11.11 nlt.>rnnt.ing voltage, in n. cnbmc-t. wl
with a.n insula!
where elcctrosta.tie ac

~.
t=the time,
w=21r timcH the frcqnenc~v, in cyeleR per second,
Vn=the pcn.k volt.ngc,
.
 g
ELECTHO::iT.\TlC ..\C'lTATOR

wr have (5)

Thr foree is one of attraction. sinel' oppositr dmrgr.s attrar.t; it

JUation I mny lw hns twi('C' the fn~qnenC'y o[ t.hr imprcsF-l'd voltn-g:L' n.nd is invL'l'SPly
proportional to the squan' o[ tlw l'ffl'clin SL'pa.rn.tion.
H a. rigid plate is plnccd Hl'Ul' and parallel to the dia.phragn1 of the
air-blast mrtrr and n. voltng<' is imprrssL'<l nnoss them, th<'. n ir mr.ter
cnn lH' enlibrntC'cl if tlw voltage nnt1 l'l\'t~C'tive sr.prrrnt.ion <U't' known.
nrr srpnr:ll rd h;r
Such a enllbruting <lL'vicc is cnlh,rl nn t'lcct.rostntic ~let-unior.
iWpnrnh'd b~- :nr
CONSTRUCTION

1n cullbrnt.ing tlw nir-blnst nwtC'r OlH' mm;;t bE' carpful that t.1w f'nl~
I ibrn.ting instnmwnt docs nol nft'rd l1H' mdrr's nsponsc. 'l'lw chiPf
danger in thr usc of the electrostatic UC'-t.urrt.or in calibrating t.he ll1Pter
2 is tlw dmnping efl'cl't of tlw thin a.ir space bC'tWC'en aetnn.t.or pln.te
and nH'tl'l' din.phrugnl.
"--- 3 Ilor this renson t.\w plate of tho electrostatic octuator m11st be ki'j)t
nt such dis.tnnrr from the. diaphragm t.ha.t. the n.ir spfiC-l' bet.\vern them
will not lw thin PllOH~h to add apprPciahh, dmnping or t.akl' tlw form
of a grill or stntrlwd-wirr srl'l'<'ll dosN t.o Uw cliuphrngm.
Both nwthods ndncl' t-lw :--wnsitiYit~Y and mnximum prN~surr.s
n platp::; I n.n.d :1 obtainn.hlr with t.lH' nduator.
TlH' fornwr nwthod WfiS ndoptrd t-o nxoid the-. necrs~i t~~ of pnmse
separation and pnralll'li:un hdwel'n grill nnrl cllaphrn~m.
Thr aduntor plnk, ns shown at b~ iigure 7. wns et'Wl'l'NI with a
dielretrir (c). This protertt'd the equipment. in c.asr of an rlrct-ricnl
brpn.k-down n.crosR thr nir gnp nnd added only~ of its thieknrss (k=the
dil'lectrie const.nnt) to t.he rfl'edivl' sepnration. As hi~h potentials
(sl'Y<'l'H1 thousand volLs) nre usl'd in calibrating, thr plnt.P is <'ntin,ly
l'ndosPd by insulntin[-1: material \Yhilt tlH' di.aphrngm nnd cast> of the
n.lr-hlnst nwtPr n.n kept n.t ground potentia.l.
A\t.prnntinp: Yollap:r wns supphL'd hy eitJH'r o-f Lwo \Ya.rrl Lt>onard
cont-rol syst.ems thrnll[-l:h n Jti-t.ypP, low-vass filt.Pr of ya.rin.bleindnctnncc
to a. 400-to-1 ,~olLn.p:l' sllp-up trnnsformt'l' (Hg. 8). 'l'lH~ generators
f negligible thic.k- could supply frNpH'Hl'il's from 20 to iJOO cydes pP-1' ~rcoJHl, whirl1
'<ll'itanrr C of 1-lH' coulcl br mwd for cnlilnat-ions of 40 to l,OOO cye\ps per srcond (see ,,
'ore(' bpt,wppfl t.wo ('\pc.t.rost.a.tlc n.c.tw1.t-or thL'ory). Thus, if tlw frequency of t.lu yoling:c
wns 20. tlw frPr{IH'HC'Y of t.lw force would he 40 cycles pPr spconrl.
The yolt-n.p.:l' fl<'t'OSS the rh,etrostnt-ic nc.t.untor was rN~orded on a
DmlrlPll-type oscillograph. Tlll' oscillogra-ph dC'ment wns in srri<'S
with a nsistanee. R (fig. 8), of sp,-prnl mrgoh1ns, drpPllfling on the
nre ccnt-imet('l' we voltage bC'ing used. 1)otentinls up to n,OOO volt-s w{'.lr usPd. A
resist.mH'<'. r (fig. 8), of 2,000 olnns was comtect.P(l in pnrnllel with tlw
oseillogrnph rleln<nt (approximntt'lY 1 ohm rcsistnnrC') to pn'vrnt
ha.vin~ n high pot.rntinl on t.hC' oscillograph if the p\erncnt cireuit wrre
(4) opPnrd neeidrntally. All high-potr11t-in.l pnrts of the circuit wcrr klpt
inn. enbind. wlwrr tlwv could not hr tourhcd n.rci(hntallv. A rn.ble
with m\ insnla.tinn rnr)able of withstanding 15,000 voltS led to the
electrostu.tic. a.c.tuntor plate. ~
cond,

 10 AIH-BLAST .\IETEH AXU CALIBIL4..TIXli EQCtPi\IEXT

TlH' Pl<'dms.tnti<':
tht fnqLtl'nr~~-I'P~P 11
s<"ttings. ('an had
l'ltctrost n t i< nctun tc
rtdtJ<'P tbt' dampin~
fr1q I!PllC':V t'('S))OilSI'.
suffi1ipnt for mm;t n
shows tln pfl\ct of
r.urYr. 'l'hr j)I'('SR.ln
rt dC'flf'et.ioH of thP t

FJr,nn: !I. i".ltt'IW<tnLil' !l.t'llH

tlH' nir-blnst nwk1: I

The prC'ssure rrqmrp
and distance of S
Theory). Th< hott
IH't wp(n t lw Plt'rf l'<}
lllP1 er. A compnn~
illt'l'{'flS('S tlH' pl'l'RSI
Tlw derleel.ions n1
p1:tting n D. C. nl
.Fit; t-Il 1.-I:Iteirostn!ie llt'IWHor: 11, Air rullln: 1. Pl!elmstiHit lletwtlur plnll: c. tlil'lt<triC' ('<JWritl!! Jthtlt
in~ul!lled ~paring IIH~IH'rs:
6,000 , - - , - - , - ,
d. cnhl<' to plrttt: t. hnktlilt I'll,<:<:' .. !1. :ur-ll:::;:tllttltr i11 plar, fur e;Jllhrn!iun.
02
Enclosure
I---------------~ lnst~l~led~bfe
s: 5,000 1--1--1-+-
~:
to
J electrostatic actuator

~ ~ 4.~ 1--1--1-+-
R ~-

!rooo
C>.
1-+-il--t--
""2.000 L,-'--'--''-
J Tn oscillograph element

Tu air-blast mete1
l'H;\'RE to.- ('nlihratill~lllf tht
_j
plfltt i~ 1on du~t lu. <ltuphfflJ!
di~!lmr1~ ofstpilrfltmn htL\\t

l<'ll:t_onE 8.--Eitt'troswtir-nctuHLor oh.n!!:u ~upply. vo}b 1 ot~ wus obtnill<'

The ~ollInl'll'r hnd

. dr:nn 1 wus quitl' srn

w 1th ncglig-ihlP ripp}
 ELECTRO:-:.T.\TlC AC'LTATOH 11
TESTS
The Plrctrostntir actuator (S{'f' fig. CJ) was most useful fordet.rrmlning
thP frf'(jlH'lH'."-!'('8]10lHW CUI'\'l'S of thl' 11101'(' SPnsitiYl' n.ir-blnst-IHrkt'
~<ttings. Cntt hnd to bl' lrt\.;:ru thnt thr sC'pnrntion bdwN'Il the
<'kctrost.ntie actuator plntf' and tlw met.pr diaphragm wns rnongh to
J'('dl\C(' tlw dnmping rffPct to a point wlwre it would not change the
frtqHrncy nsponsr. A srpnrntion of 0.025 cnL was found to bP
sufllci<'llt for most. nlr-mrtPr st'tting-s. Tlw uppC'r enrvc 011 fip:nrf' 10
~how~ illl' rf1'Pd of thi~ n-ddPd damping on thr frrqurncy-rrsponsP
rllrve. Th' pressurE' (d:vnes per squurr eentime.ter) re.quired t.o give
n dPHrction of the <linphrngm sufli.eirnt t.o chnnge the cnpncitnnce of

FJr,nn: 11. J<.hetru~ta~ic n.l"luaHr with air-hlaot n;ewr 1111d ~p>H!Ill)!: washer ready to mount for t'lllihration.

tht nir-blnst metpr lmi<To-microfarad is plottrd against the 'fnquency.

TllC' pressure required for thiR dPHcction is calculn.t.ecl from thr Yoltagc
nncl distance of srpnration (equation 5) l~lect.rostatic Ac-tuator
Theory). The bottom rurvL' was takC'n \Yitb n gren.t.cr srpn.rat.ioH
lwtwl'L'll t.h0 t~lprtrostnt.ir nrtunt.or plate a.nd the diaphragm of t.lH
mf'tpr. A cmnpnrison of th<' C'lllTL'S shows how n.ddLd damping
in\Tl'flS<'s thr JH'eRI:'III'l' IH'ressary at higher frrqnencics.
Tlw dcflPctions nt :t.Pt'O f1rqnenr.y on figurl' 10 were obtained by
p1:lting n D. C. Yoltng(' on tlw rlPctrostntlr act.tmtor. Tlw D. C.
6,000
il']l'{'trk ~onrinl! p\llll'.
p\att for mlihi'Jlthm.

_.;. ,,
led cable to
tatic actuator 0
~

~
'Ogr:aph eleineol
.~
"" 200
F!?EQUENCY, CYCLES PER SECOND '"'
:>last mete
~ io'lt~\-REJO.--Cnlihmtion nf (.he elcctrn~tntir artnntor. I Jl!ll'r cnne :;how::; rlfPct or !HldNI dampinl! when
platt is 1<10 rto~l' to llillJlhrap:m. Lmwr rurn- b curr,rl rnlihrntiun nnd can br duplifflttd for di!Iennt
,\i~tanrts of se1mration hl't ''''PD ttlalt' ant\ diaphragm.

voltngl' wns obtained by rncans of the eirenit- shown in figure 11.

Tlw Yoltinl'll'r had n rPsist.mH'L' of 62.5 megohms. As the em-rent
drawn wns quite smnlt, thl' rPrti(ier a.nd filt.Pr gave a. D. 0. volta~r
wtt.h negllgihlL' ripple for nn input frequency of 100 cyeles or hightn .

12 AIR-Biu\S'l' :\!liTER AXD ('.. \LIBR.\Tl~L; EQFIPMENT

R. C. A. 878 To electrostatic Thr rffe.etive distnnc<

---T------...-----.-::_c::_t"::_:;tor plate aetuntor plntP and Lhc <
by incrcttsin~ the scpnra.t
'Yn~lwrs shown in fig. 7)
eP-rtn.in dl'ftcct.ion (mcasm
.004 mid. To air-meter
ground a.gninst the distance of s
+----+-~ ... F i_::; eonstnnt, vo is pr<
Figure 12 is suc.h n. grnp
c.ycks per spron<l. Thr
prnct.ien.l Yolts prr ccnt.iir
Frmn equation 5 we bn.v

dynes per squn.re centim

Fwnm 11.-High-mltag(' nctifi~r.
The clrctrostu.tie aet11
of the n.ir-hlnst nwt.er,
lwenk-dowu n<'ross t.he
10,000
plrrte of the eleetrostn.tie
9 Although these break-<
IJ ln- .uripcres) and did r
possihlc to obtain- preE
c.ent.irnckr. The ma.xi1
separation of the dect
,/ incn~nscd. Sinee a deft
tnnee could not alwn.vs
he eorrccted for smft.ll<'
} thn.t if n. X-micro-miero
of 2,500 volts, a <It'll<
~
~
~
II 5,000 volts-that is, if t.
0
sure is proportionnl to l
:>. 6,000
z
0

~
I
0
w
~
~
w
0 '/ From elementary th
::z I is cmnprrss('(l isotherm
=> 4,00 0 the pressure, p, mn.y be
"'
w
~
)
~
~ II where O=a constant.
llv, t.he pressure c.ha.ngl

2,000
I or

subtracting equation 6
)
neglecting !!.mlp as
il fill

1,00 0
J
X .025 ,05 ,075 .1
If the compressiOn
SEPARATION OF ElECTROSTATIC ACTUATOR PLATE
AND DIAPHRAGM, CM. and vohnnc is PXlH'l'SS
FIGURE 12.-Voltagc-~l'pl'rH.tion graph aurlehetro~mtic act.uator.
 lt.lP!\IENT PIS'l'O?\PHONE 13

-
lectrostatic The cffectiYe distance for srprr.mtion between the electrostatic
Jato~ plate nctuntor plnk n.nd the diuphrngm of the air-blast n1etcr was found
by inc.rensing t1w seprrru.tion by known unounts (by menns of spacing
wnshC'l'S shown in fig. 7) and plotting the volt.n.gcs required to give a
cPrtnln ddhct.ion (n1rasmpd ln mirro-mi<'rofn.rn.ds capacitance change)

-
air--meter ngninst thl' clisbmce of sepn.rn,tion. F'rmn equation 5 we see. that. if
ground
F \s constnnt. ro is proportional to :r., tlw dist.nnc.c of sepn.rn.t.ion.
F'lgure 12 is surh a. graph with a.ll points taken at a frequrncy of 80
eyrlrs prr :wrond. Tlw graph in figure t2 has a. slopr of 96,500
prnd-ienl ,-olts pPr cC'ntinwtt-r. or :122l'leet.rostatic volts per centimeter.
Frmn equnlion 5 we h:1Ye
F~-J- (!")' ~ X1r
ti1r .l
~ (3221'~4,100
dynL'S }Wl' s.qunrf' crntimctrr per rnicro-mie'lofa.rnrl deftection.
The C'lpctrostntir nrtnnt.or could only be used for sensitive settings
of thr nir-l1lnst mdt>T 1 as hi?;l~ Yolt-nges would cause an clectrieal
brC'nk-down nrross the rt.ir gnp hrtWL'l'll Uw dieleetric covering the
plak of thr ele-cLrost.n.tie actnato1 nnd t.l\C' diaphragm of the n.ir meter.
I Although these break-downs pnsscd negligible eurrent (less than
10-~ nmperes) mul did not dumnge nny f'C{Uipnwnt, they 1na.de it im-
po~sihlr to obt.nin pressures greater tl1nn 1,400 dynes pel' square
r.rntinll'lPr. The mn.:ximnn1 pressures obtainable decreased as the
Sl'pnrntion of Lhe dPrt.rost.n.tir netun.tor plate- and the diaphrng1n
inrnnsed. Sinee a dPflrction of 1 Jnicro-microfaracl change in capnei-
t-nnrl' rould not always be obt~1incd. fl;'raphs sueh as figure 12 hn.d to
1
lw corrertrd for smn.lhr df'-flrrtlons. F'rom equn.tion 5 it is evident
thn.t if a %-nlirro-mierofnrad dl'fkction was produeed by a pote-ntial
of 2,500 voltg, fl deflt>rtion of 1 mirro-1nirrofnrad would l'equire
5,000 volts- -lhat is, if the distunrt> of sepn.rat.ion is constant, the pres-
sure is proportional to the squarp of the voltu.ge.
PISTONPHONE
THRORY
From elen1entn.ry thermodynamies we know that if n perfect. gas
is {'.on1pn~ssNl isothermnllv, the relation between tbe volume, D, u.nd
the pr('ssun', p, mn.y hr r.Xprrssed by the equation
~-~ ~
where O=n eonst.nnt. If we c.hangr t.hc volume by a. small arnount,
Ll.v, Uw pnssure ehungcs n, smnll anwunt !J..p, so that
(v-f-tw)(p-1-1\.p)~C, (7)

Ill or (8)
vp-l-p6.v+ 1uj,p+ 6.v6.p= C,
snhtraeting equation 6,
p6.v-l--v6.p+6.vL\p=0, (9)
ncglp.cting !1-v6.1J u.s nu infinitcsinm.l of t.br second oTder, this bceomes
6.p= -~ (10)
Jl /1

.075 .1
If the r.ompnssion is ndinhatic. f.lw rPlnt.ion between thn pressure
JR PLATE
and Yolume is pxpnssPd by (11)
Jll'"' -- c,
actuator.
 14 AIR-BLAST METER AKD CALIBRATIXG EQUIPMENT

where 'Y is thr rn-t.io of the specific heats at constant volume. Its
very light.. The steel ba
,~nlur for nir nt. nornwl tcmpornt.urr is 1.40. Again, changing t.lw
Yolmne by n small a.Jnount, b.~', mHl ncp:lerting infinitosimn}s of t}l(
(% inch).wide, a.nd ~.025 c
sceond or higlwr ordrr 1 we hn.vc for mnxm1um tensiOn.
A microscope with a. ~
(12) 1nark on t lw driving rod
by n similnr dnw_,loprnent..
If n pnf<.'cl. gus is romprrss{'(-{ rapidly in fl 1HL'tnl r.ont.niner, it will
not. los!' nny apprrciahlP amotm1 nf hrnt, nnd thl' c.on1prr-ssion will hP
ndinbntic. If- it is conlprcssrd slowly, tlw gns will remnin nt. !Itt
tempPrn!.mr of thr contnining wn1ls. nnd thl' COlllJH'C'ssion will lw
isot1wrmnl. lf a piston nHPrnnlPly txpmuh:; nlHl comprrssPs thegn~
in u cylindi'T. 11 is tYidPld 11w1 lhl' pnssurt> obtnilHd will dPJH'ncl n11
the 1'111<' of eompr(ssion nnd rxpnnsioll :1s wt'll ns on thr rhnngL' in
'Tohmw. Bnllant inr (.2) hns rnlrtdnttd this rorrertion and shown how
it. rlPpP!His on 1lw frPqllL'llt'~Y, lll'l'll of tlH' rnrlos.ing \Ytllls. nnd Yolumr
of tlw ch:unhcr. Figure 1.1 is n grnph of !his r01Trc1ion n~ applienhiP
u 1.5 ~
j
~ I. !
::_ 1. 3
'i
' '
~ I
I,
l.
' '
3 l. o, '
i i
" " FREQUE~Cr, " 80
CYCUS PE~ SECO.~J
t<iO
" 1;4(1

'FlrH'RE 1:;. r urnel\rm I'Ur\'1' [or pi~t-nnplwrw. Hat in of l'ilfi!H!t' in prr~~nn to Chflng-r in \-ohrlll<lnr pi! on
phmw plntrt<l a>::nin~r fn'<!lll'lll'\' .'!.Jl=-(~.
Jl I

to tlw BurPnu of ~li1ws pistonphOJH'. From tlw graph it is I'Yidt'lll

lhn{. b<'i\VPPn 40 mal GOO c.yr.l<'s JH'r sPCOlHi n fnrtor of 1.35 enn lw usl'd !
wit.hont more tlwn 2 ptre<nt- l'l'l'Or. Ho\H'Yl'r, at 10\nr frNJIICllf'i('."
the c.orrrrtion fartor c.hnnges rapidly with frpqucncy, mra of walls.
n.nd volume, nnd t-.Jwrcfore th(' exprcfpd error will be Jnrger than nt !-hr
higher fTNJII<'JH'ios.
CONSTRUCTION

The piston phone (fig. 14) c.onsjsts or t.wo closed c.ylindricn.l rJmmiH'rS
2.54 em. (1 ineh) long u.nd 2.54 em. (I inch) in dinnwt.pr SPJHlrll1fd hy
the pist.on, 0.0025 em. (0.001 inch) lf'RS in dianwtfr. Tlw nir nw!Pr
(G), screwed tightly into p1ncc for cnlibrn.tion, formed one <'lld nf 1111'
front nir chnmlwr (F), nnd tho piston (E) formed tho otiHr '''"'- Tl"
piston was drinn clr-ctromagneticnlly by nn nlt.rrnntiiw-cuJTI'III
;""'I'ZI"'""
driYing r.oil (R) operating in Llw field of a permanent magnd~ (A) a11d
connected to t.lw piston by n. light. rod (/J), whieh passpd j.Jnough !ltr
rcn.r air chnmlHr (!). A stP<'l band (C)hdd the piston nml driYin~
coil to t;Jl<'ir Ztro srtt-ings. The tf'nRion of thr sted band wnf: n.dju~1:~
blc so as t.o vary t.lw nn.tura.l frtqtH'ney of the syskm. Tlw llloYinJ!
pn.rts (piston, eomwct.ing rod, driYing eoil, and sterl band) fomud n
system mwlogous t.o a st.ring loaded in the crntrr and vihrnlfd hY a
0
fig. 15). Acrmac;~' of
fOre~ n.eting 'n.t the c.<nt.cr.' To get n.s l1igh nn.t.urnl freqtH'IH'iP~ H~ of ast.t>ady sta.tc o. nl
For obt.ninlng luglw1
poss1hh', grcnt, t.<'nsion and a. light load are ncerssnry. The pi~lnn
ton the front chamh<
and driving rod Wt'l'C' made of durnluminnm for strrngt.h nnd liuh! lli'S~
n.nd the driving coil, taken from a 25-wntt.magnet.ic s}waker '~'liS ulso
san~e time increasing t
nnun double amplitnt

1nicrosrope is slightly

nstnnt Yolumo. Jt.~
.~gail~, changing
mfimtBsimnls of t.Jw
PISTO~PHONE 15
very light. The ste.rl bnnd, which is ;JO em. (12 inches) long, 1.8 em .
nw (% ineh) wide, a-nd 0.025 em. (0.01 inch) thick, is of high knsilr Rtrcngt11
for mnxinnun tension.
A Inicrosropl' with a filar mic.rometrr cycpircc is mmmtccl above a
mnrk on t.lw driving rod to nwasurc- the moYemPnt of t.lw piston (srr.
(I~)

tnt rontnintr. it will

l'OillJH\'ssion will h"
will l't'lllllin at. t ht
cnmJH'PssimJ will IH
.comprt>ssts tlw g-n~
lllll'rlwill dPlll'nd 011
1s on thl' eh:l1Wt' in
tinn :111(1 s.lwwnr-hnw
g wnlls.. nnd n1hmw
l'PC\ ion :1::::. npplic:J hit~

i
I
i
]::"(}
'"

; grnph it is. 'Yidtnt

.of l.:~tl can lw II~('< I
:t- lmnr fTN]llf'JH'ic~
ney, nrpa of \\'11 11~.
'e huger than n.t. t.lw

yJindricnl ehamhprs
nwt.pr :::wpara t t'd hv
1'1'. Tlw air nwt,;r
'JWd OJH' end of IIH
h0 oUwr Pnd. Th1
nltrrna t.ing-euJTI'Tll
nt. HHt.gnd. (..-l) nnd
IH~.sscd t.lnou~h (.h1'
piston n.nd drivin1r
band WHR adjustu~
lPm. Tlw nloYilw
p} bnnd) fornHd ~ fig. 15). Arrurnry of mPnsnrrmPnt doptnc!Pd mainl~Y on ma.intf'JHHJf'.e
:tnd Yihra.t.Pd hr n of Rst.pntlY stnt.r of Yibrntion.
nid frcqnml<'ic.s m: For obt:nining hig1wr pnssurrs with thr sn.n1e rnovrmrnt of the pis-
snr)T. 'rhr piston ton, t.lw front chmnlwr cnn bC' shortpmd to 1.25 em. (%inch), a,t the
ngth n.nd li~ht fl('Ss sam0 tinw increasing the rPnr eha.mhcr Lo 3.7 em. (0~ inehos). 1vlnxi-
spPakcr, wns nll-'n mum double umplilwlt of the piston t.hnt can be n1cn.surcrl by the

mierosropc is slightly OYl'l' 1 mnL (0.04 in<'h) .

 16
AlR-BLAST 2.1ETER AND CALIBRA'l'IXG EQ("If'.:\1EXT

RESUL

Although the deflt

force at any h:cquen1
tivitv of the mr met<
will 'be influenced b)
atmosphere. Loalmt .
frrqucmcy sensitt:tty
en.ble connector 1s n
metal glue. The rel
of the air-blast motel
measuring the defiec
difftrcnt units but ho
sPcond. FoT aeeura
could be sealed to el
The air meter was 1
times for all settin10s
actuator to de:tcrmm
the sensitivity. All <

FWIJRE 15.-l'istonphonll with air-blnsc meter and microsrope monntt'd for tnlibratirm.

TESTS

The pistonphone was used for cnlib,ating the air-blast mrtprs at nil
sett.ings but was most sa.tisfactory for high-prcssun enlibrntions, !win~
difficult. to maintain in a steady state of Yibrntion for lo\\- pressJII'<'s
Orss than 5,000 dynes per squa.re centimeter) at lo\\- frequrnei<s.
J
Maximum pressure difl'erences of OYPr 100.000 dynes per squnn cent liinit of error.
crntimr.trr were obtnined n.t Jow frcqnrneirs, nnd their mPnsurrmt'll! reassembled in the sa
was limited to this figure only by thP field of Yision of the microscope ing any change m Sl'
used. I\1 u.ximmn pressure differences at. high frrqtlf'ncics wPrc Iimifl'1l parts.
by hfn.ting of the 25-wnLt driving coil (100 perePnt, (J\-erlonds werP noi
injurious for short periods of time); consequently, at..500 cyclts Jl<'r RESULT!
second thP pressure was Iirnited to approxin1a trly 6,000 dyn('S ]H'r The damuge nscrib
square centinwter. Frequencies as 1ow as 5 cyeh's 1)(11' second W('J'r plainants is hrokPn w
obtained and
ing-eunrnt, were limited by t.lw voltage n.vniloble from the altemnl-
grnrrator. 111 ate pressure nt w~
time. test the op~.ratH
Ai. frequPnc.irs below 40 cyclrs per second the correction bcconw!'
larger becnusc of nmutdiubnt.ic compnssio11 and expansion. ~\~ if
Rather tlmn nsk d
ViTas rlecidp.d to sinlul
was diffieult to eliminate friction and obtain sinp wavps at frequrnC'ir'" side of a closed \VO<
as low as 5 cycles per second, more friction was introduc<'d aut!. hy depend on the area ~
tigiJtoning tllo adjusting screws (par(. H, fig. 14) unoH'nly, viJilJn/ly sides of Uw glass.
squa.rr wave shaprs \YPre obta.inl'd. This would incrcusr thr f'l'l'or fo pn'ssure in freC' spac
be expcct.ed from nonadiabatic compression. Howevtr, the Jll'l'RSIII'<' factors as well. The
rrsponsc, us cn.lculatcd from Bni1n.11tinp's formula, wn.s 'Tirtually lhr at at.1nospheric bccn.1
snme as at higher frequenciPs. Figure J 6 shm\-s the prpssurc rospons1 As the duration tiinC':
plot.tcd against the frl'quency.
wa vc arc short, tlH' c
These tests with the pistonphone checked the electrostn.tic-ndunlor be small compared t<
l'Psults within 10 pcrernt for SPnsitiYit.ies from static pressurPR lo walls arc much dens<
frequencies of npproximatrly 500 cycles pPr Sf'cond for the SPnsilin of motion and, const
Rf'Hings w1wrp bot.h mPthods could hP usrd. TI1e high-pi'('S-"III'C' will be small eompan
srttings of t.lw air-blast indPr wrn' cnlihrnt('d only by tlw pistonphnnc. on the outside. For
 RESULTS OF PRELIMINARY FIELD TESTS 17
Although tlw dcfll'ction of the diaphragm is the saml' lor a certain
forcP at a.ny frequency from zero to 500 cycles prr second, t.he. sensi-
tivity of thr air rneter (as discussed under Air ~{c-ter Charu.cteristic.s)
will hL' influrnced by any leakage between the air clwn1lwr and the
ntmosph(;'n'. Lraka.gC' monnd the dia})hra.p:m would shmv on th(
frrquency sC'nsitiYity ca.librat.ions. Possibility of lca.kng<' through tho
c.nble connector is mu.de negligible by sealing the connections with
ml'toJ glnr. The rl'maining possibility for leakage tluough the rear
of the air-blast meter is t-est.rd by reversing it in the piston phone and
nuns11ring tlw deflection fron1 known pressures. R<~sults vn.ry with
different units hut have not exceeded 15 percent error at 5 cycles per
spcond. For accurate n1easurernent of lower frequencies the back
could be sealed to eliminate this error.
The air mctpr was ta.kPn a.part, reassembled, and recnlibrated several
times for all settings with both the pist.onphone and the electrostatic
uduator to dl't('rminc whether such changes would apprrciably a-ffect
tho stnsitiYit.y. All eulibmtions eonld hr clnplicrrtNl within the 10-]wr-

"

" nt nH
~,!wing
'PSSIII'f'~
lli
II .
11111"1111111111
- - -
11111"111
FREQUENCY, CYCLES Pfl SECOHD
!
FIGURE lG.-C'alihration of pistonphone.
!00 ~00

ll'IH'1(':4, cent limit of error. All parts were marked so that they could be
squnn rct1.ssrn1bled in the snnH' posit.ions rrlative to each othrr, thus decreas-
)'Pl-lWilt ing any changP in sensitivity due to smnllincclumical defects of the
I'OS('(tp!
parts.
lin1ih>d
t'I'P no(. RESULTS OF PRELIMINARY FIELD TESTS
h.sJWI'
The damagt ascribed to the air blast of an explosion by most com-
)l'S JWl'
td W!'t'('
plainant.." is broken window gluss. lt was decided to find Ute npproxi-
rnate prpssui'f'- at whieh window glu.ss would break and at tlw same
tP.rnn t.-
time test the operation of tlw air meter in the field,
Rat.lwr tha.n risk du.rnn.ging a building in thme prelinTinar:y tests, it
P-t'Otnt'~
was decid('d to sirnulate conditions by mounting pmws of gla.ss in one
As it sidr of a. clos<'d wooden box. The fol'ce. exerted on the gla.ss will
tlf'll{'JP~
depend on thr area C..'\posnd and the fliff<'lcnec in pnssurP on the two
md, hv
irt uall~
'1'1'01' to
l'l'RSlll'('
sirlps of tho glass. The pressure on tho outside '\Vill dep<.'nd on tho
prrRsure in frep spa.ee, rPflcetion frorn the house., mul possibly other
faptors tts well. Thr prcss1U'P inside the house will not remain cxa.etly
n.t n.t1nosplwric bccu.usp. of leakage und slight bending of tlw walls.
<lly tlu As the duration tiniCs of the pressure wa.ve n.n(l tho following va.cuu1n
'S}WilRP
wave Rro short, thr chRngc in pressure inside tho house pl'ohably will
ct lUI t-or be snutll cornpared to tho change. in pressure on t.he outside. As the
111'(':4 t (I wu.lls are 1nuch d(nse.r than the air it is evident thn.t their mnplitude
nsit i\"1'
of motion and, consequently, the pn'ssure. change within tJu'- house
J't'R~III'!'
will be small compared to the a.mplitudc of motion of the air particles
on the outside. For these reasons, it was thought that the pressure

1phnnl'.
. 18 AIR-BLAST METER AND CALIBRATING EQUIPMENT

rwcPssmy t.o break the glass mount.rd in t.hr box would approximn.t.<'ly mu.ximu m press11r
equal t.hat. nrcrssn,ry to brC'ak windows in a house. per squaTe. inch) n
The box (fig. 17) was built of 0.6-cm. (Y,-inch) plywood and was of glazier points on a
tig-ht construction to minirnizc lrnking. Various-size panels of gla.ss area of 60.5 em. (2
wPre tightened ar
slmtter<'d, glass f:
pressure on two s1
n.rea of 37.5 em. '
but di<l not <lama
eiably influ~nccd

TE
u
:;,

r-tP
~//
$
jf'
.,

'/{
//
).
,;
f;
,
by the glazrer p01
Although one '
oseillograph elen
stN'-P wn.VP front
conditions prcvm
:3 //(
y/ ///
/' ;f the faet that tlu

l
// // /'
inversely propor

~
// :/
// parts the ~ccura
'J
the intcnstty of
a:> ..... rlistan<_r. and t.hl
sure. It is pro1
1-E-----100 em. ------'0~ further cxpeTim
FIGURE 11.-Window box. r.xplosions.
A stiek of dy
I I I I I I I I I I I
c- 0 Ooe stick of dyn~mite suspended in ~ir
pressure. and n.
buried about 1
60,000

-

,--
II
One stick of dynamite buded. broke

r .. o sticks of dyn~mite suspended in air

o~t

v i' upon explosion.

/
I/
/
1. AnNOI,D, H.
/ Sound. p
'
/
v 2. BAJ.I,ANTINE.
Soc_ AmcT
3. GI.OVER, RA
/ phone for
America,
/ 4. 0T.F.ON, HA:f
/ phones. :
~ 20.000

'; v 5. SwiAN, L. J
Tech. Jor
6. "WENTE, E.
333.
/ 7 . - - . A<
1935.

,V "' 8. WEsT, W.
SimpleS<
"
RECIPROCAl OF OISTAUCE. METER

FIGURE 18.-0bserverl pressuredistuneo rdntionshtp,

9. CRANDALl.,
11, 1918
could be mounted in the front and were. fastened with glazier points 10. HARRISON,
(no putty being used) to expedite these tests. The air meter was in Micropb
the center of the box above the glass. Dynamite hanging about 1.2 11. JoNES, \Y.
Use. B
mct<'rs (4 feet) from the ground wns exploded at measured distances 12. OLIVER, 1
in front of the sash. Under these conditions, one stick (3 em. (1){ M.easurt
inches) by 20 em. (8 inches)) of 40-prrcent gdatin dynamit< gave a

 BIBLIOGRAPHY 19
l.Y maximum pressure of 60,000 dynes per square centimeter (0.9 pound
per square inch) at 7.5 meters (25 feet). This test first loosened the
of glazier points on a pane of double-strength glass haYing an unsupported
ISS area of 60.5 em. (23'){, inches) by 77.5 em. (30~ inches). When these
"ere tightened and the test was repeated, the pane was completely
"hattered, glass falling both inside and outside the box. The same
pressure on two sina.ller, singh-strcngth pn,nes having an unsupported
area of 37.5 em. (14% inches) by 60.5 em. (23)1: inches) shattered one
but did not damage the other. It is thought that brmtkage is appre-
ciably influenced by inhomogeneities in the glass and strains caused
by the glazier points, but tests for these factors were not conducted.
Although one object of these tests was to determine whether the
oscillograph clements and the air meter could aecuratcly follow the
skcp '''ave front resulting from exploding dynmnite in air, advrrse
conditions prevente-d accurate analysis of the wave front. Howevl'r,
the fact that the maximum pressures measured were approximately
inversely proportional to the distance, as shown by figure 18, sup-
ports the accuracy of the Inea.surmncnts, since, neglecting damping,
the intensity of the wave should va.ry inversely as the square of t.lw
distance and the intensity is proportional to thr. square of the pn's-
sure. It is proposed to use crystal clmnt-.nts in the oseillograph for
furthm experimentation with the steep wave front found close to
rxplosions.
A stick of dynamite e"-ploded in the air gave about six times the
prrssure and n. steeper wave front than a like an10unt whirh wns
buried about 1 foot underground at the same distance and broke out
upon explosion.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CALIBRATION OF MICROPHONES
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CONDENSER MICROPHONE
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~ Ill
10. HARRISON, H. C., AND FLANDERS, P. B. An Efficient Miniature Condenser
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(1 Y. 12. OLIVER, D. A. An Improved Condenser Microphone for Sound-p1'
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" 11
f: ~

20 AIR-BLAST METER AND C'ALlBRATTNG EQliiP:\IE~T

13.
p. 39. E. C.
'WENTE. A Condenser TransmiU.er. Phys. Rev., ser. 2, vol. 10, 1917,
14.
-- - . 1922.
).lay An Imprmed Condenser Transmitter. Phys. Rev., ser. 2, val. 19,

EXPLOSION RECORDING GAGES

15.
1\:E~T, R. H., AND HoDGE, A. H. The Use of the Piezoelect.ric Gage in the
!\IeasurPment of Powder Pressures. Tram;;. Am. Soc. :VIcch. Eng., vol.
61, :-lo. 3. 1939, pp. 197-204.
16. 1
h:EYEt'\, DAviD A. 1 iezoeledric :rvrcthod of l\Icasuring Explosion Pressures.
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17.
l\IAnTIN, E. S., Al\'n C..uns, D. F. TIPsista.ncP- Engine Indicator. Jour. Soc.
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18.
TioEss. Lons C. A Condenser-type High-speed Engine Indicator. Rev. Sci.
lnstr., vol. 2, No. G, June 1940, pp. 183-195.
19.
ScHHADER, H. J. Piezoelectric Engine Indicator. R. G. A. Rev., vol. 2,
1937, p. 202.
RECORDING OF EXPLOSIVE WAVES
20.
Es.cLAKGON, E. L' Aconstiqne des projectile& et des canons. Gauthier-
Yillars, 1925.
GA W'I'HHOP, D. B. VPlocit.y of the Shock Wrwe. Jour. Franklin Ins~ . vol.
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219. 1935, p. 471. '
22.
GA WTHROI', D. B .. Sm~rmmn. \V. C. F'., ANn PERHOTT, G. ST. r. The Photo-
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23.
Jo:-.Ef:, ELWYl';, Photop;r:lphic Study of DPtonation in Solid Explosives.
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25.
I'AL\tAN, \YrLLIAM. DPtonation \Yan' in Gaseous :\[ixturcR and the Prcdeto-
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SEISMIC INVESTIGATIONS BY THE BUREAU OF MINES

2G.
Lrm. F.""., AND InLAND, G. A. Const.ruction of 1\Iast.er 1\Icrhanical Oscillator
for Te~tinp; SC'ismie Recorder& and Other Allif'cl Apparatw:. BurPnu nf
:\lint's Tech. Pappr ,1)18. 1932. 17 pp.
27.
lRL\ND, G. A. A Studv of Sonw Seismometers. Bureau of l\Iincs Tech.
28.
Pappr 556, 1934. 48 pp.
I~m:. F. W., TnOlml~K. J. R., AND WINDEB, S. L. Earth Yibrat.ions Cau::~ed
hy Quarry Blasting. Bureau of Miner:: Rf'pt. of Jnvcstign.tions 3310, J030,
lf) pp.

Tum-:NJ:r.:, .J. R., A;o..;n ".1!'\DI~f\, S. L. Earth Yihration.-- Caused by Qnnrry

29.
HlaRiiHp;. PI'Og:res.o: H<'pOI"I 1. Bm-cau of :\lines Rcpt.. of Invest.iP,"ations
33;)3. 1937, 73 pp.
30.
- - - - . Eart.h Vibra.t.iow;; Cauo:e<i by i\finc BlastinP,". ProgrcsR RepnrL 2.
31. Rmeau of i\[inp~ Hept. of lnYestigafion::: a407, 193R, 10 pp.
- - - - - Hou:=;e l\[oYclllcllt Cnu~Nl lw Ground Vihratirms. BmPatl of
.i\1 inC'R n('pt. of I 11\'('sj iP,"ationR 3-t:~ 1' 193.8, 14 pp.

,
32.
Tmmx1:N, J. R .. \Ynnn:s. S. L., ANn lnJ.:J,AKD . .-\. T. House i\lovf'mPnt Tn-
duc<'rl hy i\Iechanica\ Agitation anri Quarry B!Hst.ing. Progress Reporf 3.
Bureau of i\Iines Hept. of In\cstigations 3542, I g,iO, 36 pp.

MISCELLANEOUS
33. PENDim, HAROLD, AND DI::L 1\Lm., W. A. Handbook for Electrical Engineers'
2<1 eel., 1922, pp. -~13--414.
34. Woon, A. B. .-\Textbook of Sound. The .:\Iacl\lillan Co., 1937, .119 pp.