Dr. M.

Senthil Kumar
Assistant Professor
Department of Automobile Engineering
Madras Institute of Technology Chromepet
Anna University, Chennai – 44

Engines
 Device which transforms one form of energy into another form.
form
 Heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of
a fuel into thermal energy and utilizes this thermal energy to
perform useful work.

Heat engines can be classified into Two categories

IC Engines : Engines in which combustion takes place within the engine

Ex : Gasoline engine, Diesel engine etc.
EC Engines : Engines in which combustion takes place outside the engine
Ex : Steam Engine, Stirling Engine etc.

1
Classification of Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engines

Four Stroke Engines Two Stroke Engines

SI Engines CI Engines SI Engines CI Engines

1. Applications 2. Basic Engine Design

3. Type of Fuel Used 4. Type combustion chamber
5. Type of Engine cooling 6. No of cylinders Used
7.Type of Valve design 8. Mixture Preparation

Comparison of SI and CI Engines

Description Spark Ignition Engine Compression Ignition Engine

Basic Cycle Otto cycle or constant volume cycle Diesel Cycle or constant pressure cycle

Fuel Used Gasoline Diesel oil

Ignition Using spark by spark plug Fuel is injected and ignited by the heat of
compression

Fuel Introduction Mixture of fuel and air is introduced Fuel is directly injected into the
during the suction stroke . combustion chamber at high pressure at
the end of the compression stroke

Use of carburater Carburetor is used for supplying the Fuel injection pump is used for injecting
air fuel mixture the fuel

Compression Ratio 6 to 10 16 to 20

Speed High speed engines Low speed engines

Thermal Efficiency Lower thermal efficiency due to Higher thermal efficiency due to higher
lower compression ratio compression ratio

Weight Light due to lower peak pressures Heavy due to higher peak pressures

2
Comparison of 4 Stroke and 2 Stroke Engines
Description Four Stroke Engine Two Stroke Engine

No of Strokes Four Two

Power output Low due to one power stroke for High due to one power stroke for each
each four strokes two strokes

Flywheel Heavier flywheel due to non Lighter Flywheel due to uniform turning
uniform turning moment moment

Use of Valves Inlet and Exhaust Valves are used. No valves are used

Volumetric efficiency More due to more time for induction Less due to less time for induction

Engine design Complex due to valve mechanism Simple due to the absence of valves

Thermal Efficiency Higher due to complete combustion Lower due to incomplete combustion

Pollution Lower due to complete combustion Higher due to incomplete combustion

Weight Heavier due to complex Lighter due to simple mechanism

mechanism

Advantages of Diesel Engines

More efficient than any other heat engines of comparable size.
Cheap by way of initial cost.
Can be started and stopped quickly,
quickly can burn a wide range of fuels.
Most economical means of generating electricity on small scale.

Applications
Rail road locomotives
Ship propulsion
Electric generators for small supply units
Used as central stations for producing electricity of 2 to 50 MW
capacity

3
Geometry of the Engine
Cylinder Bore: The inner diameter of the Bore
working cylinder is called the cylinder
Stroke: The distance through which a
piston moves between two dead centers
Dead center: The point at the moment TDC

when the piston motion is reversed at

either end of the stroke. Piston Stroke
Top Dead Center (TDC): The point when
the piston is farthest away from the crank BDC

shaft.
Bottom Dead Center (BDC): It is the
point when the piston is nearest to the Connecting Crank
Rod Shaft
crank shaft.

Displacement or Swept volume: The volume swept by the working piston when
travelling from one dead center to the other dead center is called the displacement
volume.
Clearance Volume: The volume of the combustion chamber above the piston when it is
at the top dead center is the clearance volume

Compression Ratio: It is the ratio of TDC Vc

the total cylinder volume when the
piston is at the bottom dead center to
VD
the clearance volume.
BDC

Vmax VD + VC
rc = =
Vmin VC Cylinder

VD Displacement Volume
VC Clearance Volume
Displacement Volume Clearance Volume

4
Components of a Diesel Power plant

1. Diesel engine
2. Air Intake system
3. Engine starting System
4. Fuel supply system
5. Exhaust System
6. Cooling System
7. Lubricating system

Diesel Engine
Fuel Injector

Intake Cam
Exhaust Cam

Exhaust Valve
Intake Valve
Clutch
Piston
Gear Box
Connecting Rod

Flywheel

Crank

Parts of a Diesel Engine

5
Types of a Diesel Engine

Single Cylinder Twin Cylinder Three Cylinder Four Cylinder 5 Cylinder

V-5 V-6 V-8

Diesel Engines Types Based on Cylinder Arrangement

Air Intake system

4 It removes the dust from the atmospheric air

and supplies fresh air to the engine. Air
filters
Supercharger, if fitted, is generally driven by
the engine itself and it augments the power
output of the engine
4 The air system begins with the intake located
outside the building provided with a filter to Intake
manifold
catch dirt which otherwise would cause
engine wear.
4 Different types of filters are used in the intake
system such as Dry oil bath filter oil
impingement filter

6
Engine Starting System
Starting system: Of the engine includes an electric motor which drives a
pinion which is engaged a toothed rim on engine flywheel.
flywheel A small electric
generator driven from the engine supplies electric supply for the motor.

Storage battery is also used for the supply of power to the electric motor for
small plants. As soon as the engine is started, electric motor disengages
automatically.
Starter Motor

Battery

Cooling System
Cooling System : To carry heat from the engine cylinder, to keep the
cylinder and other engine parts within the safe limits. The temperature of the
burning fuel inside the cylinder is about 1500°
1500°C. To maintain the temperature as
a reasonable level, water is circulated around the engine water jackets which
is passed through the cylinder combustion chamber and cools the engine parts.
Hot water leaving the jacket is Pressure ReleaseCap
Thermostat Valve
sent to the heat exchanger.
Water Pump
Types of cooling system
1. Air cooling
Air
2. Liquid cooling Flow
• Thermo syphon cooling
Water
• Forced or pump cooling Pump
• Cooling with thermostatic Overflow Pipe Cylinders

regulator Engine Cooling System

7
Lubricating System
Lubricating system: To reduce friction between the engine parts and reduce
wear and tear of the engine parts. It includes oil pumps, oil tanks, coolers and
pipes.
Wet sump lubrication system : Oil is stored in the bottom of the crank case
called sump
Rocker Arms Rocker Shaft
Valves
Dry sump lubrication Push Rod
Tappet Cylinder head
system : Oil is stored out Oil Galleries Cam Shaft
of the engine block/crank
case Timing Chain Oil Gauge
tensioner
Crank Shaft
Mist lubrication system : Pump Oil Filter
Used in two stroke engine. Drive Shaft
2to 3% of the lubricating Oil Sump
Floating Oil
oil is added with the fuel Oil Pump intake and screen
for lubrication. Engine Lubricating System

Engine Exhaust System

The purpose of the exhaust system is to discharge the engine exhaust to the atmosphere
outside the building or the system. It includes the exhaust manifold, catalytic converter and
the tail pipe. The exhaust gas has high temperature and so it can be used to preheat the oil
and air.
The exhaust pipe should be short in length with Front Pipe: to take
minimum number of bends and should have one or gases from the engine
cylinders and channel
two flexible tubing sections to take the effect of
them in to the exhaust
expansion, and isolate the system from engine
vibration
Center section :
To reduce noise
Catalytic Converter: to
Flexible reduce number of
Tube harmful pollutant gases

Tailpipe: to further reduce noise

and channel exhaust gases away
from the plant

8
Fuel Supply System
Functional Requirements
For a proper running and good performance from the engine, the following
requirements must be met by the injection system:

1. Accurate metering of the fuel injected per cycle.

2. To time the injection of the fuel correctly in the cycle for maximum
power,
power fuel economy and clean burning.
3. To control of rate of injection
4. To atomize the fuel into very fine droplets.
5. To achieve spray pattern to ensure rapid mixing of fuel and air.
6. To distribute fuel droplets uniformly throughout the combustion
chamber.
7. To supply equal quantities of metered fuel to all cylinders.

Classification
Classification of
of Injection
Injection Systems
Systems

Air
Air Injection
Injection Solid
Solid Injection
Injection

Fuel is forced into the cylinder by

means of compressed air.
Requires a bulky multi-
multi-stage air
compressor. This causes an
increase in engine weight and
reduces the brake power output
further.
Advantage claimed for the air
injection system is good mixing
of fuel with the air.
Another is the ability to utilize
fuels of high viscosity.
viscosity
liquid fuel is injected
directly into the combustion
chamber without the aid of
compressed air.
It is also called Airless
mechanical injection or solid
injection system.
Solid Injection systems can be
classified into four types.

9
 Types of Solid Injection
1. Individual pump and nozzle systems
2. Unit injector system
3. Common rail system
4. Distributor system

All above systems comprise mainly of the following components.

1. Fuel tank,
2. Fuel feed pump to supply fuel from the main fuel tank,
3. Injection pump to meter and pressurize the fuel for injection,
4. Governor to ensure that the amount of fuel injected is in
accordance with variation in load,
5. Injector to take fuel from the pump and distribute it in the
combustion chamber by atomizing it into fine droplets,
6. Fuel filters

Solid injection system (Mechanical Controlled)

Fuel Return Line

Fuel Tank

Fuel Injection
Pump Nozzle

Fuel Filter Glow

Plug
Timing
Device

Governor
Fuel Supply Pump

Battery Glow Plug Glow Plug

Starter Control Unit

Solid Injection System with Mechanical controlled FIP

10
Solid injection system (Electronic Controlled)

Solid Injection System with Mechanical controlled FIP

Individual Pump and Nozzle System

In this system, each cylinder is provided with one pump and one
injector.
A separate metering and compression pump is provided for each
cylinder.
The pump may be placed close to the cylinder or they may be
arranged in a cluster.
cluster The HP pump plunger is actuated by a
cam,
cam and produces the fuel pressure necessary to open the
injector valve at the correct time.
The amount of fuel injected depends on the effective stroke of the
plunger.

11
Unit Injector System
Solenoid Plunger
Push Rod
The unit injector system is one in
which the pump and the injector
nozzle are combined in one housing.
Each cylinder is provided with one of
these unit injectors.
Fuel is brought up to the injector by a low
pressure pump,pump where at the
proper time, a rocker arm actuates the
plunger and injects the fuel.
Fuel Supply
The amount of fuel injected is Port
regulated by the effective stroke of the
plunger.
Nozzle
The pump and the injector can be
Unit Injector
integrated in one unit.

Common Rail System

In the CR system, a HP pump supplies fuel, under high pressure,
pressure to a fuel header.
High pressure in the header forces the fuel to reach of the nozzles located in the
cylinders. At proper time, a Mechanically operated valve allows the fuel to enter the
proper cylinder through the nozzle. The pressure in the fuel header must enable to
penetrate and disperse the fuel in the combustion chamber.
Amount of fuel entering the cylinder is regulated
Pressure Pressure
by varying the length of the push rod stroke.
stroke Sensor Common Rail Limiter

Fuel Passage

Injector Body

Electromagnetic coil Supply Pump

Return Spring Injectors
EDU
Needle valve
ECU
Diffuser nozzle
Fuel Tank Sensors
Fuel Injector
Common Rail Fuel Supply System

12
Distributor Pump System
This pump has only a single pumping element
and the fuel is distributed to each cylinder by means
of a rotor.
There is a central longitudinal passage in the
Rotor
rotor and also two sets of radial holes (each
equal to the number of engine cylinders) located at Fuel Inlet
different heights. Outlet Passage
One set is connected to pump inlet via central Rotor
passage whereas the second set is connected to
delivery lines leading to injectors of the various
cylinders.
The fuel is drawn into the central rotor passage
from the inlet port when the pump plunger moves
away from each other. Fuel Delivery

Whenever, the radial delivery passage in the rotor coincides with the delivery port
for any cylinder, the fuel is delivered to each cylinder in turn. Main advantages of
this of this type of pump lies in its small size and its light weight.

Fuel Feed Pump Drive

Eccentric
It is of spring loaded plunger type. The plunger is
actuated through a push rod from the camshaft.
camshaft At
the minimum lift position of the cam the spring force Cam
on the plunger creates a suction which causes fuel Shaft

flow from the main tank into the pump.

pump When the cam
is turned to its maximum lift position, the plunger is
lifted upwards. Pressure
Chamber
At the same time the inlet valve is closed
and the fuel is forced through the outlet Suction
Chamber
valve. When the operating pressure gets
released, the plunger return spring ceases
to function resulting in varying of the
pumping stroke under varying engine loads
according to the quantity of fuel required by Schematic of Fuel Feed Pump
the injection pump.

13
 Fuel Injection Pump

The main objectives of fuel injection pump is to DELIVERY

VALVE HOLDER
deliver accurately metered quantity of fuel
under high pressure (in the range from 120 to
200 bar) at the correct instant to the injector DELIVERY
VALVE SPRING DELIVERY
fitted on each cylinder. Injection pumps are of VALVE

two types, viz. (i) Jerk type pumps (ii) DELIVERY

VALVE SEAT
PLUNGER
Distributor type pumps. BARREL
BYPASS PORT INLET PORT
It consists of a reciprocating plunger inside a PLUNGER BYPASS GROVE

barrel. The plunger is driven by a camshaft.

Near the port A, fuel is always available under
relatively low pressure. While the axial TOOTHED CONTROL ROD
SEGMENT
movement of the plunger is through cam BYPASS HELIX
shaft, its rotational movement about its axis CONTROL
SLEEVE
by means of rack D. Port B is the orifice
through which fuel is delivered to the injector.
Sectional View of Jerk Type FIP

Fuel
Fuel Filter
Tank Fuel Injection Silencer
Pump

Jacket Water Pump

Air
Intake
system
Generator
Compressor

Cooling
Diesel Engine Tower
Air

Pump
Lubricating
oil Tank
Exchanger
Cooler
Oil Cooler

Exchanger
Heat
Heat

Pump Fuel
Oil

Filter Pump
Fuel
Fuel Storage
Storage Tank
Tank

Schematic of a Diesel Power Plant

14
 Combustion in CI Engines
There are certain basic differences existing between the combustion process in SI and CI
engines. In the CI engine only air is compressed through a high compression ratio (12 to
22) raising its temperature and pressure to a high value. Fuel is injected by the injector
and ignited by the heat of compression of the air. The combustion in a CI engine is
considered to be taking place in four phases.
phases

1. Ignition Delay Period

2. Premixed combustion Period
3. Diffusion Combustion Period
4. After burning Period

Ignition Delay: This is the period between the start of fuel injection into the
combustion chamber and the start of combustion. The delay period in the CI engine
excerts a very great influence on both engine design and performance. The ignition delay
period can be divide into two parts, the physical delay and chemical delay.

Physical Delay is the period between the beginning of injection and attainment of
chemical reaction conditions. During this period, the fuel is atomized, vaporized, mixed
with air and raised to its self ignition temperature. This physical delay depends on the type
of fuel. This can be greatly reduced by using high injection pressures.

Combustion Stages in CI Engines

110
C

90 Premixed Combustion
Diffusion Combustion
Cylinder Pressure (bar)

Ignition Delay
70
After Burning
D
50 Start of Combustion B

30
Start of Injection A
E
10
Motoring (Non Firing)
-10
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100
Crank Angle (deg)

15
 Chemical Delay is the period between the acceleration of chemical reactions and
attainment of inflammation of the air and fuel Generally chemical delay is larger than
the physical delay. However, it depends on the temperature of the surroundings and at
high temperatures the chemical reactions are faster and the physical delay becomes
longer.
Premixed or Rapid combustion Phase: Combustion of the fuel which has mixed
with air to within the flammability limits during the ignition delay period occurs rapidly in a
few crank angle degrees. When this burning mixture is added to the fuel which becomes
ready for burning and burns during this phase, the high heat release rates characteristic
of this phase result.

Mixing controlled Combustion Phase: Once the fuel and air which premixed during
the ignition delay have been consumed, the burning rate is controlled by the rate at which
mixture becomes available for burning. Several process are involved- liquid fuel
atomisation vaporization, mixing of fuel vapor with air, preflame chemical reactions. The
heat release rate may or may not reach a second peak in this phase.

Late Combustion Phase: Heat release continues at a lower rate well into the
expansion stroke. A small fraction of the fuel may not yet have burned. The kinetics of the
final burnt-out processes become slower as the temperature of the cylinder gases fall
during expansion

Diesel Fuel Combustion

Primary
Atomization High
Temperatures Complete
Combustion Soot, Smoke ,
Fuel is atomized Water Vapor
into droplets High temperature
varying in size is achieved due Only the surface of each
from 20 to 100 to combustion
fuel droplet exposed to Leaving unburned carbon
microns when
air can burn, larger to collect on the surfaces of
injected
liquid fuel droplets do a combustion chamber or
not burn completely escape as particulate
matter in exhaust gases.

16
Engine Performance Parameters
Brake Power: Power obtained at the engine crank shaft. The power delivered by the
engine is the product of torque and angular speed which can be written as
Stator Force F
2 .π .N .T
B .P = T = F.b
60 Rotor
N +

Where, B.P Brake Power in kW b

N Engine Speed in rev/min
T Torque in Nm

Indicated Power: Power obtained in the cylinder by the combustion of fuel. It is

calculated as
P .L. A.n
I .P = m
60
Where, Pm Indicated Mean Effective Pressure N/m2
L Length of Stroke m
A Area of the Piston m2
n No.of Power strokes per cycle

Brake Thermal Efficiency: Ratio of energy in the brake power to the input fuel energy
in appropriate units
B.P
η Brake = .
m f × C.V

Where, mf Mass of the fuel injected kg/s,

C.V Lower Heating Value of the fuel kJ/kg

Indicated thermal Efficiency: Ratio of energy in the indicated power to the fuel energy

I .P I.P - Indicated Power

ηindicated = . mf - Mass flow rate of fuel
m f × C.V C.V - Calorific Value of fuel

Mechanical Efficiency : Ratio of brake power to the indicated power

B.P B.P - Brake Power

η mech = I.P - Indicated Power
I .P

17
 Volumetric Efficiency: The engine power output is limited by the maximum amount of air
that can be taken in during the suction stroke. Volumetric efficiency is an indication of the
breathing ability of the engine and is defined as the ratio of volume of charge actually
inducted at ambient conditions to the swept volume of the engine

mass of charge actually inducted

η =
vol Mass of Charge by Swept Volume

Specific Fuel Consumption : It is an important parameter that reflects how good the
engine performance is. It is inversely proportional to the thermal efficiency of the engine.
It is the fuel consumed for the unit time and unit power output

Brake specific fuel consumption and indicated specific fuel consumption are the Specific
Fuel Consumption on the basis of brake power and indicated power
. .
mf mf
BSFC = and ISFC =
B.P I .P

Where, mf Mass flow rate of the fuel

Fuel Air (F/A) or Air fuel Ratio (A/F) : The relative proportions of the fuel and air in the
engine are very important for the combustion and efficiency of the engine. This is expressed
either as a ratio of the mass of the fuel to that of the air or vice versa.

A mixture that contains just enough air for complete combustion of all the fuel in the mixture
is called a chemically correct or stoichiometric fuel air ratio.A mixture having more fuel
than that in a chemically correct mixture is termed as rich mixture and a mixture that
contains less fuel or excess air is called a lean mixture.

Equivalence Ratio : The ratio of actual fuel air ratio to the chemically correct fuel air ratio is
called equivalence ratio

E . R (φ ) =
( Air / Fuel )Stoichiome tric
( Air / Fuel )Actual

φ =1 Chemically Correct Mixture

φ <1 Lean Mixture
φ >1 Rich Mixture

18
Mean Effective Pressure: Mean effective pressure is defined as the hypothetical pressure
acting on the piston during its expansion stroke producing the same work output as that from
the actual cycle.

Indicated Mean effective pressure is considered as the sum of brake mean effective pressure
and friction mean effective pressure.

Friction mean effective pressure is the portion of the indicated mean effective pressure to
overcome the friction losses.

Brake mean effective pressure is the portion which produces the useful power delivered by
the engine .

IMEP = BMEP + FMEP

Pimep .L. A.n.K Pbmep .L. A.n.K

I .P = B.P =
60000 60000

Where, L - Stroke Length A - Piston Area n - No. of Power Strokes

K - No. Of Cylinders

Brake Power, Indicated Power, Friction Power

Brake Thermal Efficiency, Mechanical Efficiency

100
90 Indicated Power
80 Mechanial
70 Efficiency
Brake Power
60
50
40
30 Brake Thermal Efficiency
20
10 Friction Power
0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000

Engine Speed (rev/min)

( Performance of a Variable Speed Diesel engine )

19
 Thermodynamic Analysis of Diesel Cycles

Diesel Cycle Qin

Fuel Injection
Pump Exhaust Outlet
Air Inlet

Qout

Intake Compression Power Exhaust

Process 1-2 : Isentropic Compression

Process 2-3 : Constant Pressure Heat Addition
Process 3-4 : Isentropic Expansion
Process 4-1 : Constant Volume Heat Rejection

20
Thermal Efficiency Qin

Workoutput
η Thermal =
HeatInput

Amount of Heat Added Qin

Qin = Q23 = w 23 + ( ∆u)23 = P2 (v 3 − v 2 ) Qout

= h3 − h2 = C p (T3 − T2 )
Amount of Heat Rejected Qout

Qout = −Q41 = − w 41 − ( ∆u)41 = u4 − u1

= C v (T4 − T1 )

Thermal Efficiency ηth, Diesel

w net Q
ηth, Diesel = = 1 − out
Qin Qin

Thermal Efficiency ηth, Diesel

T4
T1 ( − 1)
wnet Q T4 − T1 T1
ηth,Diesel = = 1 − out = 1− = 1−
Qin Qin k(T3 − T2 ) T
kT2 ( 3 − 1)
T2
From Ideal gas relations

T2 v v3
= ( 1 ) k −1 Cut off Ratio rc =
T1 v2 v2

Utilizing the Isentropic ideal gas relations for

processes 1-2 and 3-4 the thermal efficiency can
be reduced and written as

1 rck − 1
ηth,Diesel = 1 − [ ]
r k -1
k(rc − 1)

21
Heat Balance diagram
Heat transfer affects engine performance, efficiency and emissions. Higher heat
transfer to walls of the combustion chamber lowers the gas temperature and
pressure and reduces the work transferred to the piston. Heat transfer from hot
exhaust valves and piston to mixture cause auto ignition of the end gas. gas
Uneven heat dissipation causes piston and liner distortion.

Exhaust gas 33% Fuel Air

Cooling Water 35%

Lubricating oil
Diesel
Cooling water Engine
Useful Work 30 %

Lubricating Oil Crankcase and wall radiation

Engine heat balance

2 .π .N .T
Useful work (Brake Power) = B.P =
60

Heat lost to the

Q exhaust = m exhaust . Cp . (T exhaust –T ambient)
exhaust gas

Heat lost to the Q

coolant = mcoolant .Cp . (T coolant –T ambient)
coolant

Useful Work 30 %
100 %
Heat from Friction and lube oil 5%
Combustion
Cooling Water 35%

Exhaust gas 30%

22
Supercharging
A supercharger is an air compressor used for
forced induction of an internal combustion
engine. The greater mass flow-rate provides
more oxygen to support combustion than
would be available in a naturally aspirated
engine.
This allows more fuel to be provided and more
work to be done per cycle, increasing the
power output of the engine.
A supercharger can be powered mechanically
by a belt, gear, shaft, or chain connected to
the engine's crankshaft. It can also be
powered by an exhaust gas turbine. A turbine-
driven supercharger is known as a turbo
supercharger or turbocharger.

Disadvantages of Diesel Engines

Repair and maintenance cost are high

Plant capacity is limited to about 50 MW of power
Life of the diesel power plant is low when compared to thermal
power plants
Noise is a serious problem in diesel engines
Not economized where fuel has to be imported
Efficiency of the power plant is about 33 % only

23