INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Mihir Sen
University of Notre Dame

November 11, 2009

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INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
Outline

1 Outline

2 Basics

3 Classification

4 Terminology

5 Components

6 Operation

7 Thermodynamics

8 Parameters

9 Output

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Basics

Historical

Lenoir, 1860: first auto

Otto and Langen, 1867: efficiency about 11%
Diesel, by 1892: compression ignition engine

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Basics

Combustion engines

Chemical energy in fuel converted to thermal energy by

combustion or oxidation
Heat engine converts chemical energy into mechanical
energy
Thermal energy raises temperature and pressure of gases
within engine, and gas expands against mechanical
mechanisms of engine
Combustion
Internal: fuel is burned within the engine proper (including
e.g. rocket engines, jet Engines, firearms)
External: combustion is external to the engine (e.g. steam,
Stirling engine, gas turbine)
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Classification

Classification of IC engines

Ignition
Number of strokes
Valve location
Design
Position and number of cylinders
Air intake
Fuel input method
Fuel used
Cooling
Application

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Classification

Ignition

Spark ignition (SI): high-voltage electrical discharge

between two electrodes ignites air-fuel mixture in
combustion chamber surrounding spark plug
Compression ignition (CI): air-fuel mixture self-ignites due
to high temperature in combustion chamber caused by high
compression, Diesel engine

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Classification

Number of strokes

Four-stroke: four piston movements over two engine

revolutions for each engine cycle
Two-stroke: two piston movements over one revolution for
each engine cycle

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Classification

Valve location

Valves in head
Valves in block
One valve in head and one in block (less common)

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Classification

Design

Reciprocating
Rotary

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Classification

Reciprocating engines

Engine has one or more cylinders in which

pistons reciprocate back and forth
Combustion chamber in closed end of
cylinders
Power delivered to rotating output
crankshaft by mechanical linkage with
pistons

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Classification

Rotary engines
Engine made of block (stator) built around large
non-concentric rotor and crankshaft
Combustion chambers are built into the nonrotating block

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oGrD7FTFLJc
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Classification

Position and number of cylinders

Single cylinder (e.g. lawnmowers)
In-line or straight: cylinders in straight line, one behind
the other in length of crankshaft
V: two banks of cylinders at an angle with each other along
a single crankshaft, angle typically 60-90◦
Flat or opposed cylinder (V with 180◦ ): two banks of
cylinders opposite each other on a single crankshaft (small
aircrafts)
W: three banks of cylinders on same crankshaft (not
common)
Opposed piston engine: two pistons in each cylinder,
combustion chamber between pistons
Radial engine: cylinders positioned radially around
crankshaft
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Classification

In-line V Flat
Radial
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radial_engine

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Classification

Air intake

Naturally aspirated: no air pressure boost

Supercharged: air pressure increased with compressor
driven by crankshaft
Turbocharged: air pressure increased by
turbine-compressor driven by exhaust gases
Crankcase compressed: two-stroke engine with crankcase as
intake air compressor

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Classification

Supercharger

Supercharger on AMC V8 engine for dragstrip racing

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Classification

Turbocharger

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Classification

Fuel input method

Carbureted: air-fuel mixed at

throat

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Classification

Fuel input method

Fuel injection
Multipoint port fuel injection: one or more
injectors at each cylinder intake
Throttle body fuel injection: injectors
upstream of intake manifold

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Classification

Fuel used

Gasoline
Diesel or fuel oil
Gas (natural gas or methane)
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG): mainly propane,
propylene, butane, and butylene
Alcohol (ethyl, methyl)
Dual fuel (e.g. methane/diesel)
Gasohol (e.g. 90% gasoline, 10% alcohol)
Biodiesel: cleaner-burning diesel fuel made from natural,
renewable sources such as vegetable oils

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Classification

Cooling

Air cooled
Water cooled
http://www.innerauto.com/Automotive_Animations/Cooling_Syst

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Terminology

Terminology I

TDC: top dead center, piston position farthest from

crankshaft
BDC: bottom dead center, piston position nearest to
crankshaft
Direct fuel injection: into main combustion chamber
Indirect fuel injection: into a secondary chamber
Bore: diameter of cylinder or piston face
Stroke: distance that piston moves
Clearance volume: volume in combustion chamber at TDC
Displacement volume: volume displaced by piston
Ignition delay: Time between start of ignition and start of
combustion
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Terminology

Terminology II

Air-fuel ratio: Ratio of mass flow rate of air to that of fuel

Specific fuel consumption: fuel used per unit power
Emissions: NOx, CO, HC, solids

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Components

Engine components

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Components

Block: body of engine containing cylinders

Bearing: main bearing for crankshaft
Camshaft: rotating shaft used to push open valves at the
proper time in engine cycle
Carburetor: Venturi flow device to draw fuel and mix with
air
Catalytic converter: reduces emissions by chemical reaction
Combustion chamber: volume between cylinder head and
piston face
Connecting rod: connects piston with crankshaft
Crankcase: part of engine block surrounding crankshaft
Crankshaft: rotating shaft through which engine work
output is supplied to external systems, rotated by
reciprocating pistons through connecting rods
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Components

Exhaust manifold: piping which carries exhaust gases away

from engine cylinders
Fan: to increase air flow through radiator
Flywheel: to smoothen engine rotation
Fuel injector: pressurized nozzle to inject fuel into air or
cylinder
Fuel pump: to move fuel from tank to engine
Glow plug: electrical resistance inside combustion chamber
to help cold start
Head: piece which closes end of cylinders
Head gasket: sealant between engine block and head
Intake manifold: piping which delivers incoming air to
cylinders
Oil pan: oil reservoir on bottom of engine block, part of the
crankcase
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Components

Oil pump: to distribute oil from sump

Oil sump: reservoir for the oil system of the engine
Piston rings: metal rings around piston to seal gap between
piston and cylinder
Push rods: linkage between camshaft and valves on OHV
engines
Radiator: liquid to air heat exchanger to cool engine
Rod bearing: rod connecting the piston with the rotating
crankshaft
Spark plug: creates high-voltage discharge across an
electrode gap
Speed control-cruise control: control system
Starter: hand starter, electric motor, or small IC engines
for large IC engines

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Components

Supercharger: compressor powered from crankshaft to

compress incoming air
Throttle: butterfly valve at upstream end of intake
maniford to control air flow rate into SI engine
Turbocharger: turbine-compressor powered by exhaust flow
to compress incoming air
valves; controls flow of air in and out of the cylinders
Water jacket: liquid flow passages around cylinder for
cooling
Water pump: to circulate coolant

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Operation

4-stroke SI engine operation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-stroke_engine
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L-kYu0k5lF4

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Operation

4-stroke SI engine operation

First stroke: intake or induction
Piston travels from TDC (top dead center) to BDC
(bottom dead center) with intake valve open and exhaust
valve closed
Volume increases in combustion chamber and creates
vacuum
Air pushed through cylinder
As air passes through intake system, fuel is added

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Operation

Second stroke: compression

Piston reaches BDC, intake valve closes and piston travels
back to TDC with all valves closed
Air-fuel mixture compresses and temperature and pressure
increase
Near end of compression stroke, spark plug fired and
combustion initiated

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Operation

Combustion
Piston near TDC: nearly constant-volume combustion
Changes composition of gas mixture to exhaust products
and temperature and pressure increases

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Operation

Third stroke: expansion

All valves closed
High pressure pushes piston away from TDC: produces
work output of engine cycle
Piston moves from TDC to BDC: volume increases and
pressure and temperature drop

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Operation

Exhaust blowdown
Late in power cycle exhaust valve is opened
pressure differential pushes hot exhaust gas out of cylinder
and through exhaust system when piston is at BDC
Exhaust gas carries away high amount of enthalpy, which
lowers cycle thermal efficiency

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Operation

Fourth stroke: exhaust

When piston is at BDC cylinder is still full of exhaust
gases at atmospheric pressure
Exhaust valve stays open and piston moves from BDC
to TDC pushing out most of the remaining exhaust
gases into the exhaust system
Near end of exhaust stroke before TDC, intake valve
starts to open and is fully open by TDC when intake
stroke starts next cycle
Near TDC the exhaust valve starts to close and is
fully closed sometime after TDC
Period where both intake valve and exhaust valve are
open is called valve overlap

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Operation

Four-stroke SI operating cycle

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Operation

4-stroke CI engine operation

First stroke: intake

Second stroke: compression
Combustion
Third stroke: power
Exhaust blowdown
Fourth stroke: exhaust

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Operation

2-stroke SI engine operation

Combustion: occurs quickly with piston at TDC

First stroke: expansion power
Exhaust blowdown
Intake and scavenging: simultaneous intake and exhaust
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LuCUmQ9FxMU
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-stroke_engine

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Operation

2-stroke CI engine operation

Differences with respect to 2-stroke SI

No fuel added to incoming air; only air is compressed
Fuel injector located in cylinder

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Thermodynamics

Otto cycle

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Thermodynamics

Piston is essentially stationary during combustion: constant

volume
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Thermodynamics

Diesel engine

Uses heat of compression to initiate ignition and burn fuel

Fuel injected into the combustion chamber during final
stage of compression

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Thermodynamics

Combustion occurs at a constant pressure, as the piston moves

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Thermodynamics

Variations

Dual cycle: cross between SI and CI

Atkinson cycle
Miller cycle
Homogeneous charge compression ignition: well-mixed fuel
and air are compressed to auto-ignition. Ignition occurs at
several places simultaneously.
Homogeneous charge spark ignition gasoline engines
Stratified charge compression ignition diesel engine

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Parameters

Engine parameters

Vc
Vd Stroke
TDC
B S = 2a
S
Average piston speed

BDC U p = 2SN
N = engine speed
s r
Displacement for one cylinder
π 2
Vd = B S
θ 4
a
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Parameters

Distance between crank axis and wrist pin axis

p
s = a cos θ + r 2 − a2 sin2 θ

Differentiating and dividing by U p

!
Up π a cos θ
= sin θ 1 + p
Up 2 r − a2 sin2 θ
2

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Parameters

Clearance volume, Vc

Vc = VTDC
VBDC = Vc + Vd

Compression ratio
VBDC
rc =
VTDC
Vc + V d
=
Vc
High compression ratio allows engine to extract more
mechanical energy from a given mass of air-fuel mixture due to
its higher thermal efficiency

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Parameters

Cylinder volume

πB 2
V = Vc + (r − a − s)
4
Cross-sectional area of cylinder and the surface area of a
flat-topped piston are given by
π 2
Ap = B
4
Combustion chamber surface area


A = Ach + Ap + πB r + a − s

Ach is the cylinder head surface area

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Output

Work
Work is the output of any heat engine
It is generated by the gases in the combustion chamber of
the cylinder
Force due to gas pressure on the moving piston generates
work
Z Z
W = F dx = pAp dx

Ap dx = dV
Z
W = p dV

P = pressure in combustion chamber

Ap = area against which the pressure acts (piston face)
x = distance the piston moves
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Output

Indicator diagram

A
E
I

B
TDC BDC V
4-stroke SI
I = ignition, E = exhaust opens

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Output

Specific work w: per unit mass of air within cylinder

Brake work: actual work available in the crankshaft

wb = wi − wf

wi = indicated specific work generated inside combustion

chamber
wf = specific work lost due to friction and parasitic loads
Mechanical efficiency
wb
ηm =
wi
Modern automobile engines at high speeds ηm = 75% to 95%

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Output

Engine parameters
Mean effective pressure (MEP)
w
MEP =
vd
Specific displacement

vd = vBDC − vTDC

Using brake work

wb
BMEP =
vd
Using indicated work
wb
IMEP =
vd
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Output

Torque

For one revolution

2πT = Wb
BMEP Vd
=
n
so that
BMEP Vd


 2-stroke

 2π
T =
 BMEP Vd


4-stroke

4π

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Output

Power

Power is the rate of work of the engine

P = 2πN T
1
= MEPAp U p
2n
(
MEPAp U p /2 2-stroke
=
MEPAp U p /4 4-stroke

n = number of revolutions per cycle, and N = engine speed

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Output

Effect of engine speed

n
4-stroke SI

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Output

Typical values

Model Automobile Large

airplane stationary
2-stroke 4-stroke 2-stroke

Bore (cm) 2.00 9.42 50.0

Stroke (cm) 2.04 9.89 161
Displacement/cyl (L) 0.0066 0.69 316
Speed (rpm) 13,000 5,200 125
Power (kW) 0.72 35 311
Average piston speed (m/s) 8.84 17.1 6.71
Power/displacement (kW/L) 109 50.7 0.98
BMEP (kPa) 503 1170 472

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