Handout 2C

Compiled by Dr. Danilo C. Terante

Head, Hydraulics and Water Resources Engineering Division
Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering
De La Salle University Manila

WEATHER BASICS

Understanding winds, jet streams

How winds form

Source: The USA TODAY Weather Book by Jack Williams

Pressure differences give wind its push

Winds begin with differences in air pressures. Pressure that's higher at one place than
another sets up a force pushing from the high toward the low pressure. The greater the
difference in pressures, the stronger the force. The distance between the area of high
pressure and the area of low pressure also determines how fast the moving air is
accelerated. Meteorologists refer to the force that starts the wind flowing as the "pressure
gradient force." High and low pressures are relative. There's no set number that divides
high and low pressure. The graphic here ignores the effects of friction and other forces on
the wind. A couple of related graphics will help you understand the wind. The first
explains what's going on in high and low pressure areas at the Earth's surface. Once the
wind begins blowing the Earth's rotation changes its direction. This is known as the
Coriolis effect.
Understanding the Coriolis force

Pressure differences tend to push winds in straight paths. Yet winds follow curved paths
across the Earth. In 1835, Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis, a French scientist, first described
mathematically what's going on, giving his name to the Coriolis force. In simple terms, as
air begins flowing from high to low pressure, the Earth rotates under it, making the wind
follow a curved path. In the Northern Hemisphere, the wind turns to the right of its
direction of motion. In the Southern Hemisphere, it turns to the left. The Coriolis force is
zero at the equator.

Source: USA TODAY research by Chad Palmer, graphic by Chuck Rose

Wind shear can make plane rides bumpy

The major cause of the air turbulence that sometimes makes planes bounce up and down
in flight is wind shear. The term wind shear refers to a change in wind speed or direction,
or both, over a short distance. Such changes help create eddies, or swirls of air, that cause
turbulence. Wind shear can be both vertical and horizontal and can cause anything from
minor turbulence to tornadoes, depending on the scale of shear.

Source: The USA TODAY Weather Book by Jack Williams

One cause of fair weather shear

The graphic here shows one common cause of wind shear. On a cold night the air near
the ground can become nearly calm. But the wind can be blowing in the warmer air a few
thousand feet above the ground. The difference in wind speeds creates a shear that forms
eddies in the air. These cause turbulence on the boundary between the cold and warm air.
In recent years, the term wind shear has often been used for only one kind of wind shear;
the winds that blast down from thunderstorms. Such "microbursts" have caused several
airline crashes. But, wind shear can be found high in the air as well as near the ground.
Like the winds themselves, wind shear can be mild or it can be extremely dangerous.

Different kinds of winds

• Winds that blow uphill are called upslope winds and can bring fog, rain and snow.
• Winds that blow downhill are called downslope winds and warm the air.
• Winds that blow from large bodies of water inland are called sea breezes.

Source: USA TODAY research by Brian Brinch, graphic by Kevin A. Kepple

Rising air forms clouds, precipitation

Winds that encounter mountains are forced upward to ascend the mountains. The air
expands and cools as it rises, forming clouds. As the air continues to rise, raindrops form
and fall from the clouds. This process, known as upsloping or orographic lifting, causes
mountainous locations to get heavier precipitation than lower elevations. If upsloping
occurs in a cold airmass, the precipitation will fall as snow.

USA TODAY research by Jack Williams

'Upslope' winds mean fog, rain, snow

People who live along the Front Range of the Rockies, where the mountains give way to
the Plains, know that the term "upslope" can be bad news. In fact, local forecasters in
places such as Colorado Springs and Denver, sometimes refer to "up slop" weather being
on the way. They're talking about what happens when humid air from the east blows
across the high Plains and up the slopes of the eastern side of the Rockies. As air rises it
expands and cools. If air cools enough, the humidity in it begins condensing into fog,
clouds, rain, or snow. The graphic here shows how much a "parcel" of air would cool if
the wind blew it westward from New Orleans at sea level, up the gentle slope of the
Plains to around Denver and then to the top of Long's Peak in Rocky Mountain National
Park northwest of Denver. Rising air cools at the rate of about 5.5 degrees for each 1,000
feet it rises. The graphic here assumes that only this cooling is affecting the air's
temperature. It's not being warmed or cooled by the ground it's blowing over. Even with
these other effects, upslope winds sometimes bring widespread fog to the Plains and rain
and snow to the hills and mountains on the western Plains and in the eastern Rockies. The
same thing happens, of course, in any mountain range and accounts for mountains usually
having more snow or rain than nearby lower elevations.

Source: USA TODAY research by Chad Palmer

Downslope flow brings sun, warmth

Often, you hear forecasters in the Plains refer to downslope flow off the mountains as the
reason for their sunny, warm weather forecasts. An air parcel begins its journey over the
Pacific Ocean and moves inland as warm, moist air parcel. As the air parcel is forced to
rise up and over the Rocky Mountains, it cools. This process is known as adiabatic
cooling. As the air parcel cools during its upward journey, moisture is wrung out of the
parcel and precipitation usually falls over the western slopes of the Rockies. The cooled
air parcel continues its journey across the Rocky Mountains until it reaches the eastern
slopes of the mountains. The air parcel warms up as it flows down the eastern slopes of
the mountains. This is known as adiabatic warming. Air warms about 5.5 degrees
Fahrenheit per 1,000 feet of descent. By the time the parcel has reached the western
Plains, it has warmed up significantly. The parcel is also very dry, as very little moisture
is added to the air during its journey over the mountains. The warm, dry air often leads to
the rapid disappearance of snow. As a result, many local forecasters refer to down slope
winds off the Rockies as "Chinook" winds, which literally means snow eater.

Katabatic winds are created by cold air on high areas. Since the cold air is dense, it flows
downhill, if this is possible. The strongest katabatic winds are found in Antarctica, where
they play a major role in the climate.

Understanding turbulence

Anyone who's made more than a few flights has almost surely had at least one bumpy
ride when the airplane felt like a car on a rough road, except that the airplane might have
rolled from side to side as well as bouncing up and down.

That's "turbulence."

Atmospheric scientists, define "turbulence" as "a state of fluid flow in which the
instantaneous velocities exhibit irregular and apparently random fluctuations."

Those "irregular fluctuations" of the air create the bumps. For anyone who doesn't
understand what's going on, turbulence can create fears that the airplane will go out of
control or be damaged.

As with most fears, knowledge is the antidote. Only "extreme" turbulence is likely to
damage an aircraft. Fortunately, extreme turbulence is rare and pilots with a basic
knowledge of what causes turbulence can avoid it.

The best way to begin understanding turbulence is by trying to visualize what the air is
doing. This is difficult because we can't see air, unless it has something such as smoke,
dust or snow flakes in it to show its movements.

Larry Cornman, a turbulence researcher at the National Center for Atmospheric Research
in Boulder, Colo., says you can begin visualizing turbulence by watching or imagining a
mountain stream. "I think of a big boulder in the middle of a stream. The water is flowing
nice and slowly, and smoothly. Then someone opens the flood gates upstream and the
speed of the river increases two or three fold. Now we see a wave coming over the top of
the boulder, breaking and frothing."

To get an idea of the kinds of turbulence a jet stream or wind blowing through a
mountain pass can create, settle down into a Jacuzzi with the jets turned off. Now, turn
the water jets on. "You have a very strong discontinuity in velocity, it generates a lot of
turbulence. It feels good on your back" but wouldn't feel good if it were the air around
your airplane.

Turbulence is air is more violent than in water, Cornman says. Forces causing turbulence
have more affect on air because the air is lighter than water and also because it has a
lower viscosity than water. If air had a higher viscosity, say like oil, flights would be a lot
less bumpy.

Let's look at the main causes of turbulence.

"Mechanical" turbulence is common near the ground as wind blowing over or around
buildings create eddies. The faster the wind, the stronger the turbulence. By the way,
most turbulence involves eddies. They are examples of the "random fluctuations" in
"instantaneous velocities" in the scientific definition.

Beautiful, sunny days with calm winds can create annoying turbulence as bubbles of
warm air begin rising, creating thermals that glider pilots love because the rising air
keeps them aloft without engines. But, thermals can create bumpy rides.

If conditions are right, thermals early in the day can grow into thunderstorms by
afternoon. All pilots learn early in their flying careers to avoid thunderstorms because of
the extreme turbulence they can contain. Thunderstorms also create turbulence in the
clear air around them, often with no visible sign of what's going on.

Turbulence caused in clear air by thunderstorms can extend from the ground to above
30,000 feet, as those aboard Air Force One learned on June 12, 1996. The Boeing 747
with President Clinton aboard was cruising at 33,000 feet about 30 miles west of
Lubbock, Texas, when it hit violent turbulence that injured one passenger. At the same
time, high wind and hail forced controllers to evacuate the tower at the Lubbock airport.
Scientists concluded that air force one was shaken when it flew into an area of violent
updrafts and downdrafts near a thunderstorm, probably the one that forced the evacuation
of the Lubbock tower.

A thunderstorm acts like to solid object to winds blowing over it or around it. Like a
mountain, a thunderstorm can create waves in winds flowing over it. At lower levels,
thunderstorms can create eddies as winds flow around it. This is why Cornman says the
most violent winds are likely to be in clear air downwind from a thunderstorm.

Mountains create some of the most dangerous turbulence. It can affect pilots large
airliners cruising above 30,000 feet. When conditions are right winds blowing across
mountain ridges take on a wave motion as the air flows upward over the mountains and
then drops down the other side. This up and down motion can continue for 100 miles or
more downwind from the mountains and can extend high above them.

The final cause of turbulence is wind shear, a large change in wind speed or direction
over a short distance. Figure 5 shows how this occurs. The term "wind shear" can be
confusing because in recent years the news media have often used it to refer to the
particular kind of wind shear caused by microbursts, which are winds that blast down
from showers or thunderstorms and have caused several airline crashes over the years.

Wind shear occurs at all altitudes from the ground to the top of the atmosphere and it can
be horizontal or vertical. At high altitudes, shear is encountered when an airplane flies
into a jet stream with the wind speeds increasing from less than 50 mph to maybe 150
mph over a few miles.

Weather forecasts try to alert pilots to turbulence, but meteorologists often can give only
very general forecasts. Pinning down exact locations of the worst turbulence is difficult.
But, many researchers are focusing on improving turbulence predictions. As the
computer models used for forecasting improve, they should give forecasters better
indications of where and when the worst turbulence is likely.

Cornman, who was part of the scientific team that begin in the late 1970s and early 1980s
developing today's microburst warning system, says about 90 percent of the work of
developing a turbulence warning system goes into making the false alarm rate low.
"You've got to have a system that pilots will believe," he says. "When the controller says
'severe turbulence on the approach to runway 10,' the pilot can't see anything, he has to
have faith that the alarm is real."

Criteria for describing turbulence

Here are the official descriptions of levels of turbulence used by pilots.

Light Turbulence and Light Chop

Turbulence that momentarily causes slight, erratic changes in altitude and/or attitude
(pitch, roll, yaw). Report as Light Turbulence.

Turbulence that causes slight, rapid and somewhat rhythmic bumpines without
appreciable changes in altitude or attitude. Report as Light Chop.

Occupants may feel a slight strain against seat belts or shoulder straps. Unsecured objects
may be displaced lightly. Food service may be conducted and little or no difficulty is
encountered in walking.
Moderate Turbulence and Moderate Chop

Turbulence that is similar to Light Turbulence but of greater intensity. Changes in

altitude and/or attitude occur but the aircraft remains in positive control at all times. It
usually causes variations in indicated airspeed. Report as Moderate Turbulence.

Turbulence that is similar to Light Chop but of greater intensity. It causes rapid bumps or
jolts without appreciable changes in aircraft altitude or attitude. Report as Moderate
Chop.

Occupants feel definite strains against seat belts or shoulder straps. Unsecured objects are
dislodged. Food service and walking are difficult.

Severe Turbulence

Turbulence that causes large, abrupt changes in altitude and/or attitude. It usually causes
large variations in indicated airspeed. Aircraft may be momentarily out of control. Report
as Severe Turbulence.

Occupants are forced violently against seat belts or shoulder straps. Unsecured objects
are tossed about. Food service and walking are impossible.

Extreme Turbulence

Turbulence in which the aircraft is violently tossed about and is practically impossible to
control. It may cause structural damage. Report as Extreme Turbulence.

Reporting Term - Definition

• Occasional - Less that 1/3 of the time.

• Intermittent - 1/3 to 2/3.
• Continuous - More than 2/3.

Source: Federal Aviation Administrtion Aeronautical Information Manual

Formulas for wind calculations

This page contains various formulas used for estimating wind. These represent very
advanced mathematics and will be useful only to those who understand the basic
concepts of wind, vector calculus, and the necessary mathematics. A wind and jet stream
homepage has links to many graphics and files that explain some of the basics of wind
and jet streams.

Note: In all the formulas here, / means to divide, * means to multiply, ** means the
following term is an exponent(i.e. 10**(4) means 10 to the 4th power), - means to
subtract, + means to add. A number followed by a "x10" to some exponent is in scientific
notation to conserve space. ln( ) means to take the natural log of the variable in the
parentheses. The standard rules of algebra apply to all the formulas.

Using the geostrophic approximation to estimate wind speed

The geostrophic approximation is a simplification of very complicated atmospheric

momentum equations. This approximation is applied to very large systems and
circulations. In other words, it would not work with small scale events such as tornadoes.
The equations here also tend to do poorly in estimating very high wind speeds, such as
those in a hurricane. The reason they do poorly in the situations mentioned is that many
aspects of the atmosphere were simplified in order to make the equations more
reasonable. These equations do work very well over smooth surfaces, such as the ocean,
and are used to estimate wind speed and direction over remote locations in the Pacific
and Atlantic Oceans. Also, these equations are meant to estimate the wind speed within a
reasonable distance. In other words, they would not be accurate if you used Tokyo, Japan
and New York City as your two points of reference due to the multiple circulations
present in the atmosphere between those two cities.

The geostrophic wind approximations are broken into its two horizontal components. The
"U" component represents the east-west component of the wind while the "V" component
represents the north-south component. The two formulas for the U and V component of
wind are as follows.

(1) U= ((Y1-Yo)*R*Tavg*ln(Po/P1))/(2*omega*sin(lat)*(D**(2))

(2) V= ((X1-Xo)*R*Tavg*ln(P1/Po))/(2*omega*sin(lat)*(D**(2))

(Y1-Yo)= the difference of the north-south component of distance between your location
and the other point of reference in meters

(X1-Xo)= the difference of the east-west component of distance between your location
and the other point of reference in meters

R= the average gas constant for dry air= 287 Joules/kilogram*degrees Kelvin

Tavg= the average temperature between your location and the other point of reference in
degrees Kelvin

Po= atmospheric pressure at your location

P1= atmospheric pressure at the other point of reference

omega= angular velocity of rotation of earth= 7.292 x10**(-5) inverse seconds

sin(lat)= the sin function of the latitude of your location

D= the distance between your location and the other point of reference in meters
An example calculation using the geostrophic wind approximation

Note: In all the formulas here, / means to divide, * means to multiply, ** means the
following term is an exponent(i.e. 10**(4) means 10 to the 4th power), - means to
subtract, + means to add. A number followed by a "x10" to some exponent is in scientific
notation to conserve space. ln( ) means to take the natural log of the variable in the
parentheses. The standard rules of algebra apply to all the formulas.

The geostrophic wind approximations are broken into its two horizontal components. The
"U" component represents the east-west component of the wind while the "V" component
represents the north-south component. The two formulas for the U and V component of
wind are as follows.

(1) U= ((Y1-Yo)(term 1)*R*Tavg(term 2)*ln(Po/P1)(term 3))/(2*omega*sin(lat)(term

4)*(D**(2)(term 5)))

(2) V= ((X1-Xo)(term 6)*R*Tavg(term 2)*ln(P1/Po)(term 7))/(2*omega*sin(lat)(term

4)*(D**(2)(term 5)))

(Y1-Yo)= the difference of the north-south component of distance between your location
and the other point of reference in meters

(X1-Xo)= the difference of the east-west component of distance between your location
and the other point of reference in meters

R= the average gas constant for dry air= 287 Joules/kilogram*degrees Kelvin

Tavg= the average temperature between your location and the other point of reference in
degrees Kelvin

Po= atmospheric pressure at your location

P1= atmospheric pressure at the other point of reference

omega= angular velocity of rotation of earth= 7.292 x10**(-5) inverse seconds

sin(lat)= the sin function of the latitude of your location

D= distance between your location and the other point of reference in meters

These formulas are extremely tedious and complicated to use. Breaking up the equations
into individual terms is probably the easiest way to tackle this calculation. Thankfully,
some terms are present in both equations, which will save us some time and effort. To
calculate the maximum, prevailing wind speed and direction, you will want to select two
points of reference that when connected by a line, will create a line that is perpendicular
to the isobars on a typical surface weather map. This will calculate the maximum
pressure gradient between the two points and calculate the most likely prevailing wind.
For the example calculation, suppose you are in San Francisco and you want to estimate
the wind speed between you and a weather data buoy 400 miles to the northwest, which
happens to create the perpendicular line described in the previous paragraph. Let's
suppose that the temperature in San Francisco is 60 degrees Fahrenheit and the
temperature over the data buoy is 50 degrees Fahrenheit and let's further assume that the
atmospheric pressure in San Francisco is 1004 millibars and the pressure over the data
buoy is 1000 millibars. The latitude of San Francisco is approximately 37.7 degrees
north. Let's start with term 1 from the equation and calculate the individual terms.

Term 1 and 6, (Y1-Yo) and (X1-Xo)

This is where vector calculus, right triangles and sin and cosine functions come in handy.
The buoy is 400 miles to the northwest, or at the end of a line that is 45 degrees to the
north of west and 400 miles long. You can construct a right triangle with the 90 degree
angle due west of San Francisco as in the following diagram.

You can figure out the length of sides X and Y by using trigonometric functions.

X= (The length of the hypotenuse)*cos(the angle at point C)= 400*cos(45)= 282.84 miles

Y= (The length of the hypotenuse)*sin(the angle at point C)= 400*sin(45)= 282.84 miles

Both X and Y must be converted to meters to be used in the equation. One mile equals
1610.3 meters

X (in meters)= 282.84*1610.3= 4.5546 x 10**(5) meters

Y (in meters)= 282.84*1610.3= 4.5546 x 10**(5) meters

(X1-Xo)= 4.5546 x 10**(5)

(Y1-Yo)= 4.5546 x 10**(5)

Term 2, R*Tavg

R is already given as 287

Tavg= (60 degrees + 50 degrees)/2= 55 degrees Fahrenheit

Tavg must be converted to degrees Kelvin using Tk=5.0/9.0*(Tf-32.0) + 273.16.

Tavg(in degrees Kelvin)=5.0/9.0*(Tf-32.0) + 273.16= 285.9

R*Tavg= 287*285.9= 8.2 x 10**(4)

Term 3, ln(Po/P1)

Po= 1004 mb, P1= 1000 mb

ln(Po/P1)= ln(1000/1004)= -3.99 x 10**(-3)

Term 4, 2*omega*sin(lat)

omega= 7.292 x10**(-5)

sin(lat)= sin(37.7)= .6115

2*omega*sin(lat)= 8.918 x 10**(-5)

Term 5, D**(2)

D= 400 miles

D (in meters)= 400*1610.3= 6.4412 x 10**(5) meters

D**(2)= (6.4412 x 10**(5))**(2)= 4.1489 x 10**(11)

Term 7, ln(P1/Po)

Po= 1004 mb, P1= 1000 mb

ln(P1/Po)= ln(1004/1000)= 3.99 x 10**(-3)

Putting it all back together

Now we are ready to plug all the terms into the original U and V equations.
(1) U= ((Y1-Yo)(term 1)*R*Tavg(term 2)*ln(Po/P1)(term 3))/(2*omega*sin(lat)(term
4)*(D**(2)(term 5)))

(2) V= ((X1-Xo)(term 6)*R*Tavg(term 2)*ln(P1/Po)(term 7))/(2*omega*sin(lat)(term

4)*(D**(2)(term 5)))

The U comp:

U= ((4.5546 x 10**(5))*(8.2 x 10**(4))*(-3.99 x 10**(-3))/((8.918 x 10**(-5))*(4.1489

x 10**(11)))= (-1.49 x 10**(8))/(3.7 x 10**(7))= -4 meters/sec.

V= ((4.5546 x 10**(5))*(8.2 x 10**(4))*(3.99 x 10**(-3))/((8.918 x 10**(-5))*(4.1489 x

10**(11)))= (1.49 x 10**(8))/(3.7 x 10**(7))= 4 meters/sec.

If you want to convert U and V from meters per second into miles per hour, use the
following conversion factors.

1 hour= 3600 seconds and 1 mile=1610.3 meters

U= -4*3600/1610.3= -9 miles per hour

V= 4*3600/1610.3= 9 miles per hour

The final steps

To calculate the final answer, we need to combine the U and V components to get the
actual wind speed and direction. The easiest way is to use a vector triangle, similar to the
one used previously in the distance calculations. The trigonometric functions can be
utilized again as shown below.

Note: The minus sign in front of the U component answer indicates an easterly
component to the wind, or in other words, a wind that blows from east to west. A positive
U component would mean that the wind is blowing from west to east. The positive V
component answer indicates a southerly component to the wind, or in other words, a wind
that blows from south to north. A negative V component would mean that the wind is
blowing from north to south.
Vector CB represents the U component of the wind

Vector BA represents the V component of the wind

Vector CA represents the actual wind vector

In order to calculate vector CA, we need to calculate the angle at point C. The tangent of
an angle is the opposite side divided by the adjacent side.

In this case the tangent(angle C)=side BA/side CB= tangent(angle C)= 9/9= 1

To get angle C, take the inverse tan of 1, or angle C= tan**(-1)[1]= 45 degrees.

To get the actual velocity of the wind, you can use angle C and the sin function.

sin(angle C)= side BA/side CA

side CA(the actual wind velocity)= side BA/sin(angle C)= 9/sin(45 degrees)= 12.7
miles per hour

Since, you already know that the U component of the wind points due west, or at 270
degrees, you simply add the 45 degrees you got previous from angle C to get the final
direction the wind is blowing toward. However, meteorologists want to know where the
wind is coming from. To get the official direction, simply subtract 180 degrees as shown
below.

Final direction= (270 + 45) - 180= 135 degrees

According to the geostrophic wind approximation and based on the conditions stated
above, you would have a southeasterly wind (135 degrees) blowing at 12.7 miles per
hour.

Converting between temperature scales

The chart below will help you quickly make rough conversions between the Fahrenheit
and Calsius temperature scales. To make more exact conversions, use the formulas below
the chart.

In the formulas below, / means to divide, * means to multiply, - means subtract, + means
to add and = is equal. Tc = temperature in degrees Celsius, Tf = temperature in degrees
Fahrenheit
To convert a Fahrenheit temperature into Celsius:

Tc = (5/9)*(Tf-32)

For example, to convert a Fahrenheit temperature of 98.6 degrees into degrees Celsius
first subtract 32 from the Fahrenheit temperature to get 66.6. Then you multiply 66.6 by
five-ninths to get 37 degrees Celsius.

To convert a Celsius temperature into degrees Fahrenheit:

Tf = ((9/5)*Tc)+32

For example, to convert a Celsius temperature of 100 degrees into degrees Fahrenheit,
first multiply the Celsius temperature reading by nine-fifths to get 180. Then add 32 to
180 and get 212 degrees Fahrenheit. The Celsius temperature scale is still sometimes
referred to as the "centigrade" scale. Centigrade means "consisting of or divided into 100
degrees." The Swedish Astronomer Andres Celsius (1701-1744) developed the
centigrade scales for scientific purposes. It has 100 degrees between the freezing point (0
C) and boiling point (100 C) of pure water at sea level air pressure. An international
conference on weights and measures voted to name the centigrade scale after its inventor
in 1948.

The Kelvin and Rankine scales

Scientists use the Kelvin scale, which is based on the Celsius scale, but has no negative
numbers. Zero on the Kelvin scale is considered the be absolute zero; that is, the point at
which all molecular motion stops.

To convert a temperature reading into degrees Kelvin, simply add 273.16 to the Celsius
temperature. This explains why in scientific temperatures you'll see references to
temperatures on Earth in the 300-degree range. The absolute zero version of the
Fahrenheit scale is the Rankine scale. Add 460 degrees to Fahrenheit temperatures to
obtain the Rankine temperature.

Source: USA TODAY research by Chad Palmer

More to temperature than you might think

Air temperature is one of those things that everyone is familiar with that's more
complicated than it might seem at first. What thermometers actually measure is the
average kinetic energy of air molecules that surround it. As you can see in the graphic
above, air molecules in colder air move slowly compared to the molecules in warmer air.
The kinetic energy of an air molecule is directly proportional to the velocity of the
molecule. As a result, colder air has less kinetic energy than warmer air. When air
molecules collide with a thermometer, kinetic energy is transferred from the air
molecules to the glass and then to the mercury molecules inside the thermometer. As the
mercury molecules begin moving faster they move farther apart, pushing the mercury up
in the thermometer. In colder air, the energy from the air molecules colliding with the
thermometer transferring to the mercury molecules is less than the energy from warmer
air. As a result, the mercury molecules move slower in the colder air and the mercury
inside the thermometer does not expand as far up the tube as it does in the warmer air.