TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY

Institute of Engineering
KHWOPA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Libali-2, Bhaktapur

REPORT
ON
EARTHQUAKE TRIGGERED LANDSLIDE

GROUP MEMBER: SUBMITTED TO:

Sapana Prajapati(071BCE34) Department Of Civil Engineering

Anish Dahal(071BCE52) Khwopa College of Engineering
JunuTwayana(071BCE67)

Date of Submission: 2074/10/02

1. INTRODUCTION
On April 25, 2015, a large (M7.8) earthquake shook much of central Nepal and was
followed by a series of M>6 aftershocks, including a M7.3 event on May 12, 2015. This
earthquake and aftershocks, referred to as the “Gorkha earthquake sequence,” caused
thousands of fatalities, damaged and destroyed entire villages, and displaced millions of
residents. The earthquakes also triggered thousands of landslides in the exceedingly
steep topography of Nepal; these landslides were responsible for hundreds of fatalities,
and blocked vital roads and trails to affected villages (fig. 1). Landslides caused by the
Gorkha earthquake sequence continue to pose both immediate and long-term hazards to
villages and infrastructure within the affected region. Some landslides blocked rivers and
thus created another potential concern for villages located downstream.

fig:-Showing landslide due to earthquake

2. SEISMOLOGICAL BACKGROUND
Nepal lies along the boundary of the Indian and Eurasian continental tectonic plates;
northward under thrusting of India beneath Eurasia at a rate of 40–50 millimeters per
year (mm/yr) generates numerous earthquakes and makes this an area of high seismicity.
This plate-boundary region has a history of large and great earthquakes prior to 2015,
three events of M≥6 occurred in this region over the past two centuries. In August 1988,
a M6.8 earthquake occurred about 160 km southeast of Kathmandu near the border of
 Nepal and India. This earthquake caused an estimated 1,000 fatalities in Nepal and India.
The largest earthquake (M8.1) to affect the region in the past 200 years occurred in 1934
and is known as the “Nepal-Bihar earthquake” (Auden and Ghosh, 1934; Singh and
Gupta, 1980; Ambraseys and Douglas, 2004); it ruptured a large fault section east of the
2015 event. The Nepal-Bihar earthquake severely damaged Kathmandu and caused about
10,700 fatalities. Finally, in 1833, an earthquake estimated at M7.7 (Bilham, 1995, 2004)
occurred north or northeast of Kathmandu and is thought to have ruptured an area similar
to the 2015 Gorkha earthquake sequence.
The April 25, 2015 Gorkha, Nepal earthquake (M7.8) occurred as a result of thrust
faulting along the main interface between the subducting Indian plate and the overriding
Eurasian plate to the north. The epicenter was located at N28.147°, E84.708° near the
village of Barpak, about 77 km northwest of Kathmandu. Fault rupture propagated
southeastward with maximum slip of 4–6 meters (m) beneath the Kathmandu Valley.
The focal-plane mechanism indicates pure thrust on a plane striking 295°, dipping 11°
north, and having a focal depth of 10 km. Preliminary reports indicate that no surface
rupture occurred from this earthquake or any of the subsequent aftershocks. The only
strong-motion record available at this time (July 2015) was located in Kathmandu and
had a peak ground acceleration (PGA) of only 0.16 g (1g = 9.81 meters/second squared
[m/s2]. The USGS ShakeMap model for the earthquake indicates that localized areas
likely experienced PGA values exceeding 1g; this is consistent with our field
observations, discussed subsequently.
The Gorkha, Nepal earthquake was followed by hundreds of aftershocks. In the two
months following the main shock, there was 1 aftershock with M>7, 2 aftershocks in the
M6–7 range, 22 in the M5–6 range, and 39 in the M4–5 range. The largest aftershock
(M7.3) occurred on May 12, 2015 about 75 km east-northeast of Kathmandu in Dolakha
district with an epicenter at N27.819°, E86.080°. The focal-mechanism solution of this
aftershock indicates pure thrust on a plane striking 312° and dipping 11° north, with a
focal depth of 15 km. Maximum fault slip of about 3 m occurred south of the epicenter.
The USGS ShakeMap model of the earthquake indicates maximum PGA values of about
0.83 g, which are again consistent with our observations in this area and discussed
subsequently in more detail.

3. CAUSES OF LANDSLIDE

Geological causes

 Weathered materials
 Sheared materials
 Jointed or fissured materials
 Adversely orientated discontinuities
 Permeability contrasts
 Material contrasts
 Rainfall and snow fall
 Earthquakes
 Morphological causes

 Slope angle
 Uplift
 Rebound
 Fluvial erosion
 Wave erosion
 Glacial erosion
 Erosion of lateral margins
 Subterranean erosion
 Slope loading
 Vegetation change
 Erosion

Physical causes
Topography

 Slope Aspect and Gradient

Geological Factors

 Discontinuity Factors (Dip Spacing, Asparity, Dip and length)

 Physical Characteristics of the Rock (Rock Strength etc.)
Tectonic Activity

 Seismic activity (Earthquakes)

 Volcanic eruption

Physical Weathering

 Thawing
 Freeze-thaw
 Soil erosion
Hydrogeological Factors

 Intense rainfall
 Rapid snow melt
 Prolonged precipitation
 Ground water changes (Rapid drawdown)
 Soil pore water pressure
 Surface runoff

Human causes

 Deforestation
 Excavation
 Loading
 Water management (Groundwater Draw-down and Water leakage)
 Land use (e.g. construction of roads, houses etc.)
 Mining and Quarrying
 Vibration

Seismicity
The second major factor in the triggering of landslides is seismicity. Landslides occur
during earthquakes as a result of two separate but interconnected processes: seismic
shaking and pore water pressure generation.
Seismic shaking
The passage of the earthquake waves through the rock and soil produces a complex set
of accelerations that effectively act to change the gravitational load on the slope. So, for
example, vertical accelerations successively increase and decrease the normal load acting
on the slope. Similarly, horizontal accelerations induce a shearing force due to
the inertia of the landslide mass during the accelerations. These processes are complex,
but can be sufficient to induce failure of the slope. These processes can be much more
serious in mountainous areas in which the seismic waves interact with the terrain to
produce increases in the magnitude of the ground accelerations. This process is termed
'topographic amplification'. The maximum acceleration is usually seen at the crest of the
slope or along the ridge line, meaning that it is a characteristic of seismically triggered
landslides that they extend to the top of the slope.
Liquefaction
The passage of the earthquake waves through a granular material such as a soil can
induce a process termed liquefaction, in which the shaking causes a reduction in the pore
space of the material. This densification drives up the pore pressure in the material. In
some cases this can change a granular material into what is effectively a liquid,
generating 'flow slides' that can be rapid and thus very damaging. Alternatively, the
increase in pore pressure can reduce the normal stress in the slope, allowing the
activation of translational and rotational failures.
 The nature of seismically-triggered landslides
For the main part seismically generated landslides usually do not differ in their
morphology and internal processes from those generated under non-seismic conditions.
However, they tend to be more widespread and sudden. The most abundant types of
earthquake-induced landslides are rock falls and slides of rock fragments that form on
steep slopes. However, almost every other type of landslide is possible, including highly
disaggregated and fast-moving falls; more coherent and slower-moving slumps, block
slides, and earth slides; and lateral spreads and flows that involve partly to completely
liquefied material (Keefer, 1999). Rock falls, disrupted rock slides, and disrupted slides
of earth and debris are the most abundant types of earthquake-induced landslides,
whereas earth flows, debris flows, and avalanches of rock, earth, or debris typically
transport material the farthest. There is one type of landslide that is essential uniquely
limited to earthquakes - liquefaction failure, which can cause fissuring or subsidence of
the ground. Liquefaction involves the temporary loss of strength of sands and silts which
behave as viscous fluids rather than as soils. This can have devastating effects during
large earthquakes.

4. TYPES OF LANDSLIDE

The various types of landslides can be differentiated by the kinds of material involved
and the mode of movement. A classification system based on these parameters is shown
in figure 2. Other classification systems incorporate additional variables, such as the rate
of movement and the water, air, or ice content of the landslide material.

Figure:-Types of landslides. Abbreviated version of Varnes' classification of slope

movements (Varnes, 1978).

Although landslides are primarily associated with mountainous regions, they can also
occur in areas of generally low relief. In low-relief areas, landslides occur as cut-and-fill
failures (roadway and building excavations), river bluff failures, lateral spreading
landslides, collapse of mine-waste piles (especially coal), and a wide variety of slope
failures associated with quarries and open-pit mines. The most common types of
landslides are described as follows.

1. SLIDES
Although many types of mass movements are included in the general term
"landslide," the more restrictive use of the term refers only to mass movements,
where there is a distinct zone of weakness that separates the slide material from
more stable underlying material. The two major types of slides are rotational
slides and translational slides. Rotational slide: This is a slide in which the
surface of rupture is curved concavely upward and the slide movement is roughly
rotational about an axis that is parallel to the ground surface and transverse across
the slide. Translational slide: In this type of slide, the landslide mass moves along
a roughly planar surface with little rotation or backward tilting. A block slide is a
translational slide in which the moving mass consists of a single unit or a few
closely related units that move downslope as a relatively coherent mass.

Figure:-These schematics illustrate the major types of landslide movement that are
described in the previous pages. For additional information on these processes and where
to find photos, please see "Where to Go For More Information" at the end of this fact
sheet.

2. FALLS
Falls are abrupt movements of masses of geologic materials, such as rocks and
boulders, that become detached from steep slopes or cliffs (fig. 3D). Separation
occurs along discontinuities such as fractures, joints, and bedding planes, and
movement occurs by free-fall, bouncing, and rolling. Falls are strongly influenced
by gravity, mechanical weathering, and the presence of interstitial water.

3. TOPPLES
Toppling failures are distinguished by the forward rotation of a unit or units about
some pivotal point, below or low in the unit, under the actions of gravity and
forces exerted by adjacent units or by fluids in cracks.
4. FLOWS
There are five basic categories of flows that differ from one another in
fundamental ways.
a. Debris flow:
A debris flow is a form of rapid mass movement in which a combination of loose
soil, rock, organic matter, air, and water mobilize as a slurry that flows
downslope. Debris flows include <50% fines. Debris flows are commonly caused
by intense surface-water flow, due to heavy precipitation or rapid snowmelt that
erodes and mobilizes loose soil or rock on steep slopes. Debris flows also
commonly mobilize from other types of landslides that occur on steep slopes, are
nearly saturated, and consist of a large proportion of silt- and sand-sized material.
Debris-flow source areas are often associated with steep gullies, and debris-flow
deposits are usually indicated by the presence of debris fans at the mouths of
gullies. Fires that denude slopes of vegetation intensify the susceptibility of
slopes to debris flows.

b. Debris avalanche
This is a variety of very rapid to extremely rapid debris flow.

c. Earthflow
Earthflows have a characteristic "hourglass" shape. The slope material liquefies
and runs out, forming a bowl or depression at the head. The flow itself is elongate
and usually occurs in fine-grained materials or clay-bearing rocks on moderate
slopes and under saturated conditions. However, dry flows of granular material
are also possible.

d. Mudflow
A mudflow is an earthflow consisting of material that is wet enough to flow
rapidly and that contains at least 50 percent sand-, silt-, and clay-sized particles.
In some instances, for example in many newspaper reports, mudflows and debris
flows are commonly referred to as "mudslides."

e. Creep
Creep is the imperceptibly slow, steady, downward movement of slope-forming
soil or rock. Movement is caused by shear stress sufficient to produce permanent
deformation, but too small to produce shear failure. There are generally three
types of creep: (1) seasonal, where movement is within the depth of soil affected
by seasonal changes in soil moisture and soil temperature; (2) continuous, where
shear stress continuously exceeds the strength of the material; and (3)
progressive, where slopes are reaching the point of failure as other types of mass
movements. Creep is indicated by curved tree trunks, bent fences or retaining
walls, tilted poles or fences, and small soil ripples or ridges.

5. LATERAL SPREADS:
Lateral spreads are distinctive because they usually occur on very gentle slopes or
flat terrain. The dominant mode of movement is lateral extension accompanied
 by shear or tensile fractures. The failure is caused by liquefaction, the process
whereby saturated, loose, cohesionless sediments (usually sands and silts) are
transformed from a solid into a liquefied state. Failure is usually triggered by
rapid ground motion, such as that experienced during an earthquake, but can also
be artificially induced. When coherent material, either bedrock or soil, rests on
materials that liquefy, the upper units may undergo fracturing and extension and
may then subside, translate, rotate, disintegrate, or liquefy and flow. Lateral
spreading in fine-grained materials on shallow slopes is usually progressive. The
failure starts suddenly in a small area and spreads rapidly. Often the initial failure
is a slump, but in some materials movement occurs for no apparent reason.
Combination of two or more of the above types is known as a complex landslide.

5. LANDSLIDE AND SEISMIC ACTIVITY

Many mountainous areas that are vulnerable to landslides have also experienced at least
moderate rates of earthquake occurrence in recorded times. The occurrence of
earthquakes in steep landslide-prone areas greatly increases the likelihood that landslides
will occur, due to ground shaking alone or shaking-caused dilation of soil materials,
which allows rapid infiltration of water. The 1964 Great Alaska Earthquake caused
widespread landsliding and other ground failure, which caused most of the monetary loss
due to the earthquake. Other areas of the United States, such as California and the Puget
Sound region in Washington, have experienced slides, lateral spreading, and other types
of ground failure due to moderate to large earthquakes. Widespread rockfalls also are
caused by loosening of rocks as a result of ground shaking. Worldwide, landslides
caused by earthquakes kill people and damage structures at higher rates than in the
United States.

6. LANDSLIDE MECHANISM
Landslides represent one of the most common morphogenetic processes, not only for
their rapid effect on the modifications of the Earth's surface but also for their intrinsic
hazard. Although they are localized phenomena that affect restricted areas compared
with other geological phenomena, like floods and earthquakes in which landslides are
often secondary phenomena, they are, nevertheless, the cause of considerable damages
and loss of life, even greater with increasing urban development and change land use.
The animation on this page schematically shows some principal landslide types
connected whit the most important triggering factors.
As shown, landslide occurrence is related to some typical and principal triggers , such as
rainfalls and earthquakes. In particular, rainfalls can act in different ways. Usually, rain
characterized by short duration and high intensity is able to principally trigger shallow
landslides (es. debris flows); long-duration and low-intensity rainfall is more important
in deep-seated landslide instead, inducing rising of water level and develop of pore water
pressure.
7. LANDSLIDE MITIGATION
There are four basic strategies to mitigate for a particular landslide:

 Stabilization
 Protection
 Avoidance
 Maintenance and monitoring

Only stabilization seeks to counter one or more key failure mechanisms and improve
stability of the slope. The latter three strategies (protection, avoidance, and maintenance
and monitoring) allow slope failure and seek to avoid, protect against or limit the
associated impacts. The last mitigation strategy, maintenance and monitoring, is
different than a “do-nothing” alternative; a “do-nothing” alternative is a management
approach/decision, not a mitigation strategy.

 Stabilization (Capital Improvement Projects)

Typical landslide stabilization measures include grading the unstable portion of
the slope to a lower gradient, construction of rock buttresses and retaining walls,
and drainage improvements. Examples shown below entail grading with slope
armoring/buttressing (Figure 6) to address a large deep-seated landslide at
railroad milepost (MP) MP 24.5; and patterned reinforcement of high-tensile-
steel wire mesh that could potentially be used to address the abundant shallow-
type landslides that originate upslope of BNSF’s ROW (Figure 7). With the
exception of drainage improvements, stabilization measures are typically
moderate to high cost, but provide a longterm solution with low, long-term
maintenance costs. Cessation of adverse human activities by diverting
stormwater away from steep slopes, maintaining appropriate native vegetation,
and properly disposing of debris off-site are also considered measures that
would improve stability.

Fig:-Slope Reinforcement
  Protection
Protection measures for landslides primarily focus on containment and/or
diversion of the moving debris. Such measures include walls, berms, ditches and
catchment basins, which can be low to moderate in cost. However, considerable
long-term maintenance costs are often associated with these measures to clean
out and dispose of accumulated debris. BNSF currently employs a number of
timber and steel containment walls.
 Avoidance
Avoidance measures constitute a permanent solution to a landslide hazard.
Measures include realignment away from the slope, relocation of the facility,
tunnels and elevated structures that allow passage of debris beneath the facility.
The typically high cost of these measures is offset by the elimination of further
landslide-related maintenance costs and exposure to landslide risk.
 Maintenance and Monitoring
Maintenance and monitoring measures may involve proactive cleanout of
available catchment areas, routine observation and assessment of slope
conditions, landslide-warning (slide) fences, monitoring slope and weather
instrumentation and preemptive closures. Generally, these measures are
relatively low cost and can be highly effective in reducing public exposure to
slide risk. With the exception of cleaning existing catchment areas, these
measures do not reduce the likelihood of a landslide event or the potential of
landslide debris reaching the tracks. Slide fences are used extensively through
the corridor to warn of the potential for debris on the track. Another measure
employed by BNSF is the passenger rail moratorium imposed for 48 hours
following a blocking event due to a landslide.

8. DESIGN OF RETAINING WALL

For Red Brown Soil,
For cohesive soil , c=15KN/m2
Inclination of failure envelope = 30

Density of the upper layer y1=15KN/m3

Density of the lower layer y2=20 KN/m3

3m

5m B=30

Layer 1st c=15 KN/m3

2.5m layer 2nd B1=25

C=20 KN/m3
Then,

For the calculation of ka (layer 1st)

1−sinB
We have ka= 1+sinB

1−sin30
Or, ka= 1+sin30

Or, ka= 0.3333

For the calculation of ka (layer 2nd)

1−sinB
ka= 1+sinB

1−sin25
Or, ka= 1+sin25

Or, ka= 0.406

Calculation of active pressure,

At level A, we have

C=15KN/m2

Ka=0.3333

Stress at this level =0

Then we have Pa=Ka*stress-2c√(𝐾𝑎)

=0.333*0-2*15√(0.3333)

=-17.31215 KN/m2

At level B, we have

C=15KN/m2

Ka=0.3333

Stress at this level =18*5=90 KN/m2

Then we have Pa=Ka*stress-2c√(𝐾𝑎)

=0.333*90-2*15√(0.3333)

=12.658 KN/m2
At level just below B,

C=20 KN/m2

Ka=0.406

Stress at this level =18*5=90 KN/m2

Then we have Pa=Ka*stress-2c√(𝐾𝑎)

=0.406*90-2*20√(0.3333)

=11.053 KN/m2

At level C, we have

C=20 KN/m2

Ka=0.406

Stress at this level =18*5+2.5*20=140 KN/m2

Then we have Pa=Ka*stress-2c√(𝐾𝑎)

=0.406*140-2*20√(0.406)

=31.3527 KN/m2

Now, for pore water pressure we have

u=2.5*10=25 KN/m2

11KN/m2 12.56 KN/m2

25 KN/m2

35.3521 KN/m2
 Calculation of total active force

leav
er
arm
fro mome
Ar m nt
ea Pa base (Mo)
4.16 130.8
1 31.4 7 33
27.63 34.34
2 3 1.25 1
25.37 0.83 21.15
3 5 3 6
0.83 26.03
4 31.25 3 3
su 115.6 212.5
m 58 6

Point of application=212.56/115.676

=1.8 from base

lever
SN Description Forces arm
vertical horizontal
A. wt os soil
1 18*5=90 6.292
2 2.5*20=50 6.292
B Wt of concrete 24*28=672 1.298
C lateral pressure 115.568 1.837
D Earthquake 67.2 1.292
10% of vertical 11.658 1.837
E total 879.2 127.317

3m

7m
 3.2083

1.292 5m

1. FOS against sliding

Resisting moment
Fs= Sliding force
=879.2/127.316
=6.88 >1.5 (safe)

2. FOS against overturning

Resisting moment
Fo=
Overturning momentrc𝑒
=1835.9284/233.978
=6.245 > 2 (safe)
Now,

Sum of moment
Mean (x)= Sum of vertical force

1601.968
= 879.2
1.822
So,R=B/2-mean
=5/2-1.822
=0.68

Then maximum and minimum base pressure are:

Ev 6e
Pmax= B *( B + 1)
=319

Ev 6e
Pmin= B *(1 − )
B
3
=32.3515KN/m